Chapter 4

In heat the landscape quivering lies, The cattle pant beneath the tree; Through parching air and purple skies The earth looks up, in vain, for thee; For thee--for thee it looks in vain, Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

Come thou, and brim the meadow streams, And soften all the hills with mist,

Oh, falling dew! From burning dreams By thee shall herb and flower be kissed; And earth shall bless thee yet again, Oh, gentle, gentle summer rain!

LESSON XXXVII.

THE PARTS OF ANIMALS.

Animals which live in or near people's houses and are tame are domestic animals; others are wild.

What animals are found where you live?

Which are domestic? Which wild?

Which of these animals feed upon grass? grains? fruits? flesh?

You know what sharp claws a cat can put out when it pleases. What use does the cat make of its claws?

How does a cat's paw differ from a dog's? How does a dog seize its prey?

Compare a duck's bill with an owl's. What use does the duck make of its broad flat bill? The owl, of its sharp hooked bill?

How do the bills of the hen and the duck differ? Would a bill fitted for pecking be as useful to the duck as its own bill?

Can you draw a picture of a duck's foot and a hen's foot? For what does each use its feet?

Would broad web-feet be as useful to the hen as slender toes?

What kind of feet has the sheep? For what are its feet only used? Could a sheep use feet like those of a cat or a hen?

You see each animal has parts well fitted for the life it leads.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE COVERING OF ANIMALS.

Name two animals covered with fur.

Two covered with hair. Two covered with feathers.

What do we call the covering of a sheep? Of a pig? Of what use is hair to animals?

What covering has an oyster? A lobster? A turtle? Of what use is it to them?

The duck's feathers are covered with an oily coating, which keeps them from getting wet. Are the feathers of the hen so covered? Why?

Suppose a squirrel's covering were like that of a turtle's, what would result?

What would result if a bird had scales instead of feathers? You see that each animal has that covering which suits its habits best.

LESSON XXXIX.

USES OF ANIMALS.

What domestic animals are used for food?

What wild animals are used for food?

From what animals do we get beef? pork? mutton? veal?

What birds and fowls are used for food? What fishes?

From what animal do we get wool? How is wool taken from the sheep? What articles of dress are made of wool?

Name the animals whose skins are used to make leather. How is leather prepared? Did you ever see a tannery? What do they do there?

From what animals do we get furs?

What is silk?

Silk is made by little worms called silkworms. When the worm is fully grown, it spins round itself a small ball of silk, called a cocoon. If this cocoon were left to itself, the worm would change to a moth, and the moth would eat its way out of this little house. But this, of course, would cut the little threads and spoil the silk. As soon, therefore, as the cocoon is made, it is put into hot water to kill the worm. In this way the silk is saved.

Almost every part of the cow is made use of. For what is the flesh used? What use is made of the hoofs? horns? hair? What is done with the skin? What other uses has the cow?

What animal shows the most affection for his master?

Mention some kinds of dogs.

You may have seen a dog called the St. Bernard. He is large, with long curly hair. In the Alps mountains, where traveling is dangerous, the St. Bernard dogs have saved many lives. Who use their dogs, as we use horses, to draw their sledges?

Which is the most useful animal to man?

Draw and paint some of the animals spoken of in the lesson.

_Write the names:_

Of animals useful for food.

Of animals which work for man.

Of animals useful to us for clothing.

Of birds and fowls used for food.

LESSON XL.

THE SIGNS OF THE SEASONS.

What does it mean when the bluebird comes And builds its nest, singing sweet and clear? When violets peep among blades of grass?-- These are the signs that spring is here.

What does it mean when berries are ripe? When butterflies flit, and honeybees hum? When cattle stand under the shady trees?-- These are the signs that summer has come.

What does it mean when the crickets chirp, And away to the south the robins steer? When apples are falling, and leaves grow brown?-- These are the signs that autumn is here

What does it mean when days are short? When leaves are gone, and brooks are dumb When fields are white with drifted snow?-- These are the signs that winter has come.

LESSON XLI.

THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

The earth contains many things that are of great value to us. These we must find and dig out.

The coal we burn in our grates to warm us; iron, from which so many useful things are made; gold, silver, tin, lead, and copper,--all come out of the earth.

But these are not all the valuable things hidden away in the earth.

From salt wells we get a great deal of the salt used on our tables. From oil wells is obtained the oil we use in our lamps to give us light. Diamonds which sparkle so beautifully, and the stone we use in building, are also taken from the earth.

Coal, iron, gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, and salt are called minerals.

