CHAPTER II

GREECE

[See the diagrams of flint implements, [Illustration II] of pottery, [Illustration III]; and of alphabets, [Illustration IV]]

The Periods into which the subject must be divided are roughly as follows: I. Prehistoric down to about 1000 B.C. II. Prehistoric Greek down to about 700 B.C. III. Archaic Greek 700-500 B.C. IV. Classical Greek 500-300 B.C. V. Hellenistic after 300. VI. Roman. VII. Byzantine.

I. PREHISTORIC

A. NORTH GREECE.

NEOLITHIC.--Neolithic settlements on low mounds (_maghoules_) rising from the plains.

Stone implements. Axes, hammers, chisels, querns, &c. Flint chips, bone needles, obsidian.

Pottery. Hand-made burnished, yellow, brown, black or red. Handles rare. Holes in rim, or lugs pierced for suspension, Earliest remains show painted sherds. Long period of unpainted ware followed. Patterns irregular, rectangular and curved. No naturalism. (Figs. 1 and 2.)

Ware differs slightly with locality. In Thessaly fine red ware undecorated contemporary with red decoration on white. Chocolate paint on deep buff follows. Incised ware, geometric patterns white rubbed in.

Figurines. Rude clay. Steatopygous.

This civilization extended from northern edge of Thessaly as far south as Chaeronea. Use of bronze before end uncertain. Civilization undisturbed by Aegean culture that spread over southern Greece until just before both were swept away by iron-using people.

B. CRETE, AEGEAN, SOUTH GREECE.

CRETE.

NEOLITHIC. Black or red burnished pottery. BRONZE AGE.

Early Minoan. Painted pottery, dark paint on light ground, geometric designs. Unpainted, surface mottled red and black.

Middle Minoan. circa. 3000 B.C.--White designs geometric on dark ground. Orange and crimson added. Pottery very thin and fine (Kamares ware). Patterns very various but not naturalistic except in rare instances. (Figs. 3 and 4; hatched lines=red.)

Late Minoan. circa. 1500 B.C.--Return to use of light ground. Brown lustrous paint, fine surface to clay. Decoration naturalistic, flowers, cuttle-fish, shells, spirals, ripple patterns, white and orange dots and bands occasionally super-imposed on dark glaze (Figs. 7, 10, and 12).

White and orange disappear. Decoration stiffer and more conventional.

AEGEAN.

NEOLITHIC. Nothing known.

BRONZE AGE.

Contemporary with Early Minoan.

Pottery with geometric patterns normally dark on light buff or reddish coarse clay. Sometimes red or white on black burnished clay.

Marble figurines 'fiddle-shaped' from Naxos and Paros (III, Fig. 6).

Contemporary with Middle Minoan.

Pottery with very pale sometimes greenish clay, and grey black totally unlustrous paint. Patterns mainly geometric. Rather sparse decoration. Later, with addition of red, decoration becomes fully naturalistic. Lilies and birds in red and black (Melos) (III, Figs. 5 and 9; hatched lines=red). Beaked jugs (III, Fig. 5) most characteristic shape of this period.

Cretan influence strong in Middle Minoan completely drowned local efforts in first Late Minoan days. Thenceforward local ware imitative.

SOUTH GREECE.

NEOLITHIC. Nothing known.

BRONZE AGE. Geometric Ware with matt paint and pale clay corresponding to that of islands found in Argolid and Boeotia.

'Urfirnis' Ware. Hand-made. Whole vase covered with thin semi- lustrous wash varying from red-brown to black. Sometimes mere smears. Mainly found in Boeotia, but extends north to valley of Spercheius and south to Argolid. Date uncertain, but in Boeotia evidence that it ended before rise of 'Minyan' ware.

'Minyan Ware.' Grey unpainted pottery, polished. No decoration except (rarely) incised lines. Usually wheel-made. Characteristic shapes: Goblet with tall ringed stem (III, Fig. 15); wide open cup with high handles.

Appears to range Between Middle Minoan II and Late Minoan III.

Most frequent in Boeotia to which it owes its name. Found as far north as Thessaly and as far south as Crete. Local imitations, obvious but distinct, found with imported specimens (Melos). Provenance unknown; connexion with Troy suspected.

'Mycenaean.' The Cretan civilization swept over South Greece in the first Late Minoan period. Characterized by exuberance both in shape and ornament (III, Figs. 11, 12, 13, 16, 17). Bulk of what is likely to be found is of latest period when style has become conventionalized. Compare Fig. 11 (Mycenaean) with III, Fig. 7 Late Minoan I. Characteristic shapes high goblet and 'stirrup' vase (III, Figs. 17 and 16).

Female clay figurines common (III, Fig. 14), also animals, oxen.

Objects Characteristic of Aegean Civilization.

