Chapter 6

period which produced the various books of Loci Communes Theologici. The only exception to this scholastic spirit was Calixt. and the school of Helmstadt, which in tone was like the school of Saumur, (Cameron, Amyrauld, and Placæus,) or like Baxter, the controversies connected with which prove the rule. On it see Schröckh, _Christliche Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation_ (1804), viii. 243 seq. On the theologians of this period see Weismann, _Introd. in Memorabilia Eccles. Hist._ (1718), p. 919 seq.

661 This view of inspiration is stated in Quenstedt’s _Syst. Theol._, and Calov’s _Syst. Theol._ i. 554 seq., about the end of the seventeenth century. Dr. Pusey (part i. 140) refers to passages of Semler’s _Lebens-Beschreibung_ illustrative of these opinions in the German church of that period. On the similar controversy which existed in the French protestant church see note above, p. 113. This is only one instance among many of the close analogy which exists in the development of thought between the reformed churches in different lands.

662 These are the chief influences which the German writers enumerate. See Tholuck ii. § 2-5, Kahnis, _History of German Protest_. (transl. 1856) i. 1.

663 On Leibnitz and his system see Tennemann, _Geschichte_ xi. 93 seq.; Ritter’s _Christliche Phil._ viii. 47 seq.; Renouvier, _Phil. Mod._ (278-90); and especially Maine de Biran’s _Life of Leibnitz_ in the _Biographie Universelle_. Also Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, i. 220, and H. Rogers’s _Essays_ (Essay on Leibnitz,) reprinted from the _Edinburgh Review_, July 1846.

664 On these canons see Sir W. Hamilton’s _Lectures on Logic_, vol. i. lect. vi.; Mansel’s _Prolegomena_, ch. vi.; and Mills’s _Logic_, vol. ii. b. v. ch. iii. § 5.

665 Wolff, 1679-1754. Professor of Philosophy at Halle; in 1723 expelled; restored in 1741; Lange and Buddeus were his great opponents (see Hagenbach’s _Dogmengesch._ § 274). His philosophy consisted of an attempt to deduce _à priori_ a system of (1) cosmology, (2) psychology, (3) natural theology. The latter relates to God, His attributes in Himself and in creation. See some remarks by Mr. Mansel on his scheme (art. _Metaphysic. Encycl. Brit._, 8vo. ed. p. 603). On his philosophy see Ritter, _Christ. Phil._ vii. b. x. ch. i.; Tennemann’s _Manual_, § (363-5); Morell, i. 228; Rosenkrantz, _Gesch. der Kantischen Schule_, b. i. part iii. ch. i. His religious opinions are found in the _Theol. Nat._ 1736, and _Philos. Moralis_, 1750, and in his _Vernuenftige Gedanken von Gott_. 1747 (p. 604). See on them Henke, _Kirchengesch._ viii. § 3; Mangel’s _Bampton Lectures_, note 3. And on the effects of his philosophy, and the state of theology in Germany at the time of its influence, see Tholuck’s _Vermischte Schriften_, ii. § 2 and 1.

666 In 1723, in consequence of the petition from the pietist professors, Frederick I, deposed Wolff. See Kahnis (Engl. Transl.) p. 114.

667 In reference to the introduction of Wolff’s philosophy, the reference to Tholuck has been already given. See also Schröch’s _Gesch._ viii. 26; Lechler, 448; Amand Saintes’ _Critical History of Rationalism_, i. ch. ix.; Hagenbach’s _Dogmengesch._ § 274; Kahnis, p. 110. Kahnis (115) names Baumgarten, Canz, and Toellner, as Wolff’s pupils. Mosheim and the Walches were too exclusively literary to be affected by the new philosophy. Canz of Tübingen was the first to apply the system to doctrinal theology (1728). See Pusey, part i. 116.

668 Locke’s philosophy in a distorted form was introduced by the French philosophers who lived at the court of Frederick II.

669 On the introduction of English deism, see Tholuck, § 3. A few only of the deist writings were translated, (e.g. Tindal by Schmidt in 1741,) but very many of the replies; which proves how much attention they excited. See the list in Lechler, p. 447. Up to 1760 no fewer than 106 answers had been written to Tindal alone. Kortholt, in his work _De Tribus Impostoribus_, (viz. Herbert, Hobbes, Spinoza,) 1680, was the first to notice English deism. The appeal to reason in these replies had the same effect as that noticed in the philosophy of Wolff.

670 For Maupertuis see _Biographie Universelle_. The others have been named in the notes to Lect. V.

671 See Tholuck, § 4 and 5. He considers that the French literature, with the exception of Bayle, did not affect the Germans, on account of its shallowness; but doubtless it did so indirectly.

672 This division does not essentially differ from the threefold one adopted by Kahnis, into the illumination period, that of the renovation, and of the church renovating itself.

673 We place the limit at 1810, because it is the date of the foundation of the university of Berlin, which was the home of the reaction.

674 This date marks the spread of the Kantian philosophy, as will be shown below.

675 There were thus three chief phases within the church; the dogmatic at Leipsic, the critical at Göttingen, the pietistic eclecticism of Semler at Halle. If to this we add the pietism which still reigned at Tübingen, as seen in Pfaff, &c., we have the condition of the four universities which were at that time the chief centres of intellectual activity in Germany.

676 Lessing, along with Nicholai, conducted the _Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek_ from 1765.

677 On the purpose and nature of these institutions, which arose at Dessau about 1774, see Schlosser, i. 5, 3; ii. 3, 2; Kahnis, p. 47. On Basedow (1724-1790), see Rose on _Rationalism_, p. 66, note (second edition), and Schröch, viii. 52.

678 J. A. Ernesti (1707-1781), was author of _Inst. Interpret. Nov. Test._ 1761 (translated by bishop Terrot). His chief labours were the editions of several classical authors, among which the most valuable was Cicero. See Schlosser, ii. 187; Kahnis, 120; Pusey, 132; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. ii. The Rosenmüllers (the father, J. G. Rosenmüller, on the New Testament; the son, E. F. Rosenmüller the antiquarian on the Old,) manifest much the same spirit as Ernesti.

679 Joh. Dav. Michaelis (1716-1791). His chief works were, _Gruend-liche Erklaerung des Mosaischen Rechts_, and the _Einleitung in die Schrift, des Neuen Bundes_. The former handled the Hebrew legislation in a free spirit. The latter work was translated by bishop Marsh, and led to the controversy about the composition of the Gospels, to which allusion will be made in the notes of Lecture VII. See Kahnis, p. 121; Henke, viii. part ii. § 2. Jerusalem and Spalding manifest the same spirit as Michaelis.

680 Semler (1725-1791), Professor at Halle. His _Lebens-beschreibung_, published 1781, is the great source for studying his mental development and the history of his times. His works are numerous, consisting chiefly of Commentaries and Ecclesiastical History. He was one of the first to open up the study of the history of doctrine (_dogmengeschichte_). The works which exhibit his rationalism are chiefly the _Frei Untersuchen des Canons_, 1711; _Versuch einer freiern lehrart_, 1777; _Introduction to Baumgarten’s Dogmatik_; _Institutiones ad Doctrinam Christianam liberaliter docendam_, 1774. His character is discussed at length in Tholuck. § 6; Pusey, 138, &c.; Schlosser, ii. 187; Am. Saintes, b. ii. ch. ii. and iii. On the successors of the writers recently named, see Am. Saintes, b. ii, ch. iv.

681 In the work on the Canon named in the last note.

682 See the historic sketch of interpretation given in Planck’s _Introduction to Sacred Philology_, (English translation, 168-186). Interesting information is supplied in Credner’s article _Interpretation_ in Kitto’s _Biblical Encyclopædia_; J. J. Conybeare’s _Bampton Lecture_ for 1824 on the _Secondary Interpretation of Scripture_; Dr. S. Davidson’s _Sacred Hermeneutics_ (5-7); and an article in the _North British Review_ for August 1855 on the Alexandrian school.

683 These tendencies must be considered only to express the average. Thus the school of Antioch, of which Theodore of Mopsuestia is a type, leaned to the grammatical mode; (see some remarks on it in Neander’s _Church History_, vol. iv. _init._ Germ. ed.; vol. iii. _fin._ Engl. Tr.) In the middle ages the Franciscans showed an inclination to the mystical or allegorical; and the typical system of the Miracle Plays and of the Biblia Pauperum illustrates the allegorical spirit of those times.

684 The allegorical is seen in the school of Cocceius (1603-1669) in the Dutch church. The dogmatic has been alluded to above.

685 The system is called variously, in works of Hermeneutics, συγκατάβασις, condescensio, demissio, obsequium. It is developed in Semler’s _Prolegomena_ to some of St. Paul’s Epistles; in the _Vorbereitung zur Theol. Hermeneutik_, 1762; and in the _Apparatus ad lib. Nov. Text. interpr._ 1767. Tholuck quotes many instances of it in reference to him (ii. 61). Concerning the subject see Planck’s _Introduction to Sacred Philology_, (E. T.) 152-168; Wegscheider, _Inst. Theol._ § 25; Bretschneider, _Hist. Dogm. Auslegung des N. T._ 1806. A list of foreign works in reference to it is given at the end of the article _Accommodation_, in Kitto’s _Biblical Encyclopædia_. For a criticism on it see J. J. Conybeare’s Bampton Lecture for 1824. (Lect. VII.)