The opening dug in the earth from which minerals, except stone, are taken; is called a _mine_.

One of the most useful of minerals is _coal_. Did you ever stop to think how much hard work coal does for us? It grinds our wheat, it weaves our cloth, it carries us by sea and by land over the earth. Hardly any labor can be done without coal.

You have noticed that some coal burns with a great deal of flame and smoke. That is called soft or bituminous coal. That hard, clean-looking coal, which burns with little blaze, yet gives out such great heat, is anthracite coal.

Coal has many uses. Mention all you can think of. From which kind is gas obtained, hard or soft coal?

What is coal? Some day you will be able to understand how coal was made, and how it got deep down in the earth.

What article used with food is found in mines? Does all _salt_ come out of the mines? How is the salt made that is not found in mines?

There are salt mines where men, women, and children live all their lives, and never see sun or sky. Many great rooms and galleries, with tall pillars to hold up the roof, are cut out of the salt. When lighted up with torches, they glitter as if studded with precious stones. It is like a fairy palace.

Some minerals are called metals. Iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, and mercury are metals.

Iron is the most useful of all metals. Did you ever think what we should do without this hard, strong metal? The following lines tell some of the uses of iron:

Iron vessels cross the ocean. Iron engines give them motion; Iron pipe our gas delivers, Iron bridges span our rivers, Iron horses draw our loads, Iron rails compose our roads; Iron houses, iron walls, Iron cannon, iron balls, Iron lightning rods on spires, Iron telegraphic wires, Iron hammers, nails, and screws, Iron everything we use.

Steel is iron made very hard. Knives, axes, hatchets, and other tools are made of steel. Many little things are made of steel. Mention some of them.

Which is the most valuable of all metals? Is all the gold made into money? Is money made of pure gold? Why? Name articles of ornament made of gold. Articles of use. Are gold watches, chains, and rings usually made of pure gold? Why? What do you call the man who makes these articles?

Silver is the whitest and most lustrous of all the metals. What does "lustrous" mean? Is iron lustrous? Are silver articles usually made of pure silver? Why?

Silver and gold are found among the mountains in the west. Sometimes they are dug out of the ground. Sometimes they are found in rocks, and the rocks must be broken up before they can be taken out.

Sometimes men wash down the hills with streams of water in order to get at the silver or gold among the rocks.

Gold and silver are called the _precious metals_ because they do not rust, and on account of their scarcity.

Tin is white and bright, but too soft to make articles which shall be light and strong. Therefore, thin plates of iron are dipped into melted tin. The tin adheres to the iron and makes it bright like tin itself.

A thin sheet of iron, covered with tin, is called tin-plate. It is of this that our tin cups, pans, and kitchen utensils are made. A tin cup is really made of iron.

Lead is a very heavy metal. It is so soft that it can be cut with a knife. It is used in making shot, and water pipes.

Do you know how shot is made? Did you ever see a shot-tower? Small shot is made by dropping melted lead through a sieve in rapid motion, from the top of a high tower. The drops fall into a vessel of water below. They are next polished and made black, and then are ready for sale.

You think, I suppose, that the lead pencil with which you write is made of lead. It is not made of lead, but of graphite, which is a kind of coal.

Copper is softer than iron, but harder than lead. It will not rust. Cooking vessels are often made of copper.

Zinc is another valuable metal, and is almost the color of tin. Brass is made by mixing copper and zinc together.

Mention some articles made of brass.

Write five lines about tin.

Write five or more lines about coal.

Write what you know of iron, gold, silver, copper, lead.

LESSON XLII.

MORE ABOUT THINGS FOUND IN THE EARTH.

We have seen that there are many kinds of metals. There are also many kinds of stone. Those which are strong and do not crumble by exposure are useful for building. The place from which stones are taken for building is called a _quarry._

The more common stones are granite, sandstone; limestone, marble, and slate.

We will first examine a piece of _granite._

How hard and firm it is! What a beautiful clean surface when polished!

Granite is used for steps, for paving streets, and for sidewalk curbings. Are houses ever built of granite? Can you think of other uses of granite?

Why is granite used for these purposes? It is easily shaped. It is hard enough to give strength. It is enduring. What does "enduring" mean?

This is a piece of _sandstone_, made of little grains of sand. It will crumble more easily than granite. What does "crumble" mean? Brownstone, used in building, is a kind of sandstone.

And this is the common gray _limestone_ of which lime used in building is made. The large oven in which lime is burned is called a lime-kiln. Did you ever see one? Can you tell how the lime is made?