Seal Stones. Round or bean-shaped, pierced for suspension, usually soft stone, e.g. slate or steatite. Sometimes hard, as hematite or rock crystal. Carved with naturalistic designs: lions, (III, Fig. 8), stags, bulls, cows or hinds suckling their young, cuttle-fish, dolphins, &c. Two animals ranged like heraldic supporters characteristic.

Obsidian. Natural glass, volcanic, black. Source Melos. Used for knives throughout Bronze Age.

Chips of Knife or razor blades, and sometimes the cores from which these were flaked, may be picked up on any Bronze Age site, and even on Thessalian neolithic settlements. Glistening black unmistakable.

Terra-cotta lamps. The characteristic lamp of the Aegean civilization is open, as opposed to the Greek and Roman lamp where the body is partly covered in.

Walls. Cyclopean walls of huge irregular stones. Also good square-cut masonry.

'Corbelling' system for arches, each layer of stones projecting inwards over the one below. Also used for the vaults of 'Beehive' Tombs towards end of period.

II. PREHISTORIC GREEK

Geometric or Dipylon Period.

Pottery. Iron Age. circ. 1000 B.C.--Absolute break in continuity from what preceded. No naturalism. Prevalence of geometric patterns (III, Figs. 18 and 19). Not much variety. Meanders, lozenges, and zigzags. Circles joined by tangents replace Mycenaean spirals. Ornament crowded. Rows or single specimens of long-legged water birds. Human figures rare, rude angular silhouettes.

Local characteristics discernible (e.g. between ware of Thessaly, Attica, Boeotia, Delphi, Argolid, Laconia, Thera, and Crete), but strong family resemblance. (Lower specimen III, Fig. 19 characteristic of Boeotia.) Dark paint on natural clay (sometimes lightened by a white slip, e. g. Laconia) differs distinctly from Mycenaean. Shapes fewer and curves less flowing. Amphorae, plates, bowls, and jugs. Trefoil lip to jug first appears.

Terra-cotta loom weights from now onwards often pyramidal in form and glazed.

Bronzes. Figurines. Three types:-- Human, rare (as on vases). Quadrupeds, mainly horses. Cylindrical muzzle and narrow cylindrical belly (III, Fig. 23). Birds. Long neck and legs, flat bill and body. Stands to above, flat, square or round, with open-work snake or spiral.

Pins (to fasten dress at shoulder). Long head with small bosses like strung beads sometimes separated by discs (III, Fig 21). Sometimes larger flat disc at end of head (often missing) Pin itself usually iron, rarely extant.

Brooches. 1. Spiral type. Of wire coiled into spirals. Made of one, two, or three wires crossing with two, four, or six spirals respectively. Boss at centre. Spectacle type (two spirals) common. In 'spectacle' type (sometimes very large) spiral purely utilitarian, giving spring to the pin. With four or more spirals the additions are ornament, noteworthy in view of absence of spirals on pottery. 2. Bow type. (a) High arched bow solid. (b) Arched bow hollowed like boat inverted. This type often has flat plate attached to one end, lower edge of which is bent to form catch. Plate incised, crossed leaves, ships, horses, or men. (c) Arched bow consisting of crescent-shaped plate, similar incised decoration.

Paste Beads. A type pyramidal, dark with yellow spirals round corners, much resembling 'bull's eye' sweets, was common in Laconia (III, Fig.27).

Terra-cotta Figurines. Series of rude horses sometimes with riders characteristic of end of period. Chiefly from Boeotia. Painted like pottery, but chiefly in lines.

III. ARCHAIC GREEK

A. Orientalising.

Pottery. 700 B.C.--Influence from Asia Minor. Recrudescence there of spirit of Mycenaean art? Lions, stags, sphinxes, sirens, either in procession or arranged in pairs like heraldic supporters.

Stylized plant motifs in decoration. Rays (or flower petals) rising from foot most characteristic (III, Figs. 24, 26, and 28).

Use of purple paint to supplement black both for details of figures and for band decoration.

Geometric ornament (though perhaps with a difference) survives to fill blank spaces on backgrounds of scenes.

Varieties of style. Beasts drawn in silhouette, heads outlined, eyes, &c., drawn in, early, and mainly in the islands (III, Fig. 29). Later whole figures in silhouette with details incised, particularly identified with Corinthian and Boeotian and Laconian styles (III, Fig. 26). Styles most likely to be found on the mainland are 'Proto- Corinthian' and 'Corinthian'.

'Proto-Corinthian' (also called Argive Linear). Small vases, very fine pale clay. Decoration chiefly horizontal lines very fine. Rays from feet. Sometimes silhouette animals round shoulder.

Characteristic shapes: pear-shaped aryballoi, and lekythi with conical body, long neck, and trefoil lip (III, Figs. 24 and 25).