686 Mark x. 5.

687 E.g. by Kidder in his _Testimony of the Messias_, 1694; Nicholls, _Conference with a Theist_, 1733; and by Sykes, in several works from about 1720-40.

688 Dr. Pusey speaks (_Inquiry_, p. 139, n.) of two works by Semler on Demons, (of which I have seen only the second, 1779,) the first directed against the belief in the occurrence of possessions in the present day; the second to show that some of the Greek words descriptive of such phenomena in the New Testament need not necessarily imply superhuman agency.

689 Because it seemed to involve the notion of dissimulation on the part of the scripture writers, or even of the divine Being.

_ 690 Introd. ad Doctr. Christianam_, b. i. See Am. Saintes, p. 107.

691 E.g. The Wolfenbüttel Fragments. See Am. Saintes, p. 86, and Niemeyer’s _Letzte Aeusserungen ueber religioese Gegenstaende zwei Tage vor seinem Tode_, which he quotes.

692 His doctrinal views are seen in the _Lebens-beschreibung_, part ii. p. 220, &c.

693 Lessing (1729-1781). In 1754 he joined Nicholai and Mendelssohn in literary criticism; in 1757, in the _Bibliothek der Schönen Wissenschaften_; and in 1765, in the _Allgem. Deutsche Biblioth._ An account of his life and literary character may be seen in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_ (No. 50) for 1840, and an able criticism on him by C. Dollfus in the _Revue Germanique_ for 1860 (vol. ix.). Consult also Menzel’s _Deutsch. Litt._ iii. 291, &c.; Metcalfe’s work based on Vilmar, p. 400 seq. A separate study of his theological opinions was made by C. Schwartz in 1854, entitled _Lessing als Theolog_, especially c. iv.; see also Bartholmess, b. ii. ch. ii.

694 Published in 1766.

695 H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768). See Schlosser, ii. 26, &c., and the article _Reimarus_ in the Conversations Lexicon.

696 See Note 29 at the end of this volume.

697 The Fragments are here named according to the order of their original publication; not that in which they are usually printed, as, e.g. in the Berlin edition, 1835.

698 Compare Strauss’s description of them in his _Leben Jesu_, Introd. § 5. Lessing’s own object in their publication is expressed in the concluding pages of his edition of them.

699 The chief opposition arose from Göze, a pastor of Hamburg, who attacked Lessing even before the last and most obnoxious fragment was published; but both Semler and Jerusalem also wrote against him. See Boden’s _Lessing und Göze, Ein Beitrag zur Lit. und Kirchengesch. des 18 Jahrh._ 1862; also the references given at the end of Note 29 (p. 427); especially Hagenbach’s _Dogmengesch._ § 275, note.

700 See the note on p. 87.

_ 701 Die Erziehung des menschlichen Geschlechts_, lately partially translated into English. It conveyed the thoughts suggested by the perusal of some apologies for religion.

702 The theologians Steinbart and Teller represented a similar spirit.

703 On Edelmann, who died 1767, see Kahnis, p. 126; and on Bahrdt (1741-92), Id. pp. 136-145; and Schlosser, ii. 211. The life of Bahrdt is a sad subject for study. Kahnis (p. 125 seq.) enumerates other deists, some of them earlier than those whom we are now considering, e.g. Knuzen, Dippel (1673-1734).

704 See the reference above, p. 219.

705 The contrast of the English, French, and German periods of illuminism is well drawn out by Kuno Fischer (_Bacon_, ch. xi. 2, 3, and xiii. 3). I have been unable to discover positively whether the term in its first use meant merely _Renaissance_ (cfr. the Italian term _illuminati_), or whether it meant the philosophy which makes its appeal to common sense, being connected with the Cartesian principle, _wahr ist, was klar ist_. The former appears almost certain; but some of the German writers seem to favour the latter. On its nature, see Kahnis, p. 61-63.

706 A very interesting article on Weimar and its celebrities appeared in the _Westminster Review_ for April 1859. The illustration about the court of Ferrara, just below, is taken from it. Mr. G. H. Lewes, in his _Life of Goethe_, gives incidentally sketches of the intellectual and moral influence of the court of Weimar.

707 Alfonso d’Este reigned from 1505-34. He was the husband of Lucrezia Borgia.

708 i.e. from about 1790 to 1810.

709 Kant’s great work, _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, appeared in 1781, but was not known out of Königsberg until one of his disciples, Schulze in 1784, elucidated it in a separate work. The _Jenaische Litertur-Zeitung_ also favoured it. In 1786 Reinhold became Professor at Jena, and began to teach Kant’s system. See Schlosser, vol. ii. p. 182-4.

710 Herder did not adopt the new philosophy of Kant. His theological writings were rather earlier than 1790. They created a love for the literature of young nations, and for the Hebrew religion, in a literary rather than a spiritual point of view. On Herder’s religious influence, see Schlosser, ii. 278, &c.; and the article by Hagenbach in Herzog’s _Real. Encyclop._, also Hagenbach’s _Gesch. des 18 Jahrh._ § 4 and 5; and Quinet’s _Œuvres_, vol. ii.

711 Kant lived 1724-1804. On his philosophy see Chalybaus, _Hist. of Speculative Philosophy_ (translated 1854); Am. Saintes’ _Philos. de Kant_, 1844; Cousin, _Leçons de la Phil. de Kant_, 1843. A good account of it also is given in Morell’s _Hist. of Philosophy_, i. 233-63, in R. Vaughan’s (sen.) Essays, and in a Lecture by Professor Mansel on the _Philosophy of Kant_, 1860. See also the references in Tennemann’s _Manual_, § 387-94. In reference to its theological effects, see Am. Saintes’ _Critical History of Rationalism_, ii. 5 and 6; Bartholmess, b. V. and vi. The parts of Kant’s writings which are of special importance for ascertaining his theological views are, his work _Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen Vernunft_, 1793, and his criticism on natural theology in the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_, b. ii. div. 3. See Strauss, _Leben Jesu_, introd. § 7. Staüdlin, Ammon, and Tieftrunk, were Kantist theologians.

712 In the _Kritik der reinen Vernunft_ above named, which was so called because he strove to analyse the _pure_ reason, before it is defiled by contact with the world through experience.

713 The categories, the test of the existence of which is necessity and universality.

714 This appears in his _Kritik der practischen Vernunft_.

715 Illuminism is used as the translation of _Aufklaerungs-Zeit_.

716 The difference between Wolff and Kant is, that while the former sought a philosophy of religion _ontologically_, the latter sought it _psychologically_, by first ascertaining the functions of the mind in reference to religion.

717 Such as Schleiermacher.

718 Paulus, 1761-1851; Professor at Jena, and from 1811 at Heidelberg. Some of his works are named below.

719 K. G. Bretschneider, 1776-1848; General Superintendent at Gotha. A short autobiography was published after his death, which is translated in the _Bibliotheca Sacra_ for 1852-3. His best work is the _Handbuch der Dogmatik_, 1814, 1838. He was the writer of the _Probabilia_ concerning St. John’s Gospel, named in Lect. VII.

720 F. Reinhardt (1753-1812) of Saxony. His supernaturalism was perhaps rather ethical than biblical. (See Kahnis, 187, Am. Saintes, c. viii.) Storr (1746-1805) was Professor at Tübingen. The belief in the supernatural had never died out. A philosophical supernaturalism was seen in Flatt, Planck, Schröch and a truly biblical kind in Knapp. Along with Reinhardt ought perhaps to be reckoned Morus and Döderlein; at a little earlier period Seiler, and a little later Steudel: on this school see Am. Saintes, ch. iv.

721 i.e. _Rationalismus Vulgaris_. On Rationalism, see Note 21 (p. 413.) On this particular kind see Kahnis, p. 169. It is distinguished from naturalism chiefly by being connected with the church, and by the opinion that it is the very essence of Christianity. It was represented by Paulus in criticism, Wegscheider in dogma, and Röhr in preaching.

722 As Woolston, Bolingbroke, and Voltaire. Cfr. Strauss, _Leb. Jes._ Introd. § 5.

723 Eichhorn (1752-1827), one of the most learned men of his age. For illustrations see his _Einleitung_, § 435, and cfr. § 421. The instances cited in the text, from one of his works which the writer could not consult, are quoted from the _British Quarterly Review_, No. 26; cfr. also Strauss, _Leben Jesu_, § 6.

724 In his _Exeget. Handb. des Neuen Test_. The account will be found by referring to the respective narratives. See also his commentary on the miracle of the tribute money, and of the feeding the multitudes. See Kahnis, pp. (171-6). Eichhorn stopped short when he came to apply his principles to the New Testament. L. Bauer (_Hebr. Mythol._), Gabler, Vater, Bertholdt, Von Lengerke, and Von Böhlen, though some of them were affected by later influences, belonged in the main to this rationalist critical school.

725 The difference of legend and myth is now well known. “Myth is the creation of a fact out of an idea; legend the seeing an idea in a fact.” Strauss, _Leb. Jes. Einl._ § 10. The myth is purely the work of imagination, the legend has a nucleus of fact.