Here are three pieces of _marble_. This piece is pure white. This is colored. It is marked by many strange forms, as you see in your mantel-pieces and table-tops. In this piece, you see many colored spots--mottled it may be called.

Marble is beautiful when polished.

In what different ways have you seen marble used? What parts of furniture are sometimes marble? Why is it suitable for this? Is marble ever used for building houses? Do you think it would be good for that purpose? Why? Which, do you think, is the best of all building stones? Why?

Marble and granite are the most beautiful and enduring of all building stones.

_Chalk_ is a variety of limestone. Could it be used as a building stone? Is chalk harder or softer than other stone?

You need not to be told the name of this dark stone. You could not get along well in school without _slate_. Slate is easily split into thin plates, and has a smooth, firm surface.

Slate is used to write on. It is used in house building. What part of a house is sometimes slate? Think of other uses. Why is it useful for these purposes?

We must not forget _brick_ in our talks about things that come out of the ground. Brick is not found in the earth, as the metals and stone are found; but it is made of clay, which is itself a part of the ground.

Have you ever seen a brick-yard? What are some of the uses of bricks? What is the man called who builds houses of bricks?

Is glass taken out of a mine or quarry? No; but glass is made from sand; which is also a part of the ground.

In laying brick or stone, the mason uses _mortar_. Mortar is made chiefly of lime. Lime is made of stone which comes out of the ground.

If possible, visit mines and quarries. Take careful notice of all you see, and on your return to school tell what you have learned.

LESSON XLIII.

HOW PEOPLE LIVE AND WHAT THEY ARE DOING

Can you think of anything used in building houses that does not come from the earth?

Do all people have large, fine houses of brick or stone to live in? What is a tent?

A wigwam? Who live in huts? Did you ever hear of people who live in snow houses?

In some places houses are built of bamboo. Bamboo is a kind of cane that grows in warm countries.

What building is now going up in this place? Tell the use of stone, brick, mortar, iron, tin, lead, and glass in building the house. Where and how are they obtained?

We could not live without food. We must also have clothes to wear and houses to live in. Besides these, we need schools, books, and churches, which make us wiser and better. Now, if you think a little, you can name many other things which we need to make our homes beautiful. To supply us with all of these things, men must do many different kinds of work.

Where does the food we eat come from?

We get most of it from plants. Wheat, corn, peas, and beans are seeds of plants. Almost all our bread is made from wheat. Beets, turnips, and radishes are roots of plants. Lettuce and cabbage are the leaves of plants.

Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits grow on plants. All these we use for food.

Plants also supply us with material for clothing. Some clothes are made from cotton; cotton grows in the pod of a plant. Some clothes are made from linen; linen comes from flax, which is a plant. Hats are made from straw; straw is the stem or stalk of plants.

Now, these plants, which supply us with so much of our food and clothing, do not grow of themselves.

The ground must be plowed, the seeds planted and taken care of while growing. So, outside the city, you may see a great many people at work raising grain, vegetables, and other plants. This occupation we call _agriculture_ or _farming;_ the people we call farmers.

Animals, as well as plants, furnish much of our food. All meat comes from animals. We get milk from cows. From milk we make butter and cheese.

Animals also supply us with clothing. Many articles of dress are made of wool. Wool, you know, grows on the sheep. Shoes and kid gloves are made of leather. Leather is made from the hides of cows; sheep, oxen, and goats.

But animals could not live and grow if people did not carefully raise them. In the country, yon may see flocks of sheep and herds of cows and oxen feeding on the fresh sweet grass of the pastures. Those animals are called stock. The business of those who raise them is called _stock-raising._

Most farmers raise cows, horses, and other animals. Which land does the farmer use for pasture? What is a pasture? What is a meadow?

Grazing means feeding on grass. What animals have you seen grazing? Does a dog graze? A cow?

Mountains, so rough and rocky, are not good for farms and gardens. But many of them contain coal, on which millions of people depend for heat and light. In mountains, too, we find iron, which is more useful to us than gold and silver.

To get these, thousands of men are at work in places called mines. A mine is like a great cavern. There is neither sun nor sky. Torches and lamps give the only light the miners have to see by. The air is damp and close. I suppose you would not like to work in such a place. Yet great numbers of persons are employed in _mining._

How is coal taken out of a mine? What are the dangers of coal-mining? Try to find answers to these questions for yourself. If necessary, your teacher will help you.

In some parts of the country are forests of pine, oak, and other trees. Some of these forests are so large we might travel for days or weeks through them. From trees we get lumber. Lumber is needed for building houses and ships, and for furniture. So a great many men are employed in cutting down trees and preparing the wood for use. This is called _lumbering_.

