ii. 443, describes something similar as done by Carrera to

the assembly.

[XIII-11] Lopez was a Nicaraguan educated in Guat., an honorable man and an accomplished jurist; but owing to bad health, personal habits, and other causes, was unfit for the executive office.

[XIII-12] The assembly considered a bill granting him large tracts of land.

[XIII-13] The constitution to be framed was to be ratified by the first subsequent council of double the no. of representatives. The doc. had 12 articles. _Guat._, _Inf. Pavon_, 2-5; _Niles' Reg._, lxvi. 242.

[XIII-14] On the 14th of March, 1844. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 114-16.

[XIII-15] 'Consejo constituyente' it was first called; afterward it adopted the name of 'congreso constituyente.'

[XIII-16] Being appointed early in 1849 corregidor of Jutiapa; while on his way there he was murdered with others.

[XIII-17] They had counted on Carrera's aid, and he failed them, for which they again at their secret conferences reapplied to him the name _antropófago_.

[XIII-18] A number of persons were blindly persecuted, particularly Brigadier Monterrosa and his family. _Barrundia_, _Rev. de los Partidos_, in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 662.

[XIII-19] Duran's pledges went for nothing. Blood and extermination ended the drama of Feb. 1845. _Id._, 663-9; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 244-7.

[XIII-20] The most despotic captain-generals of the colonial period, without excepting the tyrant Bustamante, are not to be compared with these men. Barrundia, in trying to console the young men who bewailed the condition of the country, assured them that it was transitory, 'un régimen salvaje en pleno siglo XIX. no puede ser perpétuo en la América independiente. La luz nos viene por el Norte y por el Sur; solo el centro está en tinieblas, y esa noche lúgubre no puede ser eterna.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 9.

[XIII-21] Azmitia was an enlightened man, and thirsted for no one's blood; but his influence, outside of the foreign department, was small, and men, unheard and untried, were shot before his eyes, without his being able to prevent it. His friends claimed, however, that through him Guat. was spared many more acts of barbarity.

[XIII-22] It consisted of 222 articles, and was drawn up at Quezaltenango; it came to nothing. _Pineda de Mont_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 86.

[XIII-23] Cruz had risen with Carrera, but had a mild disposition, and was liberal-minded. He learned erelong that the people had nothing to expect from the aristocrats.

[XIII-24] Barrundia left an account of all the proceedings. One man only, José Gándara, had the courage to back his convictions and vote for the constitution.

[XIII-25] The plan had been to shoot him as he came out of the cathedral. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 248; _Iris' Españ._, Dec. 12, 1846.

[XIII-26] The arms to be those Cent. Am. used on the obverse side of her coin, but so arranged that the sun and volcanoes should be in the centre of a shield, with the inscription, Guatemala en Centro América, 15 de Setiembre de 1821, having in the quiver an olive crown.

[XIII-27] A shield divided transversely into two quarters; the upper one on an open field azure with vertical bars argent; and the lower with three volcanoes on a light sky-blue field. Over the shield was a sun, and on each side of it two flags with the national colors displayed, and the extremities gathered downward, and knotted on the poles. On the right side of the shield is an oak bough, and on the left, one of laurel. On a white waving ribbon is the legend in golden letters, Guatimalæ Respublica sub D. O. M. protectione.

[XIII-28] The man-of-war flag has the coat of arms on the yellow stripe. The mercantile flag does not show the coat of arms. The flag consists of seven stripes; the uppermost and lowermost, or be it the 1st and 7th, blue; the 2d and 6th white; the 3d and 5th red; and the 4th, which is the centre one, yellow. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 55-8; _Dublan_ and _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, vi. 119-20; _Mex._, _Col. Ley. Ord._, 1850-1; i. 388-9; _Mex._, _Leg._, 1851, 307-9. New national flag decreed Aug. 17, 1871. _Guat._, _Recop. Leges. Gob. Democ._, i. 9.

[XIII-29] With France, March 8, 1848, and one for the settlement of French claims, Aug. 18, 1854; Costa R., March 10, 1848; G. Britain, Feb. 20, 1849; U. S., March 20, 1849; Belgium, Apr. 1849; Mex., Nov. 1850; the pope, Oct. 7, 1852; Peru, 1857; and others in later times.

[XIII-30] _Crosby's Events in Cal._, MS., 103. It tried to avoid entanglements in the questions then pending between Spain and Peru. The time came, however, in 1875, when the govt was not afraid to make recognition of Cuba, then in the throes of revolution for independence from Spain as a nation.

[XIII-31] Full particulars on the foreign relations may be found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 303-81, 423-30; _Id._, _Gob. Dem._, i. 209-19; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 451-2; _Annals Brit. Legis._, 1866, 333; _Guat._, _Gac._, Feb. 21, March 7, May 3, 1850; July 29, 1853; Jan. 27, Apr. 7, 1854; _Comm. Rel. Flagg's Rept._, i. 792; _Derecho Intern. Mex._, 2d pt, 325-8; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1851, 10-11; _Dublan_ and _Lozano_, _Leg. Mex._, v. 755-7; _Nic. Corr. Ist._, May 1, June 1, Aug. 1, 1849; _Id._, _Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 25, 1854; Aug. 4, 1866; _Costa R._, _Gac._, Feb. 13, March 13, June 10, 1854; _Salv._, _Gac._, Jan. 13, 1854; _Crosby's Events in Cal._, MS., 90-5, 102-4; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 141-5; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 20, Sept. 9, 1875; _Guat._, _Mem. Rel._, 1882, 26-7, and annex 8; _La Estrella de Occid._, Dec. 2, 1864.

[XIII-32] Molina accepted this trust believing Minister Azmitia, with whom the committee would have to treat directly, was a liberal; but Azmitia was not such, nor would the aristocrats have permitted him to control the situation.

[XIII-33] Molina accepted, under the pressure of circumstances, a number of clauses opposed to his own opinions, thinking that a conservative constitution would be better than an unbridled dictatorship.

[XIII-34] Some of the measures being imprudently executed only increased the trouble. To make matters worse, the monopoly of aguardiente in the departments of Guat., Sacatepequez, Escuintla, and Amatitlan, was given to a single company, in consideration of money advances to the treasury. Carrera was supposed to share in the profits.

[XIII-35] The Indians rose against the ladinos, who deprived them of their lands, and forced them to work at raising grain.

[XIII-36] 'La tranquilidad continúa inalterable.' _Guat._, _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 14, 1847. The archbishop was asked to instruct his priests to preach obedience to the authorities and laws; and with the view of winning the good-will of the Dominicans the govt restored them the large hacienda of Palencia, which had been theirs prior to 1829. The property had fallen into Carrera's hands by donation from the government, and now, in order to restore it to the friars, it was bought from him at his own price.

[XIII-37] Carrera's decrees of Jan. 12 and 22, 1848.

[XIII-38] Foreign relations, José Mariano Rodriguez; government, Luis Batres; treasury and war, José Nájera.

[XIII-39] His last words on that occasion were: 'Queda al público el sempiterno duo de la Revista y Gaceta, que daran solos la ley y seran la esclusiva ilustracion de Guatemala.' _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 444; _Salv._, _Gac._, Oct. 12, 1854. It must be borne in mind that those two organs were edited by Pavon and Milla for the express purpose of upholding the ideas of the middle ages.