726 Henke, 1752-1809, Professor at Helmstädt, is said to have been the first who made use of the term “Bibliolatry” in the preface to his _Lineamenta Instit. Fidei Christianæ_. He probably however only brought it into use. (The writer remembers to have seen it occur somewhere earlier, but cannot recall the reference.) He was a church historian of great learning, whose works have been frequently used for reference in Lect. V. Kahnis speaks with great respect (p. 177) of his earnestness. For Henke’s position as a church historian see a note in the Preface to these Lectures.

727 Concerning Bretschneider see a preceding note on p. 231. Bretschneider shows in his reply to Mr. Rose, and in his _Autobiography_, that he was much hurt at being classed with the rationalists. In truth the dogmatic tendency which we are here describing admits, as is shown more fully in Note 21, (p. 413), of a twofold subdivision. (1) “Rationalists” proper, who are pure Socinians, but hardly believe in the supernatural element of revelation: such were Wegscheider and Röhr; also Echermann and C. F. A. Fritsche may be reckoned with the same school (see Kahnis, 177 seq.; Am. Saintes, ch. vii.); and (2) “Rational Supernaturalists,” like Bretschneider, Schott of Jena (1780-1835), and Tzchirner of Leipsic (1778-1828), who believed in a supernatural revelation, but held to the supremacy of reason;—a position not very unlike Locke’s in the _Reasonableness of Christianity_. The tone of opinion changed so much in Germany after 1830, that Bretschneider, who in earlier life had been considered to lean towards orthodoxy as opposed to rationalism, appeared in later life, though really standing still, to side with the rationalists against the reaction which took place in favour of supernaturalism. A volume of sermons, translated by Baker in 1829, called _The German Pulpit_, contains, along with a few sermons of more spiritual tone, many sermons by preachers of this school. See on this school Am. Saintes, ch. viii. Mr. Rose also has collected many facts in reference to this part of the subject; also Staüdlin in his _Gesch. des Rat. und Supernat._, and P. A. Stapfer (_Arch. du Christianisme_, 1824), quoted by Rose (second edition).

728 J. F. Röhr (1777-1848), Superintendent at Weimar; noted as a preacher. His Historical Geography of Palestine has been translated.

729 Wegscheider (1771-1848); Professor at Halle. His chief work is _Inst. Theol. Chr. Dogmat._ 1813.

730 Hundeshagen calls Kant a second Moses, on account of the moral revolution which his teaching effected.

731 i.e. Kant, Jacobi, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel; on whom see Morell, ii. ch. v. § 2, and Chalybaüs, _History of Speculative Philosophy_.

732 J. G. Fichte (1762-1814); Professor at Jena; deprived for the supposed atheistic tendency of his philosophy (1799); afterwards Professor at Berlin. His great work is his _Wissenschafts-lehre_, 1794. He was the author of the celebrated patriotic addresses to the German people. The educational institutions of Pestalozzi were founded on Fichte’s philosophy, as Basedow’s on Rousseau. See Kalnis, p. 216.

733 Jacobi (1743-1819); President of the academy of sciences at Munich.

734 On Fichte see Chalybaüs, ch, vi. and vii.; Tennemann, Manual § 400-5; Morell, ii. p. 89-122; Lewes, _History of Philosophy_; Mansel’s art. _on Metaphysics_ in _Encycl. Britan._ p. 607. On Jacobi see Chalybaüs, ch. iii.; Tennemann, § 415; Morell, ii. 402; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. xiii.

735 This atheistic corollary is not deducible from Berkeley’s system, and was not designed by Fichte.

736 See Chalybaüs, ch. viii.; and Morell, ii. 118.

737 Schelling (1774-1854), Professor at Munich and Berlin. See Chalybaüs, ch. ix-xii.; Tennemann, § 406-11; Morell, ii. 122-161; Bartholmess, _Hist. Crit. des Doctr. Relig._ b. ix.

738 1770-1831. See Lect. VII.

739 See some remarks on this point in Mr. Mansel’s _Lecture on the Philosophy of Kant_.

740 Lect. VII.

741 The Romantic school included L. F. Stolberg, the Schlegels, Tieck, Novalis (Hardenberg), Fouqué. See Kahnis, p. 202; Morell, ii. 421; Vilmar. (English translation), p. 500 seq.; Carlyle’s _Essay on Novalis_ (Misc. Works, vol. ii.); and Bartholmess, ii. b. xi.

742 Herder, 1744-1803. See a previous note. His most interesting works were, the _Spirit of Hebrew Poetry_ (translated 1802), and the _Philosophy of History_ (translated 1800).

743 The influence of the movement extended into the Roman catholic church; and Hermes, Moehler, and Goerres, were affected by it. Hermes (1775-1831) was Professor at Bonn; and, endeavouring to find a philosophy for Romish doctrines, was opposed by his own church. Moehler, 1796-1838, author of the _Symbolik_, which revived the controversy with Protestantism, and was answered by the most learned Protestant theologians, has been pronounced (by Schaff) to be the ablest Romish theologian since Bellarmine and Bossuet. Goerres (1776-1848), a mystic writer in Bavaria. See Am. Saintes, c. xx.; and on Goerres see Quinet, _Œuvr._ vi. ch. vii.

744 See Hundeshagen, _Der Deutsch Prot._ § 12; Kahnis, p. 223.

745 This patriotism still lives in the poetry of Koerner.

746 This allusion is used by Kahnis (p. 220). He also (p. 221) refers the great outburst of historic study which followed, to the historic sense then awakened.

747 Harms (1778-1855). See Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. ix; Kahnis, p. 223 seq., where some of Harms’s Theses are given. They are founded on the doctrinal spirit of the sixteenth century, and are full of force and humour. Some of them are directed against rationalism; others are the asseveration of high Lutheran tenets. The following are specimens: No. 3. “With the idea of a progressive reformation, in the manner in which it is at present understood, Lutheranism will be reformed back into heathenism.” No. 21. “In the sixteenth century the pardon of sins cost money after all; in the nineteenth it may be had without money, for people help themselves to it.” See Pelt in Herzog’s _Real. Encyclop._ sub _voc._

748 On this second period, see Schwarz’s _Geschichte der Neuesten Theologie_, b. i.; and for brief notices of the whole of the German movement, see Hagenbach’s _Dogmengeschichte_ (period 5).

749 It has been more recently, for this reason, called the Mediation-Theology (_Vermittellungs-Theologie_).

750 Schleiermacher (1768-1834). His _Leben in Briefen_ (1858) has been recently translated. His philosophical and religious stand-point is well discussed, and some portions of his works analysed, in the Rev. R. A. Vaughan’s _Essays and Remains_ (reprinted from the _British Quarterly Review_, No. 18). A brief explanation of his philosophy is seen in Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, ii. 433, and Julius Scheller’s _Vorlesungen über Schleiermacher_, 1844. His religious views are criticised, with extracts, in Amand Saintes, part ii. ch. xiv-xvi; Kahnis, 204 seq.; Lücke, _Stud. und Krit._ 1834, H. 4. The facts of his life are given in the _Westm. Rev._ for July, 1861.

751 He joined F. Schlegel in the plan of translation, and continued it after Schlegel had retired from it. He did not however complete the whole of Plato. The parts finished were published at intervals from 1804-27. The introductions to the dialogues are valuable.

752 J. H. Jung Stilling (1740-1817), a distinguished oculist in Westphalia, who employed himself in acts of religious usefulness. His works were published in 1835. His Autobiography, written by desire of Goethe, has been translated. See an article on him in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_; vol. xxi.

753 Oberlin (1740-1826), the interesting pastor of the Vosges mountains, who united efforts for civilization with piety, and the temporal improvement of his people with the spiritual. His memoir has been written in English. To the same class of saintly men about the end of the last century belonged Hamann, Lavater, and Claudius. See Kahnis, p. 80 seq.

754 Mr. R. A. Vaughan, in the Essay above cited, compares Schleiermacher with Hugo St. Victor (on whom see Ritter, _Chr. Phil._ viii. 9. 2). The analogy with Origen is close. Speaking technically, the difference would be, that the Neo-Platonic school, to which Origen belonged, was rather one of “Objective Idealism” like Schelling; Schleiermacher’s of “Subjective Idealism” like Fichte.

755 The Rationalist and Socinian element was taught by Wegscheider.

756 In 1802.

757 Halle was taken by the French in 1806; the university of Berlin was founded in 1810.

758 He died in 1834.

759 See note 31 (p. 428).

760 Neander’s witness to the effect produced by them is quoted in Kahnis, p. 208.

761 Cfr. _Glaubenslehre_, § 3-6.

762 Selbst bewuszt-seyn.

763 Schleiermacher’s views are rarely put with sharpness of form; and as they varied in the manner shown in Note 31, it is hardly possible to lay down a fixed account of his system. The following remarks are rather the spirit of his Glaubenslehre than an analysis of it. His psychological views are seen in § 1-4 of that treatise (ed. 1842); but the _Reden_, pp. 58, 59, and the introduction by his pupil Schweizer to the _Entwurf eines systems der sittenlehre_, 1835, besides his posthumous philosophical works, ought also to be consulted. His psychological views are nearly reproduced in Morell’s _Philosophy of Religion_, ch. iii.

764 § 7-10; and also § 11-14.

765 § 129-131.

766 His views on sin are given § 65-85; and on the work of Christ, § 100-105.

767 § 68.

768 § 104.

