CHAPTER VIII

MESOPOTAMIA

[See the diagrams of flint implements, Illustration II; pottery and brick-forms, Illustration XIV; cuneiform signs, and other scripts Illustration XV].

Mesopotamian antiquities are nearly always found in Tells, or artificial mounds, which are the sites of ancient towns or temples. The surrounding plain for a distance of several hundred yards out, whether steppe-desert or untilled land, will usually be found to be productive of antiquities, either a few inches or few feet deep or, in the case of the dessert, actually lying upon the surface. These are usually the result of rainstorms washing out antiquities from the tell itself. Each tell or ganglion of connected tells usually has a number of small subsidiary tells round about it, the sites of small isolated buildings or villages connected with the central settlement. Originally the settlements were built upon natural rises of the ground which stood up as islands in the fen-country.

Visitors should give the local names of tells in Arabic characters, when possible, so that mistakes in transliteration into English may be avoided. Antiquities bought in the neighbourhood of a tell should be noted as coming from that neighbourhood. Depredations by Arabs (or by others!) should be noted, and reported to the nearest Political Officer or Inspector of Antiquities. The barbarous practice of forcibly dislodging inscribed bricks from walls, as trophies and 'souvenirs', which has unhappily been common during the war, should never be imitated and always discountenanced as much as possible.

Other good spots for antiquities than tells are rare. In the mountainous and stony country of the North we may meet with rock- sculptures, as at Bavian, and these should always be recorded by a traveller, even if he is not certain that they have not been remarked before: something new may turn up at any time. Antiquities acquired in the neighbourhood of such monuments should be noted, and their precise place of origin ascertained, if possible, as in this way the site of some ancient settlement adjoining the monument may be identified. The open ruin-fields, or _Khurbas_, characteristic of Palestine are not usual, except in the case of Parthian or Sassanian palace ruins such as Ctesiphon, Hatra, or Ukheidhir, which were often abandoned almost as soon as they were built, so that no later population could pile up rubbish-heaps or graves above them.

In order to aid the visitor to get some idea of the age of a tell or other site from the antiquities found on its surface and its neighbourhood, and so to be able to give some idea of what is likely to be found in it, the following hints have been drawn up.

In the first place, most of the surface remains, are, as elsewhere, pottery sherds. These should tell us their date by their appearance. It must be said, however, that our experience on the subject of the development of Mesopotamian pottery is limited. Owing to the attention of Assyriologists having been so long focussed on the study of the cuneiform records, to the neglect of general archaeology, we have nothing like the knowledge of these things that we have in Egypt or in Greece. Such minutiae of information as our common knowledge of ceramic development in Egypt or in Greece gives us with regard to these countries, enabling us to date sites with great accuracy, are not vet available for Mesopotamia. And if for this reason all possible information as to the objects found on archaeological sites is desirable, it is also impossible yet to give the visitor any absolute guide to the distinctive appearance of pottery at every period. The main periods are known. The 'prehistoric', the Sumerian, the late Babylonian, and the Parthian styles are easily distinguishable. If a visitor is able to tell us that such-and-such a mound is prehistoric or is Parthian, or that settlements of both periods existed on it, this is what we want. One of the most general of criteria with regard to pottery is whether it is glazed or not. If glazed, it is, generally speaking, late. Other things besides pottery are of course found, and the presence or the absence of metal, and the occurrence of stone implements, are important. But it must be remembered that stone was used long into the 'Bronze' Age, and contemporaneously with copper. There is no sudden break between the two periods. Fragments of shell and mother-of-pearl, often with incised designs, are very characteristic of the earliest period. Coins are of late date; a tell with coins on it is certain to contain buildings as late as the fourth or third century B.C. (though it may also contain far older buildings as well). One of the most useful criteria of age is: Bricks. The form of the brick is a very good guide to date. The Babylonians used both kiln-baked and crude bricks. The oldest type, whether baked or crude, is plano-convex in form, and uninscribed. The mortar is bitumen. Later on rectangular bricks, often square, made in moulds, were introduced. These usually bore the name of the royal builder. Later on bricks became generally oblong and much like our own. In the sixth century the square shape was revived. Both shapes were in use at the Nebuchadnezzar period. Glazed bricks were then common. Under the Persians mortar took the place of bitumen. Under the Parthians and Sassanians, bricks were yellow, oblong, small, and very hard. Details will be found below, The names of various excavated sites are given in brackets as the 'classical' sources of information on certain points, and as the places from which type-antiquities have come to our Museums. Ancient names are in capitals; museums in italics.