[XIII-40] This affair was later settled, the assembly passing resolutions highly complimentary to France and her people, embodying also a desire to see the French flag again waving over the French consulate. A copy of the resolutions was transmitted to the consul. The flag waved again and was saluted with 21 guns. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 577; _Niles' Reg._, lxxiv. 142-3, 415-16; _Nic._, _Gac. Gob. Suprem._, Dec. 9, 1848; _El Heraldo_, Jan. 15, 1849.

[XIII-41] The members were to be at the capital on the 1st of the month. Decree of May 24, 1848. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 121-36.

[XIII-42] This was done by the advice of Batres, who told him the liberal party would soon commit suicide, and he might then return in triumph.

[XIII-43] A merchant or agent; he was sickly, and totally unfit for the position.

[XIII-44] The other two were his message on gen. affairs, and his greeting to the chamber on its installation. _Nic._, _Gac. Gob. Suprem._, Sept. 16, 1848; _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Sept. 9, 1876; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 470, 494-508.

[XIII-45] His proscription was decreed on the 13th of Oct., 1848. _Reg. Cent. Am._, Jan. 29, 1850. He went to Chiapa, and the Mexican govt was requested not to let him cross the frontier. _El Siglo_, Jan. 10, 1851.

[XIII-46] This was an unmerited slight to Vice-president Cruz, which he resented afterward.

[XIII-47] His ministers were Manuel J. Dardon of the govt; José M. Vidaurre of treasury and war, and Luis Molina of foreign relations.

[XIII-48] Francisco Carrillo, Serapio Cruz, Roberto Reyes, J. D. Nufio, and A. Perez.

[XIII-49] The chief being the convocation of a new constituent assembly; the recognition of Los Altos as independent, efforts to restore the Central Am. republic, and meantime Guat., Salv., and Los Altos, to be under one govt; the revolutionary army to hold the capital and other important points; Rafael and Sotero Carrera and their agents to make good with their property all damages caused by them to private persons; objectionable persons to be banished, and the Brit. govt to be asked to recall Consul Chatfield.

[XIII-50] Their only division was in open and covert serviles.

[XIII-51] A provisional govt was established at Quezaltenango on the 5th of Sept., 1848, consisting of a triumvirate; namely, Presbyter Fernando Antonio Dávila, Rafael de la Torre, and José Velasco, with Manuel J. Fuentes as secretary-gen. _Id._, 588-9; _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 22, 1848.

[XIII-52] The nobles, aided by the clergy, surrounded the brothers Cruz, and Luis Molina undertook to dissuade Nufio, who was a very ignorant man.

[XIII-53] The necessity of procuring money for the war, which could not be had except from partisans of the oligarchs, prompted it, as they made that act of ratification a sine quâ non before loosening their purse-strings.

[XIII-54] _Guat._, _Col. Ley._, i. 77-9; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 584-5. Gándara and Pineda de Mont, the other liberals trying to persuade themselves that the separation would be only temporary.

[XIII-55] By Col. M. Paredes. _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 22, 1848; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 50-3; _Nic._, _Gac. Gob. Suprem._, Nov. 18, 25, Dec. 9, 1848; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 606-8, 634-9.

[XIII-56] The attempt to gain over Nufio to the side of the govt proving successful, he had been appointed comandante general. On the other hand, Vice-president Vicente Cruz, smarting under the slight put upon him by the selection of Martinez for pres., joined his brother Serapio in his armed contest against the govt. _Id._, v. 555, 570-1, 588, 591.

[XIII-57] Escobar was an orator, a true republican, and well disposed to deal fairly by all men, regardless of political affiliations.

[XIII-58] His ministers were Revd Narciso Monterey, of govt; Basilio Porras, of relations; Mariano Galvez Irungaray, of treasury; and Manuel Jonama, an old retired officer of Morazan, of war.

[XIII-59] The two opposing parties had not yet fixed upon his successor.

[XIII-60] The Molinas and Arrivillagas, Vidaurre, Dardon, Barrundia, and Martinez, who were held responsible for the blood already spilled.

[XIII-61] A large number of official docs. connected with the last two administrations are given in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 593-601, 611, 622-44, 695-715.

[XIII-62] In forming his cabinet he slighted Luis Molina and his party. His ministers were José Mariano Rodriguez, Raymundo Arroyo, José M. Urruela, and Manuel Tejada. Arroyo was succeeded in Aug. by Pedro N. Arriaga, and Cerezo became min. of war.

[XIII-63] The principal clauses were: the revolutionary forces to be incorporated with the army of the republic; Vicente Cerna to become general-in-chief of the army; elections of deputies to be made in unrepresented districts; damages caused private parties by the army to be paid by the government.

[XIII-64] The aristocrats made a great display of regret at his death, but it was well known that they did not love him. In eliminating him from the revolution, they had in view to weaken the latter, but still wanted it to continue as a means for Carrera's return.

[XIII-65] Paredes made him believe the govt really intended to oppose Carrera. He also pledged the govt to protect Los Altos, and provide for the advancement of education and commerce in that region. Under such pledges Guzman placed himself and his Quezaltecs at the service of the govt and proceeded to the capital. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 769-71.

[XIII-66] Jan. 24th he wrote the govt from Ayuto that he was on his march to the capital, not to avenge, he said, the insults heaped upon him by Martinez' administration, or rake up by-gones, but to restore peace and justice. The assembly, before which his letter was laid, adopted no resolution.

[XIII-67] To raise a foreign loan of one million dollars; to procure troops from other friendly states; and if necessary to remove the capital. After granting such power the assembly adjourned, leaving in the city a 'comision permanente.'

[XIII-68] His govt said that aid afforded to Carrera was treason under the decree of Oct. 13, 1848. Ministers Arroyo and Tejada in a manifesto assured the people of the government's best efforts to defeat his projects. _Nic._, _Gac._, March 17, 1849. It is astonishing that an ignorant man like Paredes could so easily hoodwink Luis Molina and the rest. They soon opened their eyes to see the falseness of the man they had elevated from the command of a battalion to the chief magistracy, and who was on the point of consummating his treachery. Guzman saw through his plan, and escaped out of the city with a number of his Quezaltec officers and men, and succeeded in reaching Salvador. He first joined the mountaineers, and aided them to take Jutiapa, but on seeing the outrages of Leon Raymundo, he left them in disgust.

[XIII-69] Zavala was connected by blood and marriage with supporters of Carrera in the aristocratic clique.

[XIII-70] The first two decrees were of June 4th and 5th. His appointment to the chief command was on the 3d of Aug. _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, July 1, Sept. 1, 1849; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 779-80, 784-5.

[XIII-71] He had come disposed to do his duty, he said. The ayuntamiento of Guat. on the 10th of Aug. gave a banquet in honor of Carrera. The corregidor presided, having on his right Paredes, and on the left Carrera. _Guat._, _Gac._, Aug. 23, 1849.

[XIII-72] The comision permanente had represented the danger to the govt before Carrera entered the city, and its representations remaining unheeded; it again on the 27th of July called the attention of the minister of government demanding requisite protection for the representatives. See Andrés Dardon's letter in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 811-12.

[XIII-73] Barrundia had gone to Salv. Luis Molina was now defeated, and had to go away. He wished to visit San Salvador, but could not face Vasconcelos, and went to Ahuachapan. Ex-president Escobar, who, as president of the assembly, signed the proscription act of Oct. 13, 1848, died in exile, poor and miserable; the two subscribing secretaries were Manuel Irungaray, whom Carrera caused to be shot some time afterward, and Lorenzo Montúfar, the author and statesman.