769 The mode of reconciliation is treated in § 106-112, and indirectly in the _Weihnachtsfeier_. Mr. Vaughan compares it with Osiander’s view in the sixteenth century.

770 His views may be seen in § 50-56, especially § 54. His system in earlier life almost resembled pantheism, as in his praise of Spinoza. See Reden, p. 471.

771 § 170-172.

772 The person of Christ is discussed § 93-99. Vaughan compares the view with that of Justin Martyr. See also Strauss’s _Leben Jesu_, § 148.

773 § 121-125.

774 See Note 24 (p. 421).

775 His critical is much less important than his philosophical position. The same spirit of seriousness marks his writings in this department. Two of his chief critical works are, his _Ueber den sogenannten ersten Brief des Paulus an den Timotheus_, 1807, and _Ueber die Schriften des Lukes, ein Kritischer Versuch_, 1817, translated into English 1825. The reasons given for his appreciation of the Gospel of St. John in the _Weihnachtsfeier_, also in his posthumous work, _Hermeneutik und Kritik_, 1838, and his _Einleitung ins Neue Test._ 1845, ought also to be taken into account in estimating his exegetical views.

776 The above remarks on Schleiermacher will perhaps be considered severe by those who know his works, and will be regarded as putting the worst face on his system. The criticism however of the late Mr. Vaughan, who deeply appreciated Schleiermacher, and had devoted much patient study to his works, and who viewed him from the stand-point of English orthodoxy, coincides with the above estimate of him. A criticism on Schleiermacher from Bretschneider’s point of view may be seen in his _Dogmatik_, i. p. 93-115.

777 Especially at Bonn, which was founded in 1818.

778 The following theologians were influenced chiefly by the spirit of Schleiermacher: Tholuck, professor at Halle, author of various well-known works, (see the expression of his views in the tract, the _Guido and Julius, or true Consecration of the Doubter_, in reply to De Wette’s _Theodor_); Twesten, successor of Schleiermacher at Berlin, author of the well-known _Dogmatik_; H. Olshausen, the commentator; Nitzch, author of the _Handbook of Doctrine_ (translated); Julius Müller, writer of the able work on the _Nature of Sin_; Ullmann, editor of the _Studien und Kritiken_, the organ of the party. Also Sach, Stier, Tittmann, Umbreit, Ebrart, Hagenbach, Baumgarten-Crusius, Hundeshagen, Bleek, Lücke, Lange, belong to the same party; and Gieseler also in the main. Their doctrine is called the _Deutsche Theologie_. Bunsen must also perhaps be classed with them, though much freer and less biblical than the others. The writings of the late archdeacon Hare are perhaps no inapt English parallel to the tone of these teachers.

779 More especially Moehler, named above (p. 239, note), was influenced. The modern Catholic theologians are to be treated in the forthcoming (3rd) edition of C. Schwarz’s _Gesch. der Neuesten Theologie_.

780 For Neander’s life and character as a theologian and church historian, see the interesting particulars gathered in the _British Quarterly Review_, No. 24, for Nov. 1850, and in the _Bibliotheca Sacra_, vol. viii. Neander (1789-1850) was a Jew by birth. About 1805 he embraced Christianity (his life at this period is seen in his letters to Chamisso); studied at Halle under Schleiermacher 1806; at Göttingen under Planck; was made Professor at Berlin 1812; author of various early monographs; of the _Church History_, 1825; _History of the Planting of the Church_, 1832; _Life of Christ_, 1837. His opinions may be learned from the Preface to the third edition of his Life of Christ, and the Preface to his Church History. On his position as a church historian, see Hagenbach in _Studien und Kritiken_ for 1851.

781 His views on sin and redemption are chiefly to be gathered from criticisms on the Pauline doctrine in the _History of the Planting of the Church_ (vol. ii.); and on the Christian doctrine in vol. ii. of his Church History.

782 Introduction to the Life of Christ, § 6.

783 Preface to _Church History_ (first edition).

784 On Fries’ philosophy see Morell, ii. 418; Tennemann’s _Manual_, § 122. Accepting Kant’s categories, he held the existence of an inward faith-principle, which gives an insight into the real nature of things; but only as subjective truths, and as tests of truth. The church historian Hase (see Kahnis, p. 236) is moulded by this philosophy.

785 Lect. II. p. 61. Similar discussions have arisen with regard to the integrity and purpose of the books of Job, Zechariah, and Isaiah. Particulars of these literary questions will be found in Hengstenberg’s articles _Job_ and _Isaiah_ in Kitto’s _Bibl. Cycl._, and in Davidson’s _Introduction to the Old Testament_, in the chapters concerning these books. The classical student need hardly be reminded of the close analogy between these literary investigations in the Hebrew literature and those which were conducted by F. A. Wolf in respect to Homer, and by other scholars in reference to various classical authors.

786 Lect. VII.

787 Perhaps the clearest account of the controversy will be found in Michel Nicholas, _Etudes Critiques sur la Bible_, Essay i. 1862. See also Hengstenberg’s _Authentie des Pentateuches_ (Die Gottesnamen im Pentat. i. 181 seq.); Hävernick’s _Introd. to the Pentateuch_ (English translation), p. 56, &c.; Keil’s _Lehrbuch_, p. 82, &c.; and Dr. S. Davidson’s _Introduction to the Old Testament_ (1862), pp. 1-135.

_ 788 Conjectures sur les Memoires Originaux du livre de la Genèse_, 1753.

789 See Exodus vi. 3.

790 The older critics however think that the plural form relates to the plurality of persons in the divine Being.

791 Jehovah is translated in the English version, the LORD.

792 Independently of comparative mythology, which is still an hypothesis, there is evidence of the fact in the very derivations constantly offered of words in the Old Testament, as well as in the modern investigations concerning language. Ewald has shown in an interesting manner the means afforded by the Hebrew proper names for gaining a conception of Hebrew life (see his article on _Names_ in Kitto’s _Bibl. Encycl._); and a similar analysis has recently been applied to the Indo-Germanic languages in Pictet’s _Les Origines Indo-Européennes_, 1859.

793 It is well known that the book of Psalms is divided, in the Hebrew and the Septuagint, into five books; viz. Psalms i-xli; xlii-lxxii; lxxiii-lxxxix; xc-cvi; cvii-cl; each of them ending with a doxology, which is now inserted in the text of the psalm. In the first book the name _Elohim_ occurs 15 times, and _Jehovah_ 272 times; in the second, _Elohim_ 164 times, and _Jehovah_ 30 times. This computation is stated on the authority of Dr. Donaldson, _Christian Orthodoxy_.

794 There are two exceptions, viz. i. 21, xii. 9, which Hengstenberg considers to prove the rule. On this subject see Hengstenberg’s _Dissertation on Job_ in Kitto’s _Bibl. Cyclop._ ii. 122, now reprinted in a volume of his Miscellaneous Essays.

795 De Wette tries to exhibit traces in other books than Genesis, but unsuccessfully. It is in Genesis alone that the difference can be so clearly seen, that, even if the peculiar use had no theological meaning, which not even Hengstenberg denies, it must remain as a literary peculiarity. A list of the passages in Genesis which have been considered by these critics to represent the respective uses of the two names, is given in the learned and reverently written article _Genesis_, in Smith’s _Biblical Dictionary_, by Mr. J. J. S. Perowne.

796 The references to these various authors will be found in M. Nicholas, Essay i.

_ 797 Geschichte des Hebr. Volk._ i. 75 seq.

798 In writing the history of this dispute, as being here viewed only in its literary aspect, it will be seen that my object has been simply to select it, for the purpose of exhibiting the gradual increase of taste as well as of learning shown by the German critics in reference to questions of the “higher criticism.” Concerning the theological aspect of it we can all form an opinion, which would probably be in a great degree condemnatory; but concerning the literary, none but a few eminent Hebrew scholars. Some of the greatest of them, Gesenius, De Wette, Ewald, Hupfeld, Knobel, have given in their adherence to some form of the theory above described. The references to the works of Hengstenberg, Hävernick, and Keil, who have written on the other side, are given above. The rashness of some forms of criticism must not make us abandon a wholesome use of it; and a literary peculiarity such as that described, if it really exist, demands the reverent study of those who wish to learn the mind of the divine Spirit, as it was communicated to the ancient chosen people, or expressed in the written word. Compare McCaul’s Essay, _Aids to Faith_, p. 195.

799 Tennyson’s _In Memoriam_, § 95.

800 Matt. v. 6.

801 Rev. xix. 6

802 Lect. VI. p. 218.

803 Hegel, 1770-1831, Professor at Berlin after 1818. The rudiments of his system are in the _Phenomenology_, written about 1806; the _Logic_ gives the mature form of it about 1816; the _Encyclopædia_ its completion; the two former works being embodied in the latter. For the sources for the study of his system, &c. see Note 35 at the end of this book.

804 See p. 237.

805 Schleiermacher sought it in the consciousness of dependence, craving for an infinite object; and regarded Christianity as supplying the means for the perfect harmony of this principle with the opposing one of voluntary power. Hence, the solution of difficulties in religion would be sought in such a system by seeing the adaptation of the Christian scheme to human needs, not in the solution of the mysteries themselves.