I. PREHISTORIC (?) AGE: Chalcolithic (aeneolithic) period, before 3500 B.C.

Until quite recently no traces of the Stone Age had been discovered in Babylonia other than a few possible palaeoliths lying on the surface of the desert: all traces of a Neolithic Age were supposed to have been buried beneath the alluvium of the valley. In Assyria, however, neolithic traces in the shape of obsidian flakes had been discovered by the late Prof. L. W. King in the course of his excavation of the mound of Kuyunjik (NINEVEH), besides fragments of painted pottery resembling those from the earliest deposits in Asia Minor and those found by the American geologist Pumpelly in his diggings in the _kurgans_ of Turkestan, (to which he assigned an extremely remote date B.C.). In Persia, and about the head of the Persian Gulf, somewhat similar pottery was discovered by de Morgan and the other French excavators at Susa, Tepe Musyan, Bandar Bushir, and other places: here again the dates were put at a very remote period. With the exception of a few flint saw-blades from Warka [1], Fara, Zurghul, and Babylon [2], no similar remains had been found in Babylonia until, in 1918, Capt. R. Campbell Thompson, exploring on behalf of the British Museum, discovered flint and obsidian flakes and painted pottery lying on the surface of the desert at Tell Abu Shahrein (ERIDU), and also at Tell Muqayyar (UR). The continued excavations carried out by Mr. H. R. Hall for the Museum in 1919 have produced more of the same evidence from both places, besides a new 'prehistoric' site at Tell el-Ma'abed or Tell el-'Obeid near Ur. It seems that these antiquities date from the very end of the neolithic, or rather to the succeeding 'chalcolithic', age; whether they are really prehistoric, as regards Babylonian history, must until more evidence from stratified deposits is found remain undecided. They prove the occupation of the head of the Persian Gulf at the beginning of history by a people whose primitive art was closely akin to that of early Elam, and distinct from that of the Sumerians.

[1] Found by Loftus in 1854: their early date was not recognized at the time. [2] Koldewey, _Excavations at Babylon, E.T._, p. 261, fig. 182. Koldewey curiously speaks of the saw-blades as 'palaeolithic.' They are, of course, nothing of the sort.

Characteristics: flint, chert, obsidian, green and red jasper, and quartz-crystal flakes, arrowheads, cores, and saw-blades. Chert and limestone rough hoe-blades (easily mistaken for palaeolithic implements; they are, however, much flatter); polished serpentine or jasper celts; lentoid (lentil-shaped), amygdaloid (almond-shaped), and discoid beads of cornelian, crystal, obsidian, &c., unpolished; nails of translucent quartz and obsidian (obviously imitations of metal types); hard grey pottery sickles, pottery cones of various sizes, and pottery objects like gigantic nails bent up at the ends; pottery painted with designs in black, usually geometrical (see illustration XIV, Fig. 1), but sometimes showing plant-forms or even animals. This ware is often very fine, so much so as to look as if wheelmade. The shapes are chiefly bowls (often closely resembling early Egyptian stone bowl types), pots with suspension-handles or lugs, and spouted 'kettles'. All these objects are at Shahrein and el-'Obeid found lying on the desert surface at the distance of 50 or 100 yards from the tell; they are supposed to have been washed out of the lower strata of the latter by rains. Objects of this kind should be recorded from any site, and the neighbourhood of a desert tell should always be searched for them.

Characteristics. Development of art under Persian influence till Tartar conquest in thirteenth century: the destruction and depopulation of the country at that time brought all real artistic development to an end. Flourishing period: the 'Abbasid Khalifate: ninth century: Harun al-Rashid. Ruins of the ancient city and palaces of Samarra: halls with modelled and painted plaster-decorations, not only geometrical but also (Persian heterodox influence) representing trees, birds, &c. No more sculpture in round or relief of human figures or animals. The only survival of classical tradition would appear to be to some extent in architecture: Greek architects.

Coins: thin gold, and silver, with Cufic inscriptions only (see XV, Fig. 21). Mounds of this period may be known by fragments of marble- carving with Cufic inscriptions, plasterwork, Arab and Persian vase and tile fragments in thick blue, green, yellow, or brown glaze, metallic lustre-glaze, &c., variegated glass bangles, and rings; bits of cloudy white glass (from lamps); fragments of wood, carved and inlaid with bone, nacre, &c., in geometrical patterns; textile fragments, (which are naturally not commonly found in older mounds), &c.