'Corinthian'. Clay pale buff to warm biscuit colour. Rays round foot. Purple bands. Rows of usual animals. Incisions. Details in purple. Ground ornaments, incised rosettes more or less carefully drawn. These in great profusion leaving very little bare space. (III, Fig. 26; hatched lines=purple.) Throughout this period desire for a light ground was felt, and where the natural colour of the clay did not give sufficient contrast it was covered with a strip of cream-or white clay (e.g. Rhodian, Naucratite, Laconian; see III, Fig. 28, Early Laconian Vase).

Terra-cotta Figurines. Series that culminates with Tanagra figures of fourth century begins. May be said always to be a step in advance of contemporary sculpture if any.

Statuettes rare at this date, but relief heads on flat plaques or on vase handles common. Treatment of hair usually resembles Restoration wig (III, Fig. 20). Rosette frequent on shoulders represents head of bronze (rarely silver or gold) shoulder pin.

Bronzes. Pins (to fasten dress at shoulder). Three large bosses increasing in size as they near head replace many small equal bosses of preceding period. Disc heavier (III, Fig. 22).

Brooches. Spiral type has disappeared. Couchant lion type with snake tail has been found at Olympia and Sparta. In general brooches cease to be common.

Plaques (doubtless affixed to wood). Relief patterns of guilloches or rows of bosses. Figure scenes similar to those on pottery. Characteristic of seventh century. Chance of picking up slight.

Inscriptions. Earliest extant examples of use of Greek script on stone may date from this period. For developments, see tables of alphabets, Illustration IV.

B. Black Figured Period.

600 B.C.--Predominance of Attic pottery. Decay of local styles. Introduction of red colouring into clay and of superlative Attic black glaze.

Figure scenes (battle scenes and scenes from mythology) largely predominate. Black silhouettes, details marked with fine incisions, additions of purple and white (latter for linen and flesh of women). Elaborate palmettos characteristic (III, Fig. 31).

IV. CLASSICAL GREEK

Red Figured Period. 525 B.C. Same clay and glaze, but whole vase covered with glaze and figures reserved showing in colour of clay, details being added with fine-drawn lines of glaze.

White Attic Vases. The older style of figures drawn in outline on a light ground (e. g. Naucratite and Rhodian ware), the space within outlines being filled more or less with wash of colour, survived in Athens side by side with the more usual black glazed ware, and in the fifth century was particularly affected for the class of funerary lekythi, vases made for offering at a tomb (III, Fig. 30). Outlines at first drawn in black, then golden brown, lastly a dull red.

Miscellaneous. Walls. Sixth century. Characteristic type of polygonal wall, each irregular stone very carefully fitted to its neighbours.

Fortifications usually built with square towers and bastions projecting from the curtain.

Round watch towers here and there to be met with.

Bricks. Baked bricks rarely used till Roman days. Bricks stamped by King Nabis (early second century) have been found at Sparta.

Terra-cotta roof tiles (sometimes with stamped inscriptions) largely used.

Laconian Pottery Characteristics. Fragments of black glazed Attic ware are the class of remains easiest to pick up on any Greek inhabited site, except perhaps in Laconia, where perhaps for political reasons the local style was never ousted and pursued its natural process of decay until Hellenistic times. Use of white slip over pink clay complete at end of seventh century, then partial; abandoned by beginning of fifth century. Characteristic patterns, squares, and dots (III, Fig. 28) seventh century; lotus and pomegranates sixth century and fifth century.

500 B.C.--After the end of the fifth century, manufacture of vases at Athens decayed. Supply chiefly from South Italy. Growing use of additional white (rare in Attic red figure vases), sometimes addition of detail in yellowish brown, and a general coarseness of execution, mark the change.

Terra-cotta figurines (figures of everyday life, mostly female; head- quarters Tanagra in Boeotia) prevalent.

V. HELLENISTIC

300 B.C. Side by side with decay of red-figure style appear two classes of vase that became very prevalent. (1) White designs, often floral, on totally black ground of inferior dull glaze. (2) Black ware decorated not by paint but by moulded figures and patterns. Also the handles of unpainted jars with stamped impressions (buff clay) not uncommon. Provenance mainly Rhodes.

VI. ROMAN

Hellenistic ware (2) is forerunner of Samian or Aretine red pottery with moulded designs. Very widespread in Greece in Imperial days.

VII. BYZANTINE AGE

Remains as far as the scope of this section is concerned are few. Fragments of pottery may be found at Sparta. These bear strong resemblance to the contemporary wares found in Egypt belonging to the early Mohammedan period.

Transparent lustrous glaze. Ground usually pale yellow or cream, sometimes pale green. Designs childish in character. Lions, birds, human figures painted in brown under the glaze or incised through.