[XIII-74] Vasconcelos, president of Salv., Dec. 4, 1850, announced to his people that forces of Guatemala were about to invade the department of Sonsonate, with the view of inciting the inhabitants to rebel against their government. Again, Jan. 10, 1851, he sets forth the motives actuating the oligarchs, who had Carrera for their tool, and British Consul Chatfield for their ally, which were to destroy Central American liberties, and to domineer over the other sections. _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vi. nos. 2 and 3.

[XIII-75] The objective point was the city of Guat., which the allies felt sure of capturing, to judge from the context of a letter from Dueñas to Vasconcelos of Jan. 20, 1851. _Cent. Am. Pamph._, iv. no. 17.

[XIII-76] Carrera's report from the field contained the following incredible result: a loss on the part of the confederates of 528 killed, 200 prisoners, 1,000 muskets, and 9,000 rounds of ammunition; while his casualties were only 20 killed and 42 wounded. That was probably one of his characteristic falsehoods. The Salvadoran minister called it 'desgracia sensible aunque pequeña.' But Carrera was promoted to be captain-general, and a memorial medal was struck in honor of his victory. _Frisch_, _Die Staaten_, 98; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 80-1; _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Gen._, 1821-5.

[XIII-77] Feb. 6th, martial law was proclaimed; 13th, all men capable of bearing arms were called into service; those failing to obey, or aiding the invaders, were declared traitors; 22d, the assembly decreed a forced loan of $20,000 monthly during the continuance of the war. _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, March 13, 1851; _Salv. Decreto_, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, iv. no. 16.

[XIII-78] He would return, however, if peaceful overtures were not made at once. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, March 1, 1851.

[XIII-79] The commissioners were Manuel F. Pavon for Guatemala, and Francisco Zaldívar for Salvador. It was a treaty of amity and commerce, calling also for extradition of army deserters and common criminals upon formal demand for them. Political refugees were to be made to live at a considerable distance from the frontier. Neither contracting party had to pay any pecuniary indemnity. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 431-3; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 10, 1853; Jan. 30, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 5, 1853.

[XIII-80] Efforts were made by the sister states to avert a war, and even after it broke out Salvador continued her efforts. Preliminaries of peace had been agreed upon, and negotiations entered into at Cojutepeque by the two belligerents, Salvador acting as mediator at the conferences; but this effort also failed because the commissioner at the last moment presented an ultimatum which neither Salvador nor Honduras deemed just. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 30, Nov. 15, 30, Dec. 15, 1852; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 13, Nov. 11, Dec. 5, 1853; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 18; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, July 8 to Nov. 11, 1853, passim; Jan. 27, Feb. 24, Sept. 22, 1854; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 20, 1853; Feb. 28, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 12, 1853; Jan. 7, 18, Feb. 24, March 4, 1854; _El Rol_, Oct. 13, 1854; Feb. 21, March 7, 1855; _Prelimin. de Paz_, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, i. no. 20; iv. no. 41. It seems from Guatemalan sources that the Hondurans invaded Guat., and were defeated at Atulapa July 12, 1853. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Aug. 5, 1853.

[XIII-81] The commissioners being Pedro de Aycinena, min. of foreign affairs of Guat., and Florencio Castillo for Hond. This treaty bound the contracting parties to surrender deserters from either army, and common criminals, when claimed. Political refugees were to be kept away from the frontier. No pecuniary indemnity was stipulated. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 433-6; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1856.

[XIII-82] Under this law the president was to be chosen for four years by a general assembly composed of the house of representatives, the archbishop, justices of the supreme court, and the members of the council of state. He might be reëlected. Before being placed in possession of the executive office, he was to be sworn by the archbishop who presided, for the occasion, over the house of representatives. The executive was clothed with almost absolute powers, being authorized, among other things, to issue, in accord with the council of state, decrees having the force of law, to raise loans, declare war, make peace, ratify treaties, etc. In the event of his death or permanent disability, the executive duties devolved temporarily on the ministers in their order of seniority; and in default of them, on the members of the council; until the house of representatives, to be forthwith summoned, could meet and make a choice in general assembly. During temporary absences of the president, the government devolved on the council of ministers. The council of state was formed of the cabinet ministers, eight members chosen by the congress, and such others as the executive might appoint. They held office for four years and might be reëlected. The following functionaries might also be called by the executive to take part in the deliberations and vote, namely: the archbishops, bishops sojourning in the capital, regente of the supreme court, president of the ecclesiastical chapter, rector of the university, prior of the consulado, president of the sociedad económica, and comandante general. The house of representatives consisted of 55 deputies elected for four years. The cabinet ministers had seats in the house, which was to open its session Nov. 25th, and close it Jan. 31st. The administration of justice was intrusted to a supreme and lower courts. The former consisted of a regente, six justices, and one fiscal or attorney-general, all chosen by the congress for four years, one half being renewed every two years, but all might be reëlected. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 79-87; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 181-2; _El Siglo_, June 18, 1852; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 483.

[XIII-83] Those of the judiciary, consulado, university, and sociedad económica. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 140-50.

[XIII-84] _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, 1851.

[XIII-85] This was the result of public meetings held in the departments by the garrisons, officials, and parish priests, at which it was made to appear that it was the will of the people that Carrera should be president for life, with the privilege of selecting his successor, and that other amendments should be made to the acta constitutiva, as permitted by its 15th art. It is understood that at the meeting of officials in the capital there was but one dissentient vote to the proposition. He had in a manifesto of June 22d expressed a weak objection to the proposed change, but it was evidently a preconcerted plan of the aristocrats and the military element. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, May 12 to Sept. 15, 1854, passim; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 87-90; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 1-29, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 27, 1854; March 17, 1855; _Carrera_, _Manifiesto_, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, v. no. 21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 514. Carrera before this received honors from foreign governments; he was a knight grand cross of the papal order of St Gregory the Great; the same of the Mexican order of Guadalupe; and knight commander of the Belgian order of Leopold. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 90.

[XIII-86] This amendment conferred still larger powers on the president, and made the term of the representatives, and of the councillors chosen by them, seven years instead of four.

[XIII-87] As he had no knowledge of the science of government, the direct management of public affairs was left to those supposed to possess it. Carrera did not govern; he merely represented the unity of government. 'Sin embargo que su voluntad prevalecia en todo.' _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 82. The reform in regard to the presidential tenure was personal, and exclusively in favor of Carrera. Thus at his death the constitutional provision was restored, the minister of relations, Pedro de Aycinena, assuming the reins, and at once summoning the legislative body, which was de facto and de jure a return to constitutional order. _Pineda de Mont_, _Nota_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 87.

[XIII-88] The govt decreed that their portraits should be placed in the hall of the council of state. Pavon's widow, Victoria Zebadúa, got a pension of $900 a year. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 638-9; iii. 351.

[XIII-89] The government, whose temporary chief was Pedro de Aycinena, as senior cabinet minister, decreed April 4th that the funeral should take place on the 17th at 9 A. M., the remains to be interred in the cathedral church. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 351-2; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 29, May 6-20, 1865.