The lumbermen go into the woods in winter, and build themselves little huts to live in. All through the winter months they work in the woods from sunrise to sunset, felling the best trees and cutting them into logs. Then they haul them over the snow-covered ground to the frozen streams, and pile them upon the banks.

Here the logs must rest till the snow and ice have melted and the streams are full. Then they are floated down to the great saw-mills; and cut up into boards, laths, shingles, and other kinds of lumber.

What is a forest? Name some forest trees that grow near your home.

The sea yields much that we eat. Some parts abound in codfish, mackerel, and herring. Sardines, the little fish that come in boxes, are also found in the sea. It is the business of thousands of people who live near the ocean to catch fish, salt them, and pack them, to send to those who want them for food.

Have you ever seen the ocean, or eaten any of its fish?

Name some fishes found in fresh water.

Name some kinds of fishes found in waters near where you live. How may they be caught?

LESSON XLIV.

MORE ABOUT WHAT PEOPLE ARE DOING.

In the city or town we shall find many of the people busy about something else than the occupations we have learned. What do you suppose it is?

If you go about the city, you will see large buildings several stories high, with long rows of windows, and great smoking chimneys. These are mills or factories, full of machines in motion doing their work almost like human beings.

The people who work in them make almost everything that is needed for our use. Wheat is changed into flour; cotton, into thread, fine muslins, and pretty calicoes; leather, into boots and shoes; iron and steel, into plows, stoves; and cutlery; lumber, into wagons, carriages, and all kinds of furniture. Other articles which we must not forget are elegant jewelry, all sorts of ornaments for parlors, and beautiful toys which you admire so much.

It would take a long time to name a small part of the things made in the busy mills and factories; but think of the articles used in your home, and you may be sure they are manufactured articles. You see, _manufacturing_ gives work to many thousands of persons.

What is cutlery? Name some articles of cutlery.

We need many things which we do not produce. Other people need things which they do not produce. How can each obtain what he needs? By exchanging one thing for another. This exchange of goods, or buying and selling them for money; gives rise to another occupation called _trade_, or _commerce_. So many people spend their time buying and selling grain, vegetables, clothing, boots and shoes, or in sending them to places where they are needed.

On all the large rivers and lakes you may see boats going up and down, carrying goods from one part of the country to another.

Can you think how goods are carried from place to place where there are no rivers? In countries where few people live, goods are often carried in wagons and on the backs of animals.

I wonder how many people have to work to get food and clothing for us. Make a list of all the occupations you can think of. Perhaps you can think of other occupations we have not named. Is dressmaking an occupation? Teaching? Which occupation would you prefer? Why?

If you think, perhaps you can tell why men do different kinds of work. What people do to make a living, depends very much upon the place they live in. For men almost always do that kind of work that pays them best for their labor.

Those who live where the land is rich and level will raise grain to make flour, or cotton and flax to make clothing. Some people among the mountains work in the mines. Some keep cows for their milk and butter, and sheep for their wool; for the hills and many of the mountain sides afford excellent pasture. People who live near the sea will be apt to catch fish along the coast, or engage in trade upon the water.

Employments in the city differ widely from those in the country. Here, as we have learned, most people make their living by working in factories, or as merchants in buying and selling goods which come from all parts of the world.

All people do not live in the same way. Some people have no churches, schools, books, or factories.

What do people who live in this way eat? What do they wear? How do they spend their time?

LESSON XLV.

A REVIEW LESSON.

What kind of work is done by the people among whom you live? Are they farmers? How does the farmer make his living? Where does he sell the things which he raises? Where does he buy his sugar and tea and other things which he needs?

Do you live in a city? What are the chief occupations of the people? Do they work in shops or mills or factories?

Name some mills or factories in or near your city. What articles are made there? What manufactured articles are in the schoolroom? At home? What do you call the men who make these articles?

What kinds of goods are sold in the stores? What is a grocery store? A dry-goods store? A shoe store? Where did the things in these stores come from? Which were made in your city? Which were brought from other places?

What railroads or canals are in the city? Do boats come to the wharves? What do the boats or railroads take away? What do they bring in return?

_Write the following:_

Farmers raise (write the names of all the things you can think of).

Miners dig _______________ out of the earth.

Quarrymen dig ___________ from the quarries.

A shoemaker makes ___________.

A blacksmith makes __________.

Merchants buy and sell __________.

End of Project Gutenberg's Home Geography For Primary Grades, by C. C. Long