Nothing is said with regard to burials as these may not be touched.

[1] The limit of age which constitutes an 'antiquity' for legal purposes is fixed in most antiquity-laws at 1500 A.D.

APPENDIX

LAWS OF ANTIQUITIES

The following brief notes on the Laws of Antiquities in force in the various territories with which this book is concerned must not be taken as absolving the traveller from the necessity of consulting the full text of the laws. At the time of going to press, the Turkish Law presumably prevails in such parts of the Turkish Empire as are not occupied by the troops of the Entente; in the remainder, temporary regulations are in force which will doubtless be modified when the new governments are established; and it is possible that the Turkish Law itself may be brought into greater harmony with modern ideas.

The Greek Law of Antiquities.

[Greek], 24 July 1899, Athens, [Greek] 1889.

All antiquities found are the property of the Government and are controlled by an Archaeological Commission, consisting of the Ephor General of Antiquities and the ephors of the archaeological collections in Athens. Fixed antiquities must be reported by the discoverer to the Ephor General or one of the ephors of antiquities or other official. Damaging of ruins or remains of monuments is forbidden. Owners of the land on which portable antiquities desirable for the National Museums are found are compensated to the extent of half their value. Any person who finds antiquities on his land must report them within five days, on pain of confiscation. The same applies to any one who finds antiquities on another person's land, or in any other way comes into possession of antiquities. Informers against breaches of the law are rewarded by the amount of the compensation due to those who keep the law. Objects not considered worth keeping by the Museums are returned to the owner of the land. Excavations, even on private property, must be authorized by the Ministry of Education. The Government has the right of expropriating land for purposes of excavation. In Government excavations, the owner of the land receives one-third of the value of the objects considered worth keeping by the Museums. Secret excavation is punished by confiscation of the finds, imprisonment and temporary loss of civil rights. In authorized excavations by a landowner or his representative the excavator receives half the value of the finds taken by the Museums. Any one attempting to excavate on another man's land is punished by imprisonment. Antiquities found in the country may not be exported (on pain of imprisonment or fine and temporary loss of civil rights) without permission, which is only granted for objects not considered by the Archaeological Commission to be of use to the Museums. Such objects on export are subject to a tax of 10 percent. _ad valorem_ unless declared entirely valueless by the Commission. Antiquities imported into the country must be declared in the Customs House and reported to the Ephor General of Antiquities, a descriptive catalogue in duplicate being sent, and cannot be re- exported without permission, which is obtained by producing the articles with the original catalogue to the Ephor General; if not reported they are regarded as having been found in the country.

The Turkish Law of Antiquities.

Loi sur les Antiquites promulguee le 29 Sefer 1324 (10 Avril 1322). Extrait du _Levant Herald_ du 8, 9, 11 et 13 Juin 1906. Constantinople, Imprimerie du _Levant Herald,_ Pera, 1906.

Antiquities are controlled by the Director-General of the Imperial Museums and a Commission, the Directors of Public Instruction in the provinces acting as agents. All ancient monuments and objects (including those of Islamic date) are the property of the Government. Any fixed antiquities discovered must be reported under pain of fine within 15 days to the official in charge of antiquities, or in his absence to the nearest civil or military official. Punishment by fine and imprisonment is inflicted for destroying or injuring monuments, measuring or making impressions without authorization.

Transportable antiquities found on a man's land must be reported by him within a week. The landowner receives half the value of objects thus reported and bought by the State; objects not reported are confiscated, and the landowner fined. This clause applies to those who find antiquities on land belonging to other private persons or to the State. Excavation is the exclusive privilege of the Museums, but firmans may be obtained by scientific societies and specialists. Unauthorized excavation is punished by imprisonment and confiscation. The State has the right of making preliminary soundings and of expropriation. Applications for leave to excavate must be made to the Minister of Public Instruction. All finds belong to the State. Unauthorized dealing in antiquities is punishable by fine, imprisonment, and confiscation. Exportation of antiquities found in the Empire is forbidden. Antiquities imported must be reported to the directorate of antiquities, and may not be sent from one part of the Empire to another, or re-exported, without permission from the Director-General.

The Cypriote Law of Antiquities.

To Consolidate and Amend the Law relating to Ancient Monuments and Antiquities, and to provide Museums. Law no. IV of 1905. See Sir J. T. Hutchinson and S. Fisher, _The Statute Laws of Cyprus,_ 1878-1906 (London, 1906), pp. 595-608.