[XIII-90] It has been asserted that even his ministers trembled for their lives when Carrera was in his cups. Though they knew he would commit outrages, they often induced him to visit the departments, in order to have a little peace themselves.

[XIV-1] They conclude offering to the assembly the 'swords which aided to triumph in Guat. and Los Altos over the tyrant Morazan.'

[XIV-2] Cañas, considering himself the only lawful executive, though set aside by the military on Sept. 20th, also made his resignation.

[XIV-3] The decree greatly displeased the people, and had no effect. But it revealed the plot of the aristocrats of Guat. They appointed commissioners to the diet of Cent. Am., who were to pretend that they favored a reformed union; but their real aim was an absolute separation. _Marure_, _Efem._, 54.

[XIV-4] Its support was sworn to on the 11th of April.

[XIV-5] In a proclamation he stated that the expelled senators and deputies were working to restore the order of affairs existing at the time of Morazan's departure. His suspicions were partially confirmed on Morazan appearing at La Union about the middle of Feb. 1842. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 63-4; _Marure_, _Efem._, 54-5; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 74-5.

[XIV-6] They promised to confine their action to only such objects as were of absolute necessity, namely, to rid the government of surrounding obstacles, make amendments or additions to the constitution, and pass such laws as would conduce to its development. After doing this they purposed to close their ordinary session, and await the election of the constitutional chief of the state. It would then be the proper time to deliberate upon calling a constituent assembly to review the constitution.

[XIV-7] Cañas had been chosen on the 1st of Feb., but afterward resigned it. His health was poor, and he died at the hacienda del Jocó on the 24th of Feb., 1844. The assembly honored his memory in a special decree. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 509.

[XIV-8] It was this govt that rejected Morazan's proposals when he appeared at La Union. While appreciating his patriotic purposes, it could not disregard its obligations toward the other states. Hence, together with Malespin, it set the other govts in motion against Morazan, whom Malespin called 'el enemigo comun.'

[XIV-9] Even private correspondence was forbidden. Postmasters had orders to deliver to governors of departments all letters received at their offices from Costa Rica.

[XIV-10] His ideas were commended as 'justas, sanas, salvadoras.' _Guat._, _Gac._, Oct. 18, 1842.

[XIV-11] Even Malespin had favored the act of the govt; for though uncultured, he was a Salvadoran; and now that Morazan was dead, he began to listen to the advice of his more enlightened fellow-citizens, and to understand the Machiavelism of Aycinena, Pavon, and their ally Chatfield.

[XIV-12] J. J. Aycinena repeatedly said that the revolt could not be quelled, and it were better to accede to the wishes of the volcaneños. This will explain the object of a doc. dated Oct. 18, 1843, and published at Comayagua at the govt printing-office under the signature of Manuel José Arce. The ex-president had taken advantage of an amnesty decree to return to Central America. He was now very old, but still ambitious of power. In that manifesto, addressed to the states of Cent. Am., he endeavors to demonstrate the necessity of their again uniting under one govt. He spoke of Guzman and Malespin trying to hold power for life; of intrigues to make the latter president, even if some of his opponents had to be shot; of abuses he had been subjected to; the war those men were planning, with the aid of Nic., against Guat. and Hond., on the false charge that Carrera intended to annex Salv. to Guat. He accused Malespin of atrocities, and yet praises Carrera, who placed Malespin in Salv. The full text of the manif. is in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 222-5.

[XIV-13] The min. of state, Agustin Morales, reminded him that freedom of the press was a palladium of liberty in England, adding his surprise that her consul should want such a precious boon to disappear from Salvador. Chatfield threatened to refer the subject to his govt, and was told to do so, not failing to accompany the answers he had received.

[XIV-14] The circulation of _El Amigo del Pueblo_ in Guat. was forbidden; but many numbers got out, and were read by artisans, students, officials. Chatfield often found it on his desk without knowing how it came there.

[XIV-15] Several Salvadorans were murdered, and it was proved that the murderers had come from Jutiapa. The govt of Guat. pretended to have had no agency in these acts.

[XIV-16] In later years he was bishop of Panamá, but much toned down.

[XIV-17] _El Amigo del Pueblo_ invited him to discuss public questions, but not from the pulpit, where he could not be answered. Vazquez did not heed it, and went on with his wrathful sermons.

[XIV-18] In his letter of Dec. 5th, he uses these words: 'Jorge de Viteri no será obispo de farsa, ni permanecerá jamás en un suelo, en que la potestad humana coarte las amplias facultades que le conceden, y de que le hacen responsable los sagrados cánones.' The correspondence, and his secretary's address to the people, are given in _Id._, 351-4, 373.

[XIV-19] The president blamed him for leaving the capital at a time of disturbance. He, on his part, demanded the government's return to S. Salv. to attend to the bishop's complaints. He accused the president, in a manifesto, of attempting to disturb the public peace.

[XIV-20] The ecclesiastical fueros were restored; the govt was authorized to allow monasteries established, and the bishop to demand the aid of the secular arm to enforce his orders in ecclesiastical affairs. This last act was, however, issued, as it appears, with much reluctance, judging from the number of restrictive clauses in it.

[XIV-21] Guzman had waged war against Malespin, not for his own aggrandizement, but to do away with arbitrary rule, and to restore the authority of the constitution. This being accomplished, he resolved to return to private life.

[XIV-22] A physician by profession, and a modest, honorable citizen, actuated by the purest motives; an excellent family man and friend; but unfortunately, as events showed, he was weak when firmness and resolution were demanded to uphold his position. Aguilar, in his later years, after losing his wife, was ordained as a priest.

[XIV-23] Eustaquio Cuéllar, J. M. San Martin, J. M. Zelaya, the clergyman, Isidro Menendez, and Indalecio Cordero.

[XIV-24] He hinted that he had power to annex the state to the archdiocese of Guat. The text of his letter is in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 54-5.

[XIV-25] The officer Anjelino, sent to reënforce the guard of the jail, was waylaid, and nearly murdered, and in that condition taken to the bishop's house, where the bishop abused him by word of mouth, and turned him over to the rabble, by whom he was stabbed, beaten, and kicked. He was, however, rescued by the priest M. Serrano, and taken back into the bishop's house. These facts were testified to by Anjelino, in the criminal prosecution of Viteri.

[XIV-26] _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 330; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 249-50; _Iris_, _Esp._, Oct. 3, 1846.

[XIV-27] It is given in full in _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 70-4.

[XIV-28] The decree was dated July 27, 1846, and referred to articles 210-13, 304-9.

[XIV-29] The Salvadoran govt published a decree against seditious persons from Hond. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 272-3. The authorities of Hond. solemnly promised that Viteri should not be allowed to reside near the Salv. frontier; but the promise went for nothing; Viteri and Malespin being aided from that state. They found material assistance in Nacaome, Tegucigalpa, Sensenti, and Guarita. Guardiola's note of Aug. 31, 1846, to the min.-gen. of Salv., in _Id._, v. 87, 254-7.

[XIV-30] His decree of Feb. 23, and pastoral of June 10, 1845.

[XIV-31] His execution left a bad impression in the public mind. Ignacio Malespin had been a friend of Morazan, served with him in 1840, and was one of the heroes of the capture of Guatemala as well as of the subsequent escape. He was gentle, kind, and sociable, and but for Viteri's influence never would have joined the revolution. He ought to have been spared. The women of San Salvador, both old and young, pleaded for a commutation of his sentence, but the govt was relentless.

[XIV-32] The head was for some time exposed in an iron cage, to the disgust of the community. It was finally delivered to the family for interment.

[XIV-33] He obtained 13,222 votes out of a total of 19,215. Being governor of San Vicente, where he was exceedingly popular, he could not, under the constitution, be a candidate in that department.

[XIV-34] Vasconcelos had been a friend of Morazan, and prominent in Guat. at the time the liberal party was divided into ministerialists and oppositionists.

[XIV-35] Chatfield's pressure against Hond. and Nic. inspired them with hopes. Vasconcelos was a partisan of Central American unification for various reasons, not the least of which was that of checking the preposterous claims of the Brit. agent. This explains the origin of future questions between Chatfield and Pavon on one side, and Vasconcelos on the other. In 1849, the latter was made to appear before the other states as an innate foe of Guat., whose debasement and destruction he strove for. The govt of Salv. gave explanations on its course denying the charges. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 801-8.

[XIV-36] Even Lindo of Hond., a militant in the reactionary ranks of Guat., though acknowledging the republic, did so with the proviso that Hond. left intact and in force Guatemala's engagements and duties toward other states as regarded the reëstablishment of a gen. govt. Guardiola's note of Aug. 10, 1847, to min. of relations of Guat., in _Id._, 260.

[XIV-37] He favored the restoration of the state of Los Altos, in order to divide the power of Guat., and counted on the coöperation of Guatemalan liberals; but the spirit of provincialism was strong with them, and a large portion opposed him.

[XIV-38] It was bitterly censured by the leading liberals of Salv., Nic., and Hond., and not a few of those of Guat., such as Pineda de Mont and Rivera Caberas.

[XIV-39] Gomez was a Salvadoran, educated abroad, and well versed in political economy and literature.

[XIV-40] He committed an error in supposing that Zaldaña would care more for him and his party than for Archbishop García Pelaez, who was influenced by Canon Larrazábal, the mouthpiece of Guatemalan aristocracy.

[XIV-41] The following is a brief synopsis of the constitution: No ecclesiastic or military man in active service could hold any civil office. Congress consisted of the house of representatives, chosen annually, and the senate, elected one half every second year; it met on the 1st of Jan. of each year, and its sessions were limited to 40 days. The president must not be under 32 years of age nor over 60; must have been a resident of the state for the five years preceding the election, and own property within the state worth at least $8,000. He had to receive an absolute majority of votes; otherwise congress should choose one of the two candidates having the largest number of votes. Term of office two years, without the privilege of two terms in succession.

[XIV-42] Félix Quiróz was chosen his substitute. _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Feb. 16, March 7, 1850; _Costa R._, _Gaceta Gob._, March 2, 1850. Art. 44 of the constitution, prohibiting reëlections, was revived by an act of Feb. 25, 1851. _Cent. Am. Pamph._, iv. no. 20.

[XIV-43] The minister of foreign affairs, in his annual report to the Salvador assembly, Jan. 29, 1850, speaking of Chatfield's course, says: 'Desatenciones, violencias, bloqueos; he aquí las relaciones y conducta que ha observado el Sr. cónsul inglés.' _Salv._, _Mem. Rev._, 1850, 5.

[XIV-44] The British had also seized, with Tiger Island belonging to Hond., several isles of Salvador in the gulf of Fonseca. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, May 17, 1850; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Dec. 1, 1849; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 30, 1849; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 31st cong. 2d sess., Sen. Doc., 26-99.

[XIV-45] Immediate fulfilment of the convention of Nov. 12, 1849; and a formal contradiction in a note to him of all accusations in official organs of the Salvador government against Great Britain and her officials.

[XIV-46] It offered to submit the questions at issue to the arbitration of the U. S. or any of their agents, or to accept some other device that might promise an impartial decision. The note making the offer, dated Aug. 17th, was sent to Chatfield by special courier, but he refused to receive it because it had not been transmitted through the hands of Idígoras, the Brit. consular agent at San Salvador. _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Sept. 5, 26, Nov. 7, 21, 1850; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 23, Sept. 6, 1850; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1850; _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vi. no. 7; _El Progreso_, Sept. 5, 1850.

[XIV-47] _Salv._, _Mem. Relaciones_, 1851. The blockade was removed at the friendly mediation of the American and Prussian consuls and others. _Nic._; _Cor. Ist._, March 20, 1851.

[XIV-48] Besides arrangements with sister states, the republic maintained treaties of friendship, commerce, and navigation with Belgium, the U. S., France, Great Britain, Spain, Germany, and nearly all the nations of America. A concordat on ecclesiastical affairs was concluded with the pope in 1862. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 313; _Cent. Am._, _Miscel. Doc._, 48; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 7, 1855; _El Rol_, Oct. 27, 1854; Feb. 9, 1855; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, March 21, 1850; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 17, 1836; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, March 8, Apr. 12, 1850; Aug. 5, 12, Nov. 25, 1853; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 24, 1875; _Id._, _Concordato_, 1-20; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guat._, 319-37; _Annals Brit. Legis._, 1866, 334; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1878, 7, 11, 45-54, 119; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 43d cong. 1st sess., H. Ex. Doc. 1, pt 1, 112, pt 2, 796, 821; _Id._, 48th cong. 1st sess., H. Ex. Doc. 1, pt 1, 236-7.

[XIV-49] Congress was installed Feb. 18th, and one of the first acts of the house of deputies was to pass an act of impeachment against Vasconcelos, and the senate constituted itself as a court to try him upon the charge of violation of the constitution. On the 22d of February, pleading not guilty, he demanded a trial. The result was against him. _Salv._, _Sen. y Cám. de Dip ... á sus comit._, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vi. no. 9; _Vasconcelos al Sen._, in _Id._, no. 13.

[XIV-50] During Vasconcelos' absence the office had been in charge of Senator Francisco Dueñas.

[XIV-51] Thus we see that Dueñas, whose wont it was while he was working for popularity to use energetic language on behalf of liberalism, now that he has reached the goal of his ambition, changes his tune and calls for the assistance of Carrera against Honduras. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 10, 1853.

[XIV-52] Public education was duly attended to, new codes and ordinances implanted to render more regular the national administration.

[XIV-53] This was the seventh time the capital was destroyed; the previous ones being in 1575, 1593, 1625, 1656, 1798, and 1839; none of these, however, were to be compared in violence with the one of 1854. It had been supposed at first that at least one fourth of the population had been buried under the ruins, but it was subsequently ascertained that the number of killed did not exceed one hundred, and of wounded fifty; among the latter were the bishop, Dueñas, and a daughter of Pres. San Martin. The wells and fountains were filled up or made dry. The cathedral and other churches were greatly damaged; the college of the Asuncion and the university building were ruined. Only a few dwelling-houses remained standing, and all were rendered uninhabitable. Money was raised by subscription for the benefit of the destitute, the government of Guat. sending a donation of $5,000. _Pineda de Mont_, _Nota_, in _Guat. Recop. Ley._, iii. 349-50; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 304-7, 350; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, May 26, 1854; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 26, 1875; _El Rol_, Dec. 1, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 28, May 19, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 10, July 29, 1854; _Packet Intelligencer_, June 17, 1854. The city and about 20 surrounding towns were destroyed March 19, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 8, 1873; _El Porvenir_, Apr. 6, May 11, 25, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 5, 1873.

[XIV-54] Campo on the 10th of May, 1857, warmly congratulated his fellow-citizens on the end of the campaign in Nic. when the news came of Walker's surrender. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 28, 1857.

[XIV-55] _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. 611; _La Nacion_, Apr. 14, 1857. The Salvador flag is required to be 4 varas in length, with horizontal stripes, five blue and four white, the uppermost and lowermost being blue; and a red union with 14 white stars, covering a space up and down equivalent to that occupied by the four upper stripes, and to the extent of 1⅝ varas. The flag-staff is 20 varas high, exhibiting the same arrangement of colors as the flag.

[XIV-56] On the 10th Barrios and a committee of officers had demanded of Campo that the troops should be ordered to Cojutepeque to receive thanks for their services, adding that a dissolution of the force implied distrust of the general. Campo disregarded this, and also a number of propositions from Barrios, reiterating his order for the disbandment.

[XIV-57] Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 75-6, assures us it was so, highly commending Dueñas. The president was supported by public opinion, and many of the officers that had taken part in the pronunciamiento afterward tendered him their services. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, June 18, 1857.

[XIV-58] 'No hizo otra cosa que rendir la espada ante la autoridad de Campo.' _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 2d pt, 214.

[XIV-59] One half of the deputies were to be renewed every two years. The assembly was to meet biennially. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 21, 1875.

[XIV-60] Convention concluded Aug. 9, 1859, between Guat. and Hond. to recognize the constitutional authority established in Salvador, and to repress any attempt to disturb it. Hond. declared herself disposed to keep the peace with Salv., and Guat. guaranteed reciprocity on the part of the latter. This convention was ratified by Carrera, Sept. 20, 1859, and by Barrios and his minister M. Irungaray, Sept. 30th, the same year. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 439-43.

[XIV-61] In his inaugural address, Feb. 1, 1860, he promised a conservative policy: 'Órden, progreso, libertad bien entendida.... La paz y el órden en el interior, la amistad con los estados vecinos.' _Barrios_, _Discurso_, 6-7. But, as it will be shown, his policy both in the interior and in regard to the other states of Cent. Am. met with disastrous results from the animosity it engendered. He had had himself made a captain-general, and was accused by his enemies of inordinate vanity, insincerity, fondness for unrestricted power, and lukewarm patriotism; and finally came to be looked upon as a disturber of the peace for his own aggrandizement. He accepted, without leave of the assembly, a decoration tendered him by the king of Sardinia. _Nic._, _Cap. Gen. Barrios_, 3-14; _Arriola_, _Rep. del Salv._, 2.

[XIV-62] May 13, 1862. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 19, 1862.

[XIV-63] Barrios was said to entertain the plan of partitioning Hond., which was not effected because of Carrera's disapproval; but the murder of Guardiola had afforded him an opportunity to harness Hond. to his car. He was likewise accused of scheming with the aid of Máximo Jerez to control Nic. _Barrios_, El por qué de la caida, 3-4; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 23, May 23, June 6, 1863. Barrios claimed that he was striving to secure the rights of Salvador, supporting at the same time the patriotic aims of the Nicaraguan liberals to establish a government in their country.

[XIV-64] The Capuchin friars had also been expelled.

[XIV-65] The course of the Salvadoran govt was not to the pope's liking. _Arriola_, _Rep. del Salv._, 2. However, the bishop, at papal suggestion, offered to return to his diocese, and was told there had never been any objection to his exercise of episcopal functions. _Barrios_, _Procl. á los Pueblos_, 1-8.

[XIV-66] A treaty of alliance was concluded with him by Samayoa and Dueñas, both Salvador refugees, acting for Guat.

[XIV-67] Notes of E. O. Crosby, U. S. minister, Feb. 2, 1863, and Geo. B. Mathew, Brit, minister, Feb. 8, 1863, to Pedro de Aycinena, minister of foreign affairs of Guat. _Barrios' Manifesto_, 44-52.

[XIV-68] 'Il ne vit dans cette dernière lutte qu'un duel d'homme à homme.' _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, i. 118-19.

[XIV-69] This was on the 24th of Feb., 1863. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 8, 1876; _Belly_, _A Trav. l'Am. Cent._, 119-20. _Barrios_, in his _Manifiesto_, 32, asserts that his own force was 4,000 men, and Carrera's 6,500.

[XIV-70] The army was in three divisions, two of which were under generals Zavala and Cruz.

[XIV-71] _Nic._, _Discurso ... prim. aniv._, 3. The Salvadoran contingent in the action was 1,117 men under General Eusebio Bracamonte; but Jerez had the chief command of the allied force. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, May 9, 16, 20, 23, June 6, Sept. 12, 1863; _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 11, 1863.

[XIV-72] June 16, 1863. _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 4, 1863.

[XIV-73] Sonsonate declared against Barrios June 29th, Cojutepeque July 27th, Zacatecoluca Aug. 14th.; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, Sept. 19, 1863; _Id._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 23, 1863. For map of Hond. and Salv., see _Squier's Cent. Am._

[XIV-74] It has been said that Tallien de Cabarrus, the French chargé, endeavored, after Carrera's defeat at Coatepeque, to persuade a number of French officers who were with Barrios to leave him, which they refused to do.

[XIV-75] Carrera's official report of July 4, 1863, in _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 17, 23, 1863; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, 1863.

[XIV-76] He established his headquarters in Coatepeque. Zavala marched on and occupied Santa Tecla, about 12 miles from San Salvador; Col Iraeta was stationed at Chalatenango; and Col Parker in Ilobasco. _Salv._, _Pronunc._, 1; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 8, 1863. Dueñas in a proclamation at Santa Ana, July 18th, promised that Carrera and his army, after fulfilling their mission, would return to Guat. leaving the Salvadorans to reorganize a friendly government, in lieu of the turbulent one of Barrios, with the assistance of Bishop Zaldaña. Barrios accused Dueñas, at Panamá Dec. 8, 1863, of having offered Carrera $100,000 for his assistance to get him into the presidential chair; to pay which a forced loan was decreed. He added that at one time Carrera had made war against the govt of Hond. for $30,000 that Guardiola offered him. _Barrios_, _El Presid. legít._, 3-4.

[XIV-77] Sept. 18, 1863, Zavala, commander of the besieging army, and Dueñas demanded a surrender, and submission to the provincial govt. Dueñas claimed to be recognized as president by Guat., Nic., and Hond. _Nic._, _Boletin del Pueb._, Oct. 3, 1863; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 17, 1863.

[XIV-78] Carrera not long after had M. Irungaray, minister of state, Yarzun, treasurer, Gen. Perez and his brother, and colonels Abelar and Luna shot, for the sole offence of having served in Barrios' administration.

[XIV-79] Carrera, Oct. 30th, called it a 'vergonzosa fuga.' _Carrera_, _Procl._, 1. Barrios was subsequently in 1865 allowed by Costa R. to reside in her territory against the remonstrances of the other Cent. Am. states. These suspended relations with her. Previous to this time he had resided in N. York, where he made many friends. Nic. reopened, through the mediation of the U. S. of Colombia, on the 31st of May, 1865, relations with Costa R., Barrios having departed. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 458-9; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 17, 1865; _Id._, _Col. Dec._, 1865, 8-9, 52-3.

[XIV-80] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 6, 14, 1863. The outrages committed by Carrera and his men are said to have been almost beyond description. One of his acts was to cause Morazan's grave to be broke open, and his ashes to be scattered to the winds. He insulted, plundered, and persecuted citizens, and carried off the Salvadoran artillery and trophies. He took with him to Guat. the prisoners of rank, and confined them many months in the castle of San Felipe situated on the deadly northern coast.

[XIV-81] Cabañas had gone off to Pan. in the steamer _Guatemala_. Particulars of the rebellion, and measures against its authors, in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 6, June 10, July 1, 1865.

[XIV-82] The vessel was sailing without the papers required by law, as was certified by the U. S. consul in Corinto. _Nic._, _Col. Acuerd. y Dec._, 61-2; _Id._, _Boletin del Pueb._, July 4, 1863.

[XIV-83] The Salv. minister solemnly accepted this condition, and the Nicaraguan govt then delivered Barrios on board the brig _Experimento_. _Nic._, _Convenio 14 de Julio_, 1-18; _Nic._, _Docs. Rel. á la recl._, 1-19; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 29, 1865.

[XV-1] He had been the sole candidate, obtaining 3,400 votes, which did not constitute a majority. Ferrera was of obscure parentage, and of inferior ability. He was educated by a reactionary priest named Garin, who, wishing him to become a musician of the parish church at Cantarranas, sent him to Tegucigalpa to take lessons on the violin; but the boy made no progress in that direction, and finally was made sacristan of Cantarranas, which position he held a long time, till the revolutionary movements drew him into military life, and he began upholding liberal principles. He figured afterward as vice-jefe, hating his chief, Joaquin Rivera, because he was a democrat. Now we see the sacristan of Cantarranas made president of the state. Francisco Güell, Francisco Zelaya, and Santiago Bueso were recognized as his substitutes in the order named. It was also decreed by the chamber that in the event of a vacancy, absolute or temporary, if the substitutes should be unable to assume the executive duties, the latter should devolve on the ministers of state. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 191-203. _Wells' Hond._, 494; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 449.

[XV-2] We are assured there were 44 te deum masses on that day.

[XV-3] He was credited with having, by his energy, wisdom, and disinterested patriotism, saved the state from civil war and anarchy.

[XV-4] The govt justly attributed the movement to Ex-jefe Rivera, Orellana, Álvarez, Castro, and others, believing the centre of it to be in Leon. It demanded satisfaction from Nic., but obtained none.

[XV-5] The whole was published in _El Descubridor_, official journal of Hond. Every one of Rivera's letters counselled discipline, moderation, and honorable dealing, so as to save the cause from obloquy.

[XV-6] Decree of Dec. 13, 1844.

[XV-7] I mentioned elsewhere the defeat this year at Nacaome of a Nicaraguan force by the garrison under Commandant Morales. The credit of this victory was given to Ferrera, who happened to be in the place at the time, by the ministers in charge of the executive office awarding him a gold medal with the inscription, 'A la heroicidad del General Ferrera en la batalla de Nacaome.' The supreme court had compared him with Alexander, Octavius, Augustus, and Napoleon. The soldiers of Hond. made him a Miltiades, Temistocles, and Demosthenes. And finally, the official journal pronounced him superior to Julius Cæsar. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 576-9.

[XV-8] Guardiola was a rough and cruel soldier.

[XV-9] His substitutes were Francisco Güell, Leonardo Romero, and Manuel Emigdio Vazquez.

[XV-10] Rivera, Landa, and Martinez were shot together.

[XV-11] Decrees of Feb. 4 and March 19, 1846.

[XV-12] This proceeding was communicated to the governor of Chiapa for the information of his government. The proclamations were published in Mexico, and probably elsewhere; but I am not aware that the American government took any action upon them. _Id._, 236-7; _Sun of Anáhuac_, Sept. 14, 1847; _El Arco Iris_, Sept. 22, Oct. 4, 17, 1847; _El Razonador_, Oct. 30, 1847; _El Sonorense_, Nov. 12, 1847.

[XV-13] It provided for only one chamber, and he wanted another for the aristocracy. It recognized freedom of conscience and religion, which to his mind was heresy.

[XV-14] It contained 114 articles; recognized the people as the source of power and sovereignty. All persons born in the states of Cent. Am. and residing in Hond. were given the privileges of full citizenship. Foreigners might become naturalized. The right of suffrage was given to citizens over 21 years of age who could read and write. The state recognized no other religion than the Roman catholic, excluding the public exercise of all others. The government, declared to be popular and representative, was vested in three powers, namely, legislative, executive, and judicial. The executive was placed in charge of a president for four years, and not eligible for two consecutive terms. He appointed his ministers, who had a seat in the legislature. There was a council of state provided, its members being one senator chosen by the gen. assembly, one justice of the supreme court, the minister of the interior, the treasurer, and two citizens elected by the gen. assembly. The assembly was formed of one chamber with 14 deputies, being two for each department, and the senate with 7 members. The judiciary consisted of the supreme and lower courts. The supreme court was divided into two sections, of three justices each, one to sit in Comayagua, and the other in Tegucigalpa. Each department had a jefe político at its head. _Hond._, _Constit. de 1848_, 1-21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 258-65.

[XV-15] The next term would begin on the 1st of Feb., 1852.

[XV-16] _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Aug. 1, 1849; _La Union_ (S. Salv.), June 15, 1849.

[XV-17] The following were the terms agreed upon: a general amnesty; the confederate diet was to meet at Nacaome, protected by 200 Salvadorans and as many Nicaraguans at the expense of Hond.; and the state assembly also to redress certain alleged grievances; and Jáuregui's conduct in Costa R. to be investigated. All of which was done. _Cent. Am._, _Miscel. Doc._, nos. 29-33, 36-43, 50-5; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, March 15, Apr. 4, 18, May 10, 1850; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 2, 1850; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Apr. 4, May 2, 16, 1850; _Guardiola_, _Carta Ofic._, March 30, 1850; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 182. The chambers on the 29th of June declared Lindo a benemérito de la patria, conferring on him the rank of general of division for life, from the expiration of his presidential term. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Aug. 31, 1850.

[XV-18] The Spaniards knew but little of this region, believing it unhealthy, and had hardly made any attempts themselves to cut wood there. Cancelada, _Tel. Mexicano_, 104-11, computed at nearly twenty-two million dollars the loss sustained by Spain to 1812, including in that sum the original cost, and the resulting profits which had accrued, mostly to the English.

[XV-19] They were likewise forbidden to cultivate sugar, coffee, or cacao, or to engage in manufactures; and they were not to supply arms or ammunition to the Indians dwelling on the frontiers of the Spanish possessions. _España e Ingl. Covenio_, July 14, 1786, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, no. 4, 1-7.

[XV-20] Certain acts of that body in 1817 and 1819, in consequence of measures adopted to punish crimes committed in Belize, declared that the crimes could not be punished under British laws, because that territory was not a portion of the United Kingdom. _Peniche_, _Hist. Rel. Esp. y Mex. con Ingl._, in _Ancona_, _Hist. Yuc._, iv. 223.

[XV-21] The treaty of 1826, with the annexed treaties and conventions of Spain with England and other nations having any bearing on the subject may be found in _Mex._, _Derecho Intern._, i. 437-524.

[XV-22] Villiers, Brit. min. in Madrid, asked the Sp. govt in 1835, and again in 1836, to cede to England any right of sovereignty she might have over Brit. Honduras. The request was not granted, but it implied that England in 1836 did not consider herself to possess the full sovereignty over Belize. Villarta, Mexican min. of foreign affairs, refers to Villiers' efforts in a note of March 23, 1878, to the Brit. govt. The latter, however, in 1836, claimed a larger extent of territory, including the whole coast as far south as the River Sarstoon, and as far inland as the meridian of Garbutt's Falls on the Belize River.

[XV-23] Details in _Bustamante_, _Hist. Iturbide_, 161; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 412-14; _Id._, _Cent. Am._, 582-4, 627-8; _Arrangoiz_, _Méj._, ii. 306; _Méx. Soc. Geog._, _Boletin_, 2d ep., iv. 698-710; _Annals Brit. Legis._, ii. 84; _Suarez_, _Informe_, 32-6; _U. S. Govt Doc._, For. Aff. (Mess, and Doc., pt 1, 65-6, pt iii. 360-1), Cong. 39, Sess. 1.; _Id._, _Foreign Rel._, i. 656-61, Cong. 43, Sess. 1.; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 21, 1878; _La Voz de Méj._, Jan. 31, 1865; Sept. 19, Nov. 1, 1882.

[XV-24] The settlement, as it was called, for it had not even the name of a colony, was ruled by a code of laws established in 1779 by Sir W. Burnaby. Justice was administered by a board of seven magistrates chosen annually. The chief authority was the superintendent, a position always held by a military officer, combining the duties both of first civil magistrate and commander of the forces. _Henderson's Brit. Hond._, 75-9.

[XV-25] He entitled himself then her Majesty's superintendent and commander-in-chief in and over her possessions in Hond.

[XV-26] M'Donald then appointed an executive council. He also assumed control of the finances. Not satisfied with the right of veto, he legislated in his own person by proclamation, assuming the right of punishing any one acting against his authority or obstructing his mandates. The inhabitants protested against his usurpation of powers, and appealed to the British government and parliament, obtaining some trifling relaxation. They also petitioned that the government should openly assume the sovereignty, so that they might possess their lands without reservation in respect to Spain or Mexico. Their petitions did not receive any direct reply. However, the govt in 1845, sent out a chief justice, a queen's advocate, and other judicial appendages. _Crowe's Gospel_, 205-6.

[XV-27] The coat of arms of Belize is read as follows: Chief dexter-argent—the union jack, proper. Chief sinister, on the proper—the chief divided from the body of the shield by a chevron-shaped partition from the fess of the dexter and sinister base. Points—the intermediate space azure—a ship with set sails on the sea, passant proper. Crest, mahogany tree. Motto, 'Sub umbra floreo.' Supporters, negroes; that to the left, with a paddle; the other to the right, with an axe over his shoulder. _Stout's Nic._, 258.

[XV-28] One of the superintendents—supposed to be Col Fancourt—had relations with the ferocious Cecilio Chí, which was officially communicated by Mexico to the Brit. chargé, Doyle, March 12, 1849. _Ancona_, _Hist. Yuc._, iv. 234; _Yuc._, _Expos. Gob. Créditos_, 98-102.

[XV-29] The population about 1804 was set down at not more than 200 white persons, 500 free colored, and 3,000 negro slaves. The white pop. gradually decreased. In 1827-8, the pop. was between 5,000 and 6,000; in 1838, 8,000; in 1850, 15,000; in 1863, 25,000. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 587-8; _Dunn's Guat._, 13-14; _Osborne's Guide_, 234; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 150; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 20. The town of Belize, at the mouth of the river of the same name, generally has 6,000 inhabitants. The dwellings of the wealthy class are large and comfortable. Besides the govt houses, court-house, barracks, and jail, there are several churches, episcopal, methodist, baptist, and presbyterian, and some large and costly fire-proof warehouses. The town has experienced two destructive conflagrations, one in 1854 and another in 1863. _Packet Intelligencer_, June 17, 1854; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 7, 22, 1854; _La Voz de Méj._, May 9, 1863.

[XV-30] It was effected without disturbance, and attended with the happiest results. _Crowe's Gospel_, 205.

[XV-31] Much smuggling was carried on to and from it.

[XV-32] _Annals Brit. Legis._, iii. 368; v. 263; vii. 228; x. 386-7; 391-2; xii. 139-40; xiv. 304; _U. S. Comm. Rel._, 1863-77, passim. _The Encyclop. Brittan._, xii. 136-7.

[XV-33] He concluded to proceed to Jamaica for further instructions. _El Revisor_, Jan. 5, Feb. 16, 1850; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 19, 1849.

[XV-34] Chatfield, the Brit. chargé, was present at the act. _Id._, Nov. 30, 1849; _Stout's Nic._, 278; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 15, 1850. The object of the seizure was to secure Honduras' proportion of the indebtedness of Cent. Am. to Brit. creditors.

[XV-35] Under a convention in three articles concluded at Leon Sept. 28, 1849. The cession was for 18 months, and had been made known the same date to all diplomatic agents in Cent. Am. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 19, 1849; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Nov. 16, 1849. The corresp. of the govt of Hond. with the Brit. chargé appears in _Cent. Am. Correspond., Isla de Tigre_, 1-8; _Cent. Am._, _Miscel. Doc._, nos. 21, 25, 28; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 31, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc. 43, 1-26; _Id._, Cong. 31, Sess. 1, H. Jour., 1739, 1801.

[XV-36] _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, Jan. 16 and suppl., Feb. 16, 1850.

[XV-37] 1st. Great Brit. recognized the independ. of Hond. as a sovereign republic, pledging her good offices to avert any attempts against that independ. Hond. at this time was a member of a confederacy with Salvador and Nicaragua, and was made to bind herself not to dispose of any portion of her territory before she had definitely settled Brit. claims. 2d. Hond. was to accredit within six months a commissioner in Guat. to conclude a treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation with G. Brit. 3d. Hond. recognized the indebtedness of $111,061. 4th. She bound herself to pay that sum in yearly instalments of $15,000 at Belize. The other articles were of less importance. _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 5, 1850; _Hond._, _Ligeras Observ._, 1-10.

[XV-38] Jáuregui, March 24, 1850, in a pamphlet issued at Leon, defended his conduct, alleging that he had ample powers. _Justific._, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, i. no. 7.

[XV-39] Independent of £1,425 paid for her proportion of Cent. Am. indebtedness to Finlay, Hodgson, & Co. of London. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Jan. 30, 1853.

[XV-40] The British seized Roatan June 3, 1830, driving away the small Central American garrison. Similar attempts have been made since 1743 by British subjects, though unsuccessfully. The seizure of 1830 lasted only a short time, having been disallowed by the British government. _Crowe's Gospel_, 212; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 424-7; iv. 71-5.

[XV-41] 'Whose territorial right is indisputable,' he alleged. He based his action on the treaty of April 19, 1850, between the U. S. and Great Britain, under which neither power was to have colonies or settlements in Central America. The U. S. took part in defence of Honduras' rights and overthrew the British pretensions. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 621-6, 740-8; _Democratic Rev._, xxx. 544-52.

[XV-42] Under a decree of the superintendent of Belize. The comandante of Trujillo, by order of his government, protested against the occupation Sept. 13, 1852. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Dec. 15, 1852; _El Siglