part xiv., and _Ann. de Chimie_.

Prof. Magnus measured his temperatures by an air-thermometer; a process which, I stated in the first edition, seemed to afford the best promise of simplifying the law of expansion. His result is, that the {176} elasticity proceeds in a geometric series when the temperature proceeds in an arithmetical series nearly; the differences of temperature for equal augmentations of the ratio of elasticity being somewhat greater for the higher temperatures.

The forces of the vapors of other liquids in contact with their liquids, determined by Dr. Faraday, as mentioned in Chap. ii. Sect. 1, are analogous to the elasticity of steam here spoken of.]

_Sect._ 5.--_Consequences of the Doctrine of Evaporation.--Explanation of Rain, Dew, and Clouds._

THE discoveries concerning the relations of heat and moisture which were made during the last century, were principally suggested by meteorological inquiries, and were applied to meteorology as fast as they rose. Still there remains, on many points of this subject, so much doubt and obscurity, that we cannot suppose the doctrines to have assumed their final form; and therefore we are not here called upon to trace their progress and connexion. The principles of atmology are pretty well understood; but the difficulty of observing the conditions under which they produce their effects in the atmosphere is so great, that the precise theory of most meteorological phenomena is still to be determined.

We have already considered the answers given to the question: According to what rules does transparent aqueous vapor resume its form of visible water? This question includes, not only the problems of Rain and Dew, but also of Clouds; for clouds are not vapor, but water, vapor being always invisible. An opinion which attracted much notice in its time, was that of Hutton, who, in 1784, endeavored to prove that if two masses of air saturated with transparent vapor at different temperatures are mixed together, the precipitation of water in the form either of cloud or of drops will take place. The reason he assigned for the opinion was this: that the temperature of the mixture is a mean between the two temperatures, but that the force of the vapor in the mixture, which is the mean of the forces of the two component vapors, will be greater than that which corresponds to the mean temperature, since the force increases faster than the temperature;[59\10] and hence some part of the vapor will be precipitated. This doctrine, it will be seen, speaks of vapor as "saturating" air, and is {177} therefore, in this form, inconsistent with Dalton's principle; but it is not difficult to modify the expression so as to retain the essential part of the explanation.

[Note 59\10: _Edin. Trans._ vol. 1. p. 42.]

_Dew._--The principle of a "constituent temperature" of steam, and the explanation of the "dew-point," were known, as we have said (chap. iii. sect. 3,) to the meteorologists of the last century; but we perceive how incomplete their knowledge was, by the very gradual manner in which the consequences of this principle were traced out. We have already noticed, as one of the books which most drew attention to the true doctrine, in this country at least, Dr. Wells's _Essay on Dew_, published in 1814. In this work the author gives an account of the progress of his opinions;[60\10] "I was led," he says, "in the autumn of 1784, by the event of a rude experiment, to think it probable that the formation of dew is attended with the production of cold." This was confirmed by the experiments of others. But some years after, "upon considering the subject more closely, I began to suspect that Mr. Wilson, Mr. Six, and myself, had all committed an error in regarding the cold which accompanies the dew, as an _effect_ of the formation of the dew." He now considered it rather as the _cause_: and soon found that he was able to account for the circumstances of this formation, many of them curious and paradoxical, by supposing the bodies on which dew is deposited, to be cooled down, by radiation into the clear night-sky, to the proper temperature. The same principle will obviously explain the formation of mists over streams and lakes when the air is cooler than the water; which was put forward by Davy, even in 1810, as a new doctrine, or at least not familiar.

[Note 60\10: _Essay on Dew_, p. 1.]

_Hygrometers._--According as air has more or less of vapor in comparison with that which its temperature and pressure enable it to contain, it is more or less humid; and an instrument which measures the degrees of such a gradation is a _hygrometer_. The hygrometers which were at first invented, were those which measured the moisture by its effect in producing expansion or contraction in certain organic substances; thus De Saussure devised a hair-hygrometer, De Luc a whalebone-hygrometer, and Dalton used a piece of whipcord. All these contrivances were variable in the amount of their indications under the same circumstances; and, moreover, it was not easy to know the physical meaning of the degree indicated. The dew-point, or constituent temperature of the vapor which exists in the air, is, on {178} the other hand, both constant and definite. The determination of this point, as a datum for the moisture of the atmosphere, was employed by Le Roi, and by Dalton (1802), the condensation being obtained by cold water:[61\10] and finally, Mr. Daniell (1812) constructed an instrument, where the condensing temperature was produced by evaporation of ether, in a very convenient manner. This invention (_Daniell's Hygrometer_) enables us to determine the quantity of vapor which exists in a given mass of the atmosphere at any time of observation.

[Note 61\10: Daniell, _Met. Ess._ p. 142. _Manch. Mem._ vol. v. p. 581.]

[2nd Ed.] [As a happy application of the Atmological Laws which have been discovered, I may mention the completion of the theory and use of the _Wet-bulb Hygrometer_; an instrument in which, from the depression of temperature produced by wetting the bulb of a thermometer, we infer the further depression which would produce dew. Of this instrument the history is thus summed up by Prof. Forbes:--"Hutton invented the method; Leslie revived and extended it, giving probably the earliest, though an imperfect theory; Gay-Lussac, by his excellent experiments and reasoning from them, completed the theory, so far as perfectly dry air is concerned; Ivory extended the theory; which was reduced to practice by Auguste and Bohnenberger, who determined the constant with accuracy. English observers have done little more than confirm the conclusions of our industrious Germanic neighbors; nevertheless the experiments of Apjohn and Prinsep must ever be considered as conclusively settling the value of the coefficient near the one extremity of the scale, as those of Kæmtz have done for the other."[62\10]

[Note 62\10: _Second Report on Meteorology_, p. 101.]

Prof. Forbes's two Reports _On the Recent Progress and Present State of Meteorology_ given among the _Reports of the British Association_ for 1832 and 1840, contain a complete and luminous account of recent researches on this subject. It may perhaps be asked why I have not given Meteorology a place among the Inductive Sciences; but if the reader refers to these accounts, or any other adequate view of the subject, he will see that Meteorology is not a single Inductive Science, but the application of several sciences to the explanation of terrestrial and atmospheric phenomena. Of the sciences so applied, Thermotics and Atmology are the principal ones. But others also come into play; as Optics, in the explanation of Rainbows, Halos, {179} Parhelia, Coronæ, Glories, and the like; Electricity, in the explanation of Thunder and Lightning, Hail, Aurora Borealis; to which others might be added.]

_Clouds._--When vapor becomes visible by being cooled below its constituent temperature, it forms itself into a very fine watery powder, the diameter of the particles of which this powder consists being very small: they are estimated by various writers, from 1⁄100,000th to 1⁄20,000th of an inch.[63\10] Such particles, even if solid, would descend very slowly; and very slight causes would suffice for their suspension, without recurring to the hypothesis of vesicles, of which we have already spoken. Indeed that hypothesis will not explain the fact, except we suppose these vesicles filled with a rarer air than that of the atmosphere; and, accordingly, though this hypothesis is still maintained by some,[64\10] it is asserted as a fact of observation, proved by optical or other phenomena, and not deduced from the suspension of clouds. Yet the latter result is still variously explained by different philosophers: thus, M. Gay-Lussac[65\10] accounts for it by upward currents of air, and Fresnel explains it by the heat and rarefaction of air in the interior of the cloud.

[Note 63\10: Kæmtz, _Met._ i. 393.]

[Note 64\10: Ib. i. 393. Robison, ii. 13.]

[Note 65\10: _Ann. Chim._ xxv. 1822.]

_Classification of Clouds._--A classification of clouds can then only be consistent and intelligible when it rests upon their atmological conditions. Such a system was proposed by Mr. Luke Howard, in 1802-3. His primary modifications are, _Cirrus_, _Cumulus_, and _Stratus_, which the Germans have translated by terms equivalent in English to _feather-cloud_, _heap-cloud_, and _layer-cloud_. The cumulus increases by accumulations on its top, and floats in the air with a horizontal base; the stratus grows from below, and spreads along the earth; the cirrus consists of fibres in the higher regions of the atmosphere, which grow every way. Between the simple modifications are intermediate ones, _cirro-cumulus_ and _cirro-stratus_; and, again, compound ones, the _cumulo-stratus_ and the _nimbus_, or _rain-cloud_. These distinctions have been generally accepted all over Europe: and have rendered a description of all the processes which go on in the atmosphere far more definite and clear than it could be made before their use.

I omit a mass of facts and opinions, supposed laws of phenomena and assigned causes, which abound in meteorology more than in any other science. The slightest consideration will show us what a great {180} amount of labor, of persevering and combined observation, the progress of this branch of knowledge requires. I do not even speak of the condition of the more elevated parts of the atmosphere. The diminution of temperature as we ascend, one of the most marked of atmospheric facts, has been variously explained by different writers. Thus Dalton[66\10] (1808) refers it to a principle "that each atom of air, in the same perpendicular column, is possessed of the same degree of heat," which principle he conceives to be entirely empirical in this case. Fourier says[67\10] (1817), "This phenomenon results from several causes: one of the principal is the progressive extinction of the rays of heat in the successive strata of the atmosphere."

[Note 66\10: _New Syst. of Chem._ vol. i. p. 125.]

[Note 67\10: _Ann. Chim._ vi. 285.]

Leaving, therefore, the application of thermotical and atmological principles in particular cases, let us consider for a moment the general views to which they have led philosophers.