Objects later than the Turkish conquest, and coins of Byzantine or later times, are not deemed to be antiquities. All undiscovered antiquities of movable character are the property of the Government; all immovable antiquities are also the property of the Government, unless some person shall be the owner of them. All antiquities must be reported by the person in possession of them to the Museum Committee, on pain of confiscation; antiquities found except in the course of authorized excavations must be reported within five days to the District Commissioner, One-third of such movable antiquities is taken by the Government, one-third by the finder, and one-third by the owner of the land. Damage to ancient monuments is punished by fine or imprisonment or both. Unauthorized excavation, even on land belonging to the excavator, and the purchasing of objects illegally excavated, are punished by fine or imprisonment or both. Application for leave to excavate must be made to the Chief Secretary for Government. All antiquities found in excavation belong to the Government; only duplicates, and objects not required by the Museum, are given to the excavator. The Government has the right to expropriate land for the purpose of excavations. The Museum Committee may acquire the interests of any private person in an antiquity on payment of compensation. If the sum agreed on is not paid within six months, the Museum Committee loses all right to its acquisition. Export of antiquities is forbidden except with the permission of the High Commissioner, which is granted only for objects not required by the Museum or for antiquities the interests in which the Museum Committee has failed to acquire in the manner described.

The Egyptian Law of Antiquities.

La Nouvelle Loi sur les Antiquites de l'Egypte et ses annexes. Service des Antiquites. Le Caire, Imprimerie de l'Institut francais d'archeologie orientala. 1913.

All antiquities belong to the State. The State has the right of expropriating ground containing antiquities. Transportable antiquities when found must be reported to nearest administrative authority or agents of the Service of Antiquities: the finder receives half the objects thus reported or their value. Excavation, dealing in antiquities, and exportation are forbidden unless under authorization. Destruction of and damage to antiquities is punishable by fine and imprisonment. Applications for leave to export or to excavate should be made to the Director-General of Service of Antiquities. A tax of 1 1/2 per cent. is levied on the declared value of objects passed for export. Leave to excavate is granted only to savants recommended by Governments or learned societies, or to private persons presenting proper guarantees. The excavator pays the cost of guarding the site. The Government takes half the portable objects found.

General Principles of a Model Law of Antiquities for the Near and Middle East.

The following statement of Principles which should form the foundation of the Laws of Antiquities to be enacted for the various Provinces formerly under Turkish rule was drawn up by an International Committee in Paris and recommended to the Commission for regulating the Mandates under the League of Nations. It follows closely the Recommendations of the Archaeological Joint Committee on the same subject. It was proposed at the same time that the Treaty with Turkey should enjoin the adoption by that Power of a Law of Antiquities on the same lines:

Principes du reglement devant etre adopte par chacune des Puissances mandataires.

1. 'ANTIQUITY' signifie toute construction, tout produit de l'activite humaine, anterieur a l'annee 1700.

2, Toute personne qui, ayant decouvert une antiquite, la signalera a un employe du Departement des Antiquites du pays, sera recompensee suivant la valeur de l'objet, le principe a adopter devant etre d'agir par encouragement plutot que par menace.

3. Aucun objet antique ne pourra etre vendu sauf au Departement des Antiquites du pays, mais si ce Departement renonce a l'acquerir la vente en deviendra libre. Aucune antiquite ne pourra sortir du pays sans un permis d'exportation dudit Departement.

4. Toute personne qui, expres ou par negligence, detruira ou deteriorera un objet ou une construction antique, devra etre passible d'une peine a fixer par l'autorite du pays.

5. Aucun deblaiement ni aucune fouille ayant pour objet la recherche d'antiquites ne seront permis sous peine d'amendc, sauf aux personnes autorisees par le Departement des Antiquites du pays.

6. Des conditions equitables devront etre fixees par chaque Puissance mandataire pour l'expropriation temporaire ou permanente des terrains qui pourraient offrir un interet historique ou archeologique.

7. Les autorisations pour les fouilles ne devront etre accordees qu'aux personnes qui offrent des garanties suffisantes d'experience archeologique. Aucune des Puissances mandataires ne devra, en accordant ces autorisations, agir de facon a ecarter, sans motif valable, les savants des autres nations.

8. Les produits des fouilles pourront etre divises entre le fouilleur et le Departement des Antiquites de chaque pays dans une proportion fixee par ce Departement. Si, pour des raisons scientifiques, la division ne semble pas possible, le fouilleur devra recevoir, au lieu d'une partie de la trouvaille, une juste indemnite.

INDEX

Abu Shahrein, 85, 88, 90. Achaemenian period in Mesopotamia, 93. Aegean, prehistoric age in the 36 f: pottery in Palestine, 73. Aeneolithic; see Chalcolithic. Akkadian period, 90. Alphabets: see Inscriptions. Aramaic inscriptions, 62, 66; in Mesopotamia, 93. Archaeological Joint Committee, 38. Arches, corbelled, 40. Arcosolium tombs, 71 f. Asia Minor, 47 ff. Assyrian period, 91. Attic pottery, 44 f.

Babylon. 85, 90, 92 f. Babylonian period, 91. Bandar Bushir, 85. Barometer, 10, 33. Bavian, 83. Beads: Cypriote, 56: Egyptian, 78 f.; Greek, 41; Hittite, 60; Mesopotamian, 88 ff.; Syrian, 64. Belt Jibrin, 73. Bitumen in Mesopotamia, 84, 88. Black-figured Greek pottery, 44. Bricks, 14 f.; in Egypt, 82; in Mesopotamia, 84-93. Bronze Age: in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 36 f.; in Mesopotamia, 88; in Syria, 60. Bronze, forgeries in, 24. Brooches (fibulae): Greek, 40, 44; in Syria, 61 f. Bubastites, 79. Buildings, recording of, 14. Burials: see Tombs. Buying, advice about. 24 f.

Calah, 92. Camera, 10 f. Casting in plaster, 19. Caves, 15, 72. Cemeteries, 15, 55, 70, 78: see also Tombs. Chalcolithic period: in Mesopotamia, 85: in Syria, 59 f. Cisterns in Palestine, 77. Coins; in Cyprus, 58; in Egypt, 79; in Mesopotamia, 84, 92 ff.; forgeries of, 24; making impressions of, 19 f; recording finds of, 9. Combs, Egyptian, 78. Committee, Archaeological Joint, 28. Compass, prismatic, 10. Copper: in Mesopotamia, 88 f.; in Syria, 60. Copying, 17 ff. Corbelled arches, 40. 'Corinthian' pottery, 41. Crete, 36; pottery from, in Palestine, 73. Crusaders' churches in Palestine, 76. Ctesiphon, 84, 94. Cuneiform inscriptions: in Asia Minor, 51; in Mesopotamia, 90 ff.

Cup-markings in Palestine, 77. Cyclopean walls, 40 Cylinders and cylinder-sealings: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; Hittite, 60, 62, 64; in Mesopotamia, 89 ff. Cyprus, 54 ff.; Law of Antiquities, 97; pottery from, in Palestine, 73.

Dipylon period, 40. Dolmens in Palestine, 77. Drawing and copying, 17 f.

Egypt, 78-82; Law of Antiquities, 98. Egyptian hieroglyphics, 20; pottery in Palestine, 73; scarabs imitated in Syria, 62; stone bowls, Mesopotamian pottery types resembling, 88. Eridu, 85, 88. Excavations: laws controlling, 95 ff.; unauthorized, 7.

Fara, 85, 88 f. Fibulae: see Brooches. Figurines: Cypriote, 55; Greek, 35, 40 f., 44 f.; Syrian, 60, 62, 64. Finds, importance of not breaking up, 9. Flint implements, 29 ff.: see also Stone Age. Forgeries, 24 f.

Geometric bronze age ware in Greece, 36; period, 40. Glass; in Cyprus, 57; in Egypt, 78 ff.; in Mesopotamia, 91; in Syria, 64. Glaze, Egyptian, 78 f.; imitated in Babylonia, 91. Greece, 35 ff., Law of Antiquities, 95.

Hatra, 84. Hebrew alphabets, 66. Hieroglyphics, copying of, 17, 20; Hittite, 51, 62. Hill sanctuaries in Palestine, 76. Hittite antiquities: in Asia Minor, 51; in Syria, 59 ff.

Inscriptions: copying of, 17, 20 f.; Aramaic, 63, 66, 93; cuneiform, 51, 87, in Cyprus, 57, Greek, 44, 51 f; Hittite, 51, 62; Latin, 53; Lycian,51; Lydian, 51; in Palestinian tombs, 71; Semitic, 62, 66 f., 87. Institutions, archaeological, 26 f. Iron Age: in Asia Minor, 50; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 40; in Mesopotamia, 91-93; in Syria, 60, 62. Itinerary, recording of, 13 f.

Jewellery, forged, 24.

Kassite period, 91. Khirbet (khirbah), 68 ff. Khorsabad, 92. Kohl-pots, 62,78 f. Kok tombs, 71 f. Kuyunjik, 85, 92.

Laconian pottery, 45. Lagash, 88. Lamps, Aegean, 37. Latin inscriptions in Asia Minor, 53. Laws of Antiquities, 7, 95 ff. Levelling, 33. Licences for acquiring antiquities, 9. Lycian inscriptions and monuments, 51. Lydian inscriptions, 51.

Ma'abed, Tell el-, 85. Mastabas, 78. Mapping, 13. Mesopotamia, 83 ff. Minoan Age. 36; pottery in Palestine, 73. 'Minyan' ware, 37. Mortar, bitumen, 84, 90, 92. Mosaic, 77, 79. Mounds, 14: see also Tell. Muqayyar, Tell, 85. Museums, use of, 7 f. 'Mycenaean' Age, 37; pottery in Palestine, 73.

Naksh-i-Rustam, 94. Neolithic Age: see Stone Age. Niffer, 90. Nimrud, 92. Nineveh, 85, 92. Numerals, West Semitic, 67.

'Obeid, Tell el-, 85, 88 f. Obsidian: Aegean, 37; Mesopotamian, 85, 88. Olive-presses in Palestine, 77. Orientalizing Greek antiquities, 41, 44. Outfit, 10 f.

Packing of antiquities, 22 f. Palestine, 65 ff. Papyri, forged, 24. Paraffin-wax, 22 f. Parthian period in Mesopotamia, 93. Pehlevi script, 93 f. Persian period: in Mesopotamia, 92; in Syria, 62. Photography, 10 f., 21 f. Phrygian inscriptions, 55. Pins: Greek, 40, 44; Hittite, 60, 62; Mesopotamian, 91. Place-names, Eastern, 68 f., 83. Planning, 14, 16 f. Plaster casting, 19 f. Pottery, _passim_; hand-made and wheel-made, 29, 49 f; importance of, 29. 84; packing of, 23. Preservation of antiquities, 22 f. 'Proto-Corinthian' pottery, 41. Ptolemaic period, 79.

Red-figured Greek pottery, 44. Rhodian jar-handles: in Egypt, 79; in Palestine, 73. Rock-cut tombs, 70 f. Rock-sculptures in Mesopotamia, 83.

Saites, 79. Samarra, 94. Sanctuaries: in Cyprus, 54 f.; in Palestine, 76. Sargonid period, 90. Sassanian period, 93 f. Scarabs: in Cyprus, 56; in Egypt, 78; in Syria, 62, 64; forged, 24. Schools of archaeology, 8, 26 f. Sculpture, squeezing of, 18. Seals: Aegean, 37; Hittite, 62; Mesopotamian, 86, 89, 91; Sassanian, 93; Syrian, of Persian period, 64: see also Cylinders, Scarabs. Semitic inscriptions, 62, 65-7, 87. Shahrein, Tell Abu, 85, 88, 90. Shuruppak, 88. Sinjerli, 59, 62. Sites, identification of, 68. Societies, archaeological, 8, 26 f. Squeezing, 17 ff. Stone Age, 29 ff.; in Asia Minor, 48; in Cyprus, 56; in Greece, 35 f.; in Mesopotamia, 84 f., 88; in Palestine, 76; in Syria, 59 f. Sumerian period, 88 ff. Susa, 85. Syria, Central and North, 59ff.

Tak-i-Bostan, 94. Tall: see Tell. Telephotography, 12. Tell (mound), 68 f., 83. Telloh, 88 ff. Tepe Musyan, 85. Terra-cottas; see Figurines. Trees, sacred, 77. Tombs and burials: in Cyprus, 55; in Mesopotamia. 89-94; 'of the Kings', at Jerusalem, 71; rockcut, in Palestine, 70 f.; in Syria, 59 f: see also Cemeteries. Turkish Law of Antiquities, 96.

Ukheidir, 84. Ur, 85, 90. 'Urfirnis' ware, 37. Ushabtis, 78 f.

Warka, 85, 93 f. Wine-presses in Palestine, 77.

Zurghul, 85, 89.