806 Marheinecke (1780-1846), Professor of Theology at Berlin, the author of many works, chiefly on dogmatic theology, of which his _Symbolik_, 1810, and _Dogmatik_, 1827, are the most important. See Bretschneider’s explanation and criticism on his system (_Dogmatik_, i. 115-140). Perhaps the name of K. Daub (1765-1836), Professor at Heidelberg, ought also to be added. Originally Hegel’s teacher, he adopted his pupil’s system. See Kahnis’s remarks, p. 244 seq., and Amand Saintes, part ii. ch. xvii. It has been usual to classify the followers of Hegel under the analogy of political parties in foreign parliaments, thus:—in the extreme right, Heinrichs and Goeschel; in the right, Schaller, Erdmann, and Gabler; in the centre, Rosenkranz and Marheinecke; in the left centre, Vatke, Snellmann, and Michelet; in the left, Strauss, Bruno Bauer, and Feuerbach. See Morell, _Hist. of Philosophy_, ii. 199, 203. Several of these however are philosophers rather than theologians. A simpler classification of the Hegelian theologians is into three parties: the first, Daub and Marheinecke, and more recently Dorner; the second, Chr. Baur and the Tübingen school; the third, Strauss, B. Bauer, and Feuerbach.

807 See the article by Scherer in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Feb. 1861, p. 841; and on the influence of Hegel see Kahnis, p. 244 seq., and Am. Saintes, P. II. ch. 17; and Bartholmess, b. xii.

808 See Note 24 (p. 412).

_ 809 Leben Jesu_, 1835.

810 The account of this controversy may be seen in bishop Marsh’s _Dissertation_, 1807; and a continuation of the history subsequently to his work in the introduction to the _Translation of Schleiermacher’s Essay on St. Luke_, 1825 (by the present Bp. Thirlwall). The controversy is also treated with great learning and reverence by Dr. S. Davidson, _Introd. to New Test._ i. (373-425). Important references and quotations in regard to it are given in the Appendix to Tregelles’ edition of _Horne’s Introd._ 10th ed. vol. iv.; also see Amand Saintes, _Hist._ p. ii. 12; Renan’s _Etudes de l’Hist. Relig._ (Ess. 3); Hase’s _Leben Jesu_; Quinet’s review of Strauss (_Œuvres_, vol. iii). A series of studies on the subject is in course of publication in the _Revue Germ._ 1862, by Michel Nicholas.

811 Wetstein, with Mill, Calmet, and others, regarded St. Mark’s Gospel to be the epitome of St. Matthew’s. Griesbach and Dr. Townson thought that St. Luke as well as St. Mark had seen the one by St Matthew. A further list may be seen in Tregelles (as above), p. 642; and Davidson (as above).

812 Michaelis regarded the Greek translator of St. Matthew to have had access to the same Greek document as St. Mark and St. Luke. Semler and Lessing advocated a Hebrew or Syriac original. Eichhorn adopted the theory of an Aramaic original, which was adopted with slight alterations by bishop Marsh. (It was criticised by bishop Randolph, by Mr. Veysie, and in Falconer’s _Bampton Lectures_, 1810.) Schleiermacher regarded the Gospels to be pieced together out of separate documents. Gieseler’s hypothesis was put forward in 1818.

_ 813 Probabilia de Evangel. et Epist. Joannis origine et indole_, 1820. The theory suggested was, that it was written in the second century. It was well answered by Schott, Stein, and others. The controversy has been revived in more modern times; the Tübingen school denying the authorship to St. John, Ewald and others, asserting it. The subject is discussed in Davidson’s _Introduction to the New Testament_, i. 233-313. See also two articles in the _National Review_, No. 1, July 1855, and No. 9. July 1857.

814 On the spirit of Kant’s philosophy in this respect, see Strauss’s own remarks, _Leben Jesu_, Introd. § 7.

815 On the contrast of myth and legend there are some good remarks in Strauss, who quotes George’s _Mythus und Sage_ for the explanation; also in the _Westminster Review_ for April 1847 (p. 149), an article which, though written in favour of Strauss, gives an instructive account of the object and position of his work. The history of Strauss’s work, with its antecedents and consequents, mainly based on Schwarz (b. ii.) and on Scherer, but bearing marks of independent study, is given in Mr. F. C. Cook’s Essay on Ideology in the _Aids to Faith_, 1862. Theodore Parker has given an accurate analysis, and of course a defence, of Strauss (_Miscellaneous Writings_, p. 231).

816 The new view of the nature of myths is developed in Max Müller’s Essay on _Comparative Mythology, Oxford Essays_, 1856. See also Note 47 (p. 450).

817 Strauss, _Leben Jesu_, § 152. (ii. p. 713.)

818 § 1-16. It contains a history of the different explanations of sacred legends among the Greeks; the allegorical systems of the Hebrews (Philo,) and Christians (Origen); the system of the Deists; and the Wolfenbüttel Fragmentist; the naturalist mode of Eichhorn and Paulus, and the moral of Kant; lastly, the rise of the mythic, both in reference to the Old and New Testaments. Then the discussion of the possibility of myths in the Gospels, and a description of the evangelical mythus.

819 § 1-142.

820 § 17-43.

821 § 44-110.

822 § 111-142.

823 § 143-152. The author gives the dogmatic import of the life of Jesus, criticising the Christology of Orthodoxy, of Rationalism, of Schleiermacher, the Symbolic of Kant and De Wette, the Hegelian; and draws his own conclusions.

824 This idea is well brought out in Renan’s critique on Strauss. (_Etudes Relig._ Essai iii.)

825 One passage of this kind is quoted by Amand Saintes (p. 263) from Lücke in _Stud. und Krit._ vol. ii. p. 489.

826 Edgar Quinet (_Œuvres_, iii. 316, reprinted from _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Sept. 1838). His words are, “Un jeune homme plein de candeur, de douceur, de modestie, une âme presque mystique et comme attristée lu bruit qu’elle a causé.” The unaltered view which Strauss now takes of his own work, after the interval of twenty-five years, is given in the Vorrede to his _Gespräche von Hütten übersetzt und erlaütert_, 1860. It is quoted in the _National Review_, No. 23, art. 7.

827 The effect which it produced is described, with details of the answers written, in book ii. of the excellent little work of C. Schwarz already named, _Geschichte der Neuesten Theologie_, 1856. This part of the work is translated into French, with some useful notes, in the _Rev. Germ_, vol. ix. parts ii. and iii. See Note 38. The most useful replies are those of Neander and Dorner. Dr. Beard also published a valuable series of papers called _Voices of the Church_ (1845), containing translations of the Essay by Quinet above quoted, of one by A. Cocquerel (père), and others. Dr. Mill’s work on _The Application of Pantheistic Principles to the Gospels_ (1840) is intended also as a reply. The Life of Christ, contained in vol. i. of Dean Milman’s _History of Christianity_, also contains important remarks on Strauss’s scheme.

828 P. 241.

829 Scherer clearly brings out this relation of Strauss’s work, in § 5 of the article before quoted.

830 Accordingly it will be understood that the mention of “the old Tübingen school” of the last century denotes a Pietist school like that of Bengel or Pfaff; the mention of “the new Tübingen school” means one of ultra-rationalism.

831 The materials for the following sketch have been largely supplied by the work of Schwarz, and partly by an article before cited in the _Westminster Review_ for April 1857. Schwarz, after devoting the first chapter of book ii. to the Straussian contests, devotes the second and first three chapters of book iii. to the history of these four movements.

832 See Amand Saintes, book ii. ch. 18; Hase, § 450; Hundeshagen, _Der Deut. Prot._ § 17. Bruno Bauer, born 1809, was once Professor at Bonn, and teacher at Berlin. In his first manner he showed himself to be a disciple of Hegel, in works published from 1835 to 1839, such as a criticism on Strauss, and also on the Old Testament. From 1839 to 1842 he exhibited a destructive tendency directed against the sacred books; e.g. a work on the Prussian church and science, and a criticism on St. John’s Gospel. The persecution which he encountered stimulating his opposition, he showed in his next works (in 1842 and 1843) a spirit of defiance in his _Das Eklekte Christenthum_. From 1843 to 1849 he connected himself with questions of politics, and wrote largely on social science. Since that period he has again written, both in theology, criticisms of the Gospels and Epistles, and on politics. A list of his works and a sketch of his mental character may be found in Vapereau, _Dict. des Contemp._ 1858.

833 On this movement see Schwarz, b. iii. ch. i.; and on the German political socialism see the _North British Review_, No. 22, for Aug. 1848. Feuerbach (see Vapereau) was author of many works on the history of philosophy about 1833 to 1845. His chief works on religion were _Das Wesen des Christenthums_ (1851), and _Das Wesen der Religion_, 1845. The former work was translated in 1854, and contains a discussion (1) of the true or anthropological essence of religion; (2) of the false or theological. His collected works have been published. The _Hallische Jahrbücher_ was his organ. Criticisms on his school are given by Bartholmess (_Hist. Crit. des Doctr. de la Phil. Mod._ b. xiii. ch. ii.), and by E. Renan (_Etudes de l’Hist. Relig._ p. 405).

834 Ruge, once a teacher at Halle; went into voluntary exile at Paris, like Heine, in 1843; was mixed in the revolutionary schemes of 1848; and in 1850 became an exile in England. See Vapereau.

835 See above, note on p. 16. Gutskow and Mundt belonged to the same school. The former a dramatic poet, whose works against religion were about 1835, in the Prefaces to Letters of F. Schlegel, &c.; the latter, librarian at Berlin, was noted for his political connexion with the party of young Germany, rather than for any assault on religion. See Vapereau for an account of his works. The spirit of this school was tinged with bitterness against existing institutions.

836 Gaspard Schmidt (1806-1856) wrote in 1845, under the pseudonym of Max Stirner, _Der einzige und sein Eigenthum_. His later works were on political economy.

837 As schools of thought have been occasionally named in this narrative in connexion with universities, it may facilitate clearness to collect together the few hints which have been given concerning the subject. In the first period previous to 1790, we showed the theological tendencies of the four universities, Göttingen, Leipsic, Halle, and Tübingen: next, in the period after 1790, the state of Jena as the home of rationalism and of the Kantian philosophy. In our second period we pointed out the condition of Berlin as the seat of philosophical reaction under Schleiermacher and Hegel; and indirectly of the universities which represented the school of De Wette. In the third period, the school of Lutheran reaction has specially existed in Berlin, Leipsic, Erlangen, Rostock, and the Russian university of Dorpat; the school of “Mediation” chiefly at Berlin, Heidelberg, Halle, and Bonn; and the historico-critical at Tübingen. It may be useful to add, for the completion of the account, that the Tübingen school is now almost extinct in its original home; and that the two universities which at the present time represent the freest criticism are supposed to be Giessen and Jena. The latter is marked by the realistic school of philosophy described in Note 41. Hilgenfeld, the best representative of the Tübingen school, is Professor there; see Note 39, at the end of this volume.

838 E.g. Th. Mommsen.

839 Viz. the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, and the two to Corinth.

840 An explanation and criticism of some of these opinions are given in Davidson’s _Introduction to the New Testament_.

_ 841 Vermittellungs-Theologie_, and sometimes called _Deutsche Theologie_. See Schwarz, book iii. ch. ii. The organs of this party are the _Studien und Kritiken_ and the _Neue Evangel. Kirchenzeitung_.

842 Dorner, born in 1809; successively Professor in several universities: he has recently gone to Berlin. It is a matter of gratification that his great work, described in the text, is now in course of translation. The account of the successive steps through which it passed may be seen in the American _Bibliotheca Sacra_ for 1849. Also an account of it is given in Theodore Parker’s _Miscellaneous Works_, p. 287. Lange, author of the _Leben Jesu_, ought perhaps to be named along with the two in the text, as belonging to this school.

843 Perhaps these two theologians ought to be regarded apart from the average of the members of the Mediation school, as being of a grander type. They approach the subject from a higher stand-point, and also are more largely moulded by philosophy. On Rothe, see. Note 40 (p. 437).

844 In the _Einleitung_.

845 Id.

846 Vol. i. period i. ch. i.

847 Id. ch. ii. and iii.

848 Epoche, Abth. 2.

849 Vol. ii.

850 If the reader follows out the pedantic but useful mode before named, of arranging the actual schools of theology after the fashion of foreign assemblies, he will place in the right, the friends of the confessional theology; in the centre, those of the mediation theology; in the left, the old critical school of De Wette; and in the extreme left, the school of Tübingen. The first has its chief seat in Prussia, and the third probably in Thuringia and central Germany.

851 See Kahnis, p. 262, &c.; Am. Saintes, part ii. ch. x; Hase, § 453; Schwarz, book iii. ch. iii.

852 The dissenters from the union were not recognised legally by the state till 1845. (See the references given in the last note.) The principal of those who dissented were Kellner, Scheibel, and Huschke.

853 Hengstenberg, born in 1802; professor at Berlin. His works are well known. His work on Christology (1829), Introduction to the Pentateuch (1831), Commentary on the Psalms (1842), and several others, are translated.

854 Hävernick, Professor at Königsberg; died a few years since. His chief works are, a Commentary on Daniel (1838); and an Introduction to the Old Testament, which is translated.

855 The _Evangelische Kirchenzeitung_, the organ of his opinions, was Pietist till about 1838; after which it favoured the reaction; especially since the theological disputes of 1845 and the political revolution of 1848. See Hase, § 451; Schwarz, book i.

856 Stahl, who died in 1861, was eminent for piety as well as learning. His views may be learned from an address, _Ueber Christliche Toleranz_, 1855. The _Kreuz Zeitung_ is the journal which has supported this political reaction. The “Theology of the Confessions” (i.e. of Augsburg, &c.) is the name which is given to the movement by its friends. See Kahnis, p. 311 seq. Much interesting information in reference to it, though occasionally expressed in a rude manner, together with references to the German authors from which it is drawn, will be found in the _North British Review_, No. 47, Feb. 1856, and _British Quarterly Review_, No. 46, April 1856. The extracts there quoted are the authority for several of the statements here made. See also Schwarz, iii. 3; Hundeshagen, _Der Deutsche Protestantismus_, § 22.

857 In enumerating a few names among those that belong to this reactionary party, it is fair to state that some of them have not taken open part in the political aspects of it, and do not teach all that is described in the last few lines, which rather express the teaching of the more violent, and mark the tendencies to which the others only approximate. Some of the best known are, Harless, Delitzch, Keil, as biblical investigators; Rudelbach, Guericke, Schmid, Kurtz, and Kahnis, as historical; and Kliefoth in practical doctrine. (Kahnis has however lately adopted free views in criticism. See Colani’s _Nouvelle Revue de la Theologie_, July 1862.) Vilmar in Hesse Cassel, and Leo at Halle, belong to the most ultra section of the school. The universities where it predominates are named at p. 277. Those however who dissent from the views of the theologians here described ought not to forget to render a tribute to the reverent piety and high motives of many of them. They are men who know and love Christ, and are striving to lead men to love him.

858 It is a remarkable circumstance that the Oxford movement in the church of England was at first an anticatholic movement. The Catholic Emancipation Bill and the liberality of the parliament after the Reform Bill created an alarm, which led to the study of the non-juring divines and Anglo-catholics who had asserted the rights of the church, and to the reproduction of their opinions. Deeper causes were however at work; among which was the wish to find a more solid groundwork for church belief: but the political circumstances contributed the stimulus, though they were not truly the cause.

859 The names of Stilling and Oberlin have been already cited, as instances of devoted Christians who realised the truth and tried to spread it. A writer in the _Foreign Quarterly Review_, vol. xxv. p. 132, attests from personal experience his knowledge of the existence of earnest faith in parishes at the time when the universities were nurseries of doubt.

860 The missions existed previously, having been commenced by the Moravians in the last century, and carried on by several detached missionary associations in the present. On the recent improvement in Germany, see articles in the _North British Review_, No. 31 for Nov. 1851, and No. 40 for Feb. 1854.

_ 861 Die Innere Mission_, founded by Dr. Wichern.

862 The Kirchentag arose out of the Kirchenbund, and met first at Wittenberg, in the church which contains the bones of Luther and Melancthon, in 1848, while war and revolution were raging around.

863 In addition to those named in the text, mention ought to be made of the association of the “Friends of Light,” founded by Uhlich, which represents the individual principle like the Quakers, and has resulted in forming some free congregations in Königsberg and Magdeburg. (Consult _Die Deutsche Theologie_, p. 26; Hase’s _Church History_, § 456.) The movement was accused of rationalism by its opponents. Also the Gustavus Adolphus Association, begun in 1832 for the relief of all classes of protestants, was one of the first means of promoting Christian union, and indirectly produced the Kirchentag. An account of these two last associations may be found in a pamphlet (1849) by C. H. Cottrell, _Religious Movements of Germany in the Nineteenth Century_. Kahnis notices the great facts of this revival, but with a slight sneer (p. 276, &c.).

864 It is enough to mention Schleiermacher’s _Glausbenslehre_, and the works of Ewald; e.g. the prefaces to the poetical and prophetical books, and his work, the _Geschichte des Hebr. Volkes_.

865 In Lecture V. (p. 194.)

866 See Damiron, _Essai sur l’Histoire de la Philosophie en France au 19__me__ siècle_, 1828; and Nettement’s _Hist. de la Litt. Franc. sous la Restoration_, 1853, and _Hist. de la Litt. Franc. sous le Gouvernement de Juillet_, especially b. v, vi, vii, xi; and a review of Nettement in the _British Quarterly Review_, No. 37; also H. J. Rose’s _Christian Advocate’s Publication_ for 1832.

867 See Morell’s _Hist. of Philosophy_, i. 543-72, and Damiron, pp. (1-105).

868 Chateaubriand (1768-1848) wrote his _Génie du Christianisme_ in 1802. See Nettement, first work, quoted above, vol. i. b. x.; and, second work, vol. ii. p. 330; and the criticism by Villemain, _La Tribune Moderne_, ch. v.; and Sainte-Beuve’s _Portraits_, vol. x.

869 In his _Génie du Christianisme_.

870 The sources for understanding the systems of Socialism, besides the works of its founders, are Alfred Sudre’s _Histoire et Refutation du Communisme_, 1850, (especially ch. xvi-xx,) which obtained the Monthyou prize, and gives a history of communism in all ages; also Nettement, second work, ii. b. vii.; Morell’s _Hist. of Philosophy_, ch. vii. § 2; an article in the _Quarterly Review_, No. 90, July 1831; and in the _Westminster Review_, 1832; and two very valuable articles in the _North British Review_, No. 18, May 1848, and No. 20, Feb. 1849. Those who are aware how much Socialism has influenced French philosophy and literature, as well as politics, will see that it is at once the index of certain forms of religious thought and the cause of subsequent ones, and will pardon the space bestowed in the text upon these visionary schools.

871 1760-1825. See Morell, as above.

872 Fourier, 1768-1818. See the same sources for information, and Nettement’s second work, ii. 30. One of the chief Fourierists was Considérant.

873 It was a system in fact which has been tried in the mode of working the Cornish mines.

874 The St. Simonians separated about 1831 into two parties; one led by Bazard, showing a logical tendency, and including Leyroux; and the other led by Enfantin at Menilmontant, showing an emotional, among whose adherents was Michel Chevalier. The source of dispute was the emancipation of the working classes and of woman; Enfantin going beyond the other school in reference to these points. In 1832 the government interfered, and dispersed his supporters. On the relation of French journalism to the political movements, see two articles in the _British Quarterly Review_, vols. iii. and ix.

875 The novels of such writers as George Sand, Victor Hugo, &c. give expression to these aspirations for social improvement, and the disposition to attribute all evil to social disarrangement.

876 The systems of St. Simon and Fourier did not demand the abrogation of social inequality between man and man. Both would revolutionise the present state of things; but the one would replace it by a graduated scale of functionaries, the other by a more democratic and less federal system of corporations. But communism is founded on the idea of entire social equality as regards the material advantages of life. The old schemes of Babœuf and the first French revolution hardly existed in 1848, but were replaced by two forms of communism; the theoretic or “Icarian” of Cabet, and the practical of Louis Blanc. On these systems, with that of Proudhon, see the sources before described, especially Sudre and the _North British Review_, No. 20, where this new phase is well described. Also Hase’s _Church History_, § 493.

877 Comte’s chief work, the _Philosophie Positive_, has been well translated in an abridged form by Miss Martineau, 1853. In reference to him see Morell, _History of Philosophy_, i. 577, &c. and important criticisms on his system in the following reviews, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, by E. Saisset, 1850, vol. iii; _North British Review_, No. 30, Aug. 1851; No. 41, May 1854; _British Quarterly Review_, No. 38, April 1854. Comte’s later religious views are given in the _Catéchisme Positiviste_, 1852, and the _Culte Systématique de l’Humanité ou Calendrier Positiviste_ (1853).

878 Introduction, ch. i. (English translation.)

879 Id. ch. ii. and books i-v.

880 Book vi.

881 See note on the subject in Lecture VIII.

882 On Cousin, see Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, ii. 478 seq.

883 Mr. Morell, who was formerly a disciple of this school has brought out this thought in his work on the _Philosophy of Religion_, 1849, ch. vi.

884 During the reign of Louis Philippe an attack was made on the university of Paris by the Jesuits, on the ground that the views taught there were pantheistic. The same view was adopted in an article in _Fraser’s Magazine_, No. 170, Feb. 1844, which is valuable in giving quotations of passages which indicate the tendency of this philosophy, though the writer fails to appreciate the value of it as a reaction against the old Voltairism. The same charge is expressed in the sketch which H. L. C. Maret gives of the philosophy of the nineteenth century (in _Essai sur le Panthéisme_, 1845). See also Nettement’s second work, vol. i. book vi; Saisset, _Revue des Deux Mondes_, 1850, vol. iii; and Damiron’s _Essai_, pp. 105-197.

885 It has not been thought necessary to name Salvador the Jew, author of _Hist. des Institutions de Moses_, 1828; _Jésus Christ et sa Doctrine_, 1839; _Paris, Rome, et Jerusalem_. His writings were criticised by Mr. H. J. Rose’s _Christian Advocate’s Publication_, 1831, and have been lately reviewed by the Semitic scholar A. Franck, in a series of papers in the _Journal des Débats_, Jan. 24, Feb. 12, May 29, June 4 and 6, 1862; and by Renan in the _Etudes de l’Hist. Relig._ p. 189, &c. Salvador’s view is both Jewish and sceptical. Magnifying the Jewish system, he regards Christianity as an offshoot of it, imperfect in its kind; and looks to the spirit of Judaism as the future hope for the world. He professes a creed which is called by Franck _Infinitheism_. Whatever in his opposition to Christianity is not derived from the eclectic school is the result of his Jewish prejudices.

886 No mention has been made of several aggressive writers who publish in the French language, mostly in Belgium, works on infidelity resembling in tone those of the last century, such as Volney. There are two such works by P. Larroque, viz. a destructive one, _Examen Critique des Doctrines de la Religion Chrétienne_, first, as they are stated in the dogmas of the church, and secondly, in the scriptures; in which he makes a collection of difficulties in the Bible, book by book: and another work, constructive in tone, _Renovation Religieuse_, 1860. A work of similar intention by P. Rénand, _Christianisme et Paganisme, identité de leurs origines ou nouvelle symbolique_, 1861, is a kind of reproduction of Dupuis and Volney, modified by Feuerbach. In the preface to the last-named work, the writer refers to works by Eenen and Proudhon, similarly directed against Christianity.

887 The _Conférences_ originated with Frayssinous in a kind of public catechising about 1802. Being changed into sermons in 1807, they were transferred from the Carmes to St. Sulpice, but closed by the government in 1809. They were resumed in 1815, and were transferred about 1830, through Ozanam’s intercession with the archbishop of Paris, De Quelen, to Nôtre Dame; where Lacordaire opened his course in 1836. He, Ravignan, and Felix, respectively made themselves distinguished. A. Pontmartin has pointed out the adaptation of each teacher to the phase of public thought. (_Père Félix_, 1861, pp. 26-32, quoted in the _Christian Remembrancer_, Jan. 1862). These particulars are partly taken from Nettement’s works above cited.

888 The church during the Bourbon restoration was more Gallican than Ultramontane. See Nettement’s first work, t. ii. book vii. For a survey of French literature during the present reign, see Reymond’s _Etudes du second Empire_.

889 This idea is well expressed in the passages quoted in Note 9.

890 One of the modern young French writers most distinguished for power of analysis, is H. Taine, who deserves mention in connexion with the tendency which is in a different manner represented by Renan. Taine’s literary character was sketched, but not with the praise which he deserves, in the _Westminster Review_, July 1861; and also with a special reference to his religious opinions in Scherer, _Mélanges_, ch. xi. He was supposed to be a positivist, but now declares himself to favour Spinoza.

891 E. Renan, born 1823. His chief works are, _Histoire Générale et Systèmes Comparés des Langues Sémitiques_, 1845; _De l’Origine du Langage_, 1849; _Averroes_, 1851; _Job_, 1859; _Cantique des Cantiques_, 1860; and Essays collected, viz. _Essais de Critique et de Morale_, 1859; and especially _Etudes de l’Histoire Religieuse_, 1859, which contains a remarkable preface on the office of modern criticism. A true criticism on the last two works may be seen in _Blackwood’s Magazine_, Nov. 1861, used in these remarks; and another by Scherer, _Mélanges de la Critique Religieuse_, ch. xv. He is now writing on _Les Origines du Christianisme_. See _Fraser’s Magazine_, October 1862.

892 This will be seen to be the enumeration of the essays in the _Etudes de l’Histoire Relig._ The essay on the future prospects of Christian churches alluded to is in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_ for Oct. 15, 1860, where Renan examines the prospects of the centralised system of papacy, of the national system of the English and Russian churches, and of the individual system of free churches; and argues that the tendency of society is to adopt the latter, both in freedom of creed and of constitution.

893 At the close of _La Chaire d’Hébreu_, 1862, he has however assumed a view of the world and of nature, less negative and more definite.

894 See the preface to _Etudes Relig._ especially pp. 14, 15. It is hoped that injustice is not done to M. Renan by these statements. Perhaps they interpret his thoughts more pointedly than he himself would do, and attribute to him as positive conclusions what rather are incipient tendencies. They are the result however of a careful study of his various works, and were written before his recent _Discours d’Ouverture; De la part des Peuples Sémitiques_, which seems to confirm them.

895 In Lect. V.

896 Some remarks will be found a few pages farther, in reference to the subjective spirit and stronger consciousness of the ethical element in human nature, which are evinced in the literature of the present century.

897 Such as Herbert and Morgan.

898 On the influence of the Lake school of poetry, see D. M. Moir’s _Sketches of the Poetical Literature of the past half century_, 1851, ch. i. and ii. The Lake school being a reaction against the materialist school, which almost degraded spirit to matter, traced a soul in nature, and was in danger of elevating matter to spirit. Other branches of art besides poetry exhibit a similar change of tone. This is remarkably manifest in the modern landscape art of England, and is developed incidentally in Mr. Ruskin’s work, _The Modern Painters_. We have already had occasion, in Lecture VI, to advert to the similarity in result of the Lake school of English poetry to the Romantic school of Germany. Both were spiritual schools; but the former strove to learn from the freshness of nature, the latter from the freshness of an earlier stage of civilization.

899 A very able analysis of the mental character of Wordsworth, to whom the words in the text allude, was given in the _National Review_, No. 7, Jan. 1857.

900 Two very valuable essays occur, on Bentham and Coleridge respectively, in Mr. J. S. Mill’s _Essays and Dissertations_, vol. i. (reprinted from the _Westminster Review_, Aug. 1838 and March 1840). See especially the comparison of these two philosophers at p. 395 seq.

901 This is shown in a very striking manner in the _National Review_, Oct. 1856, in which a comparison is instituted of the effects on the English mind of the three teachers, J. H. Newman, Coleridge, and Carlyle.

902 This is the arrangement adopted in Mr. Pearson’s work on Infidelity, named on p. 13, note.

903 Concerning Comte’s philosophy see the note on p. 295. The _Westminster Review_ is the periodical which at present embodies its spirit. The works of Mr. G. H. Lewes, his _History of Philosophy_, and his exposition of Comte (Bohn 1853), may be noticed as books in which the philosophical, and, to some extent, the theological spirit of positivism prevails. The mind of Mr. J. S. Mill has been largely influenced by this philosophy, to which his tastes for natural science disposed him; though the influence on him of the philosophy of his father, James Mill, and of Bentham, as well as his own originality of mind, prevents him from being a mere disciple of Comte. These writers however have almost abstained from touching directly on the subject of religion. The character of Positivism, as an intellectual tendency, has been sketched by Mr. Morell, in the _Lectures on the Philosophical tendencies of the Age_, 1848.

904 The view of religion as a worship of the ideal of humanity, in the form of practical ethics and social study, which is taken by the better class of Positivists, is stated at length in the _Westminster Review_ for April 1858, together with an explanation of the extravagant views of Comte, in the _Catéchisme Positiviste_, which has been translated by one who was formerly highly respected as an indefatigable teacher, in one of the public schools, and afterwards in one of the universities.

905 Secularism is the name adopted a few years ago by Mr. G. J. Holyoake. See _Christianity and Secularism; Report of the Public Discussion between the Rev. B. Grant and Mr. Holyoake_; also, _Modern Atheism, or the Pretensions of Secularism examined; a course of Four Lectures, delivered in the Athenæum, Bradford_, by the Rev. J. Gregory, &c. 1852; _Secular Tracts_, by the Rev. J. H. Hinton; _The Outcast and the Poor of London_, Whitehall Sermons, by the Rev. F. Meyrick, p. 91 seq. In its social aspect it is the form of naturalism which has been borrowed from Owen and Combe; in its religious, from Comte. The political tone of this system is expressed in a poem, _The Purgatory of Suicides; a Prison Rhyme, by Thomas Cooper the Chartist_, 1858; and the religious in _the Confessions of Joseph Barker, a Convert from Christianity_, 1858. Also in the tracts of Mr. Holyoake, e.g. _The Logic of Death_, written in 1849, during the cholera. These last two writers are the chief teachers of the system. Some small magazines are devoted to its propagation. A criticism on these tendencies among the working classes will be found, from the Unitarian point of view, in the _National Review_, No. 15, Jan. 1859, where this class of political and religious obstacles, encountered in dealing with the working classes, is contrasted with the mere animalism described in Miss Marsh’s _English Hearts and Hands_; and from a more sceptical point of view, in the _Westminster Review_ for Jan. 1862, where an extract is given (p. 83) concerning Holyoake’s view of Deity. The following terrible utterance, taken from his _Discussion with Townley_ (p. 68), will give an idea of his tone: “Science has shown us that we are under the dominion of general laws, and that there is no special Providence. Nature acts with fearful uniformity: stern as fate, absolute as tyranny, merciless as death; too vast to praise, too inexplicable to worship, too inexorable to propitiate; it has no ear for prayer, no heart for sympathy, no arm to save.”

906 The chief points against which the objections have been taken are, the scriptural account of the character of Christ, the doctrine of atonement, and the necessity of faith to salvation. See the Report of the discussion which is referred to at the commencement of the last note.

907 Mr. Buckle’s work on the History of Civilization is an instance to which these statements apply.

908 The difficulties alluded to are, those suggested by geology, concerning the narrative of creation, the deluge, and the date of the creation of man; or by physiology, concerning the longevity of the patriarchs; or by ethnology, concerning the unity of mankind.

909 T. Carlyle. The character of his writings and philosophy is explained and criticised in Morell’s _History of Philosophy_, ii. 249 seq.; and in an able manner in the _Westminster Review_, Oct. 1839; both which sources have been much used in the following brief account. The latter article would be considered probably to need a slight alteration, in consequence of the slight change of character in Carlyle’s more recent works.

910 Cfr. his _Life of Sterling_, 1850, pp. 126, 7.

911 It may be enough to refer to such a passage as _Past and Present_, pp. 305-9.

_ 912 Past and Present_, pp. 193, 4.

913 Id. pp. 271, 2.

914 Mr. Emerson: it ought to be noticed however that the following remarks are applicable mainly, if not wholly, to his earlier works; on which there is a criticism, similar to that cited in reference to Carlyle, in the _Westminster Review_, March 1840.

915 “I am nothing—I see all—the currents of the universal being circulate through me—I am part or particle of God.”—_Nature_, p. 13. These were the words which this author formerly used. The same tendency can probably be traced in the characters of Plato and Goethe in his _Representative Men_. See also the _Oration on the Christian Teacher_.

916 R. W. Mackay, whose two works are, _The Progress of the Intellect as exemplified in the Religious Development of the Greeks and Hebrews_, 2 vols. 1850, and _The Rise and Progress of Christianity_, 1854. (No. 7 of _Chapman’s Quarterly Series_.)

_ 917 Progress of Intellect_, vol. i. ch. ii. on “Mythical Geography and Cosmogony.”

918 Ch. iii.

919 Ch. iv.

920 Vol. ii. ch. v. § 3 and 9. He illustrates from natural processes; such as the decay of nature.

921 Ch. vi.

922 Ch. vii.

923 Ch. viii. The types of thought which he traces in it are, the conception of prophet as taught by Moses; the idea of a supernatural incarnation; the Davidic conception of a temporal sovereign; and the suffering Messiah of the book of Daniel.

924 Ch. ix. and x.

_ 925 Rise of Christianity_, parts i. and ii.

926 Part iii.

927 Part iv.

928 Parts v. and vii.

_ 929 The Creed of Christendom, its Foundation and Superstructure_, by W. Rathbone Greg. 1851. A review of it by Mr. Martineau may be seen in _Studies on Christianity_ (reprinted from the _Westminster Review_), and by Remusat in _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Jan. 1859.

930 Ch. i. and ii.

931 Ch. iii.

932 Ch. iv.

933 Ch. v.

934 Ch. vi.

935 Ch. vii.

936 Ch. viii-xii. He adopts the view of the new Tübingen school, in exaggerating the contrast between the description of the character and teaching of Christ in the “Synoptical” evangelists, and in the fourth Gospel.

937 Ch. xiii.

938 Ch. xiv.

939 Ch. xv.

940 Ch. xvi.

941 Ch. xvii. He quotes the beautiful lines of Wordsworth, (_Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, § 5,) “Heaven lies about us in our infancy,” &c. as illustrative of the instinctive feeling of man in reference to immortality.

942 Page 303.

943 Miss S. Hennell, whose chief writings are, _Christianity and Infidelity_, a prize essay, an exposition of the arguments on both sides, 1857; _The Sceptical Tendency of Butler’s Analogy_, 1859; _The Early Christian Anticipation of the End of the World_, 1860; _Thoughts in Aid of Faith, gathered chiefly from recent works in Theology and Philosophy_, 1860. Her views originally were the same as those of her brother, a deceased unitarian minister, author of a work on Theism (1852), in which the use of miracles as an evidence was depreciated. It is hoped that it will not be considered improper to have named a writer, whose sex might be expected to shelter her from remark; but her writings are too able to be unproductive of influence.

_ 944 Thoughts in Aid of Faith_, ch. i. This work was reviewed in the _Westminster Review_, July 1860, and the _North British Review_ for Nov. 1860.

945 Ch. ii.

946 E.g. ch. v.

947 Ch. vi. and vii. It is a result not unlike that of positivism, but reached from the ontological instead of the physical side.

948 Mr. Theodore Parker of Boston.

949 Mr. F. Newman. The wide spread of the works of these two writers, especially of the latter, is the reason why it is thought desirable to exhibit their views at some length. The pathos and eloquence which belong to their writings impart to them a fascination which makes it the more necessary that readers should be on their guard, by understanding the position which these authors hold in relation to faith and to unbelief.

950 The particulars are obtained from the account of Mr. Parker’s ministry, prefixed to his _Sermons on Theism_. He was at first a unitarian minister; but, changing from unitarianism into deism, he left that body, and became a preacher in Boston, until he was compelled to visit Europe on account of enfeebled health. He died at Florence, 1860. His doctrinal views may be learned from the _Discourse on Matters pertaining to Religion_, written in 1846, and the _Sermons on Theism, Atheism, and the Popular Theology_, 1853; and his critical and literary views, from the _Introduction to the Old Testament_, based on De Wette; and from his _Miscellaneous Writings_, 1848. A comparison of him with Strauss, which has been here used, was given in the _Westm. Rev._ for April 1847. His character and life have also been sketched in the _Nat. Rev._ Jan. 1860, and especially by A. Reville in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, Oct. 1861.

951 E. Renan. See p. 303.

952 In the _Discourse pertaining to Matters of Religion_, books ii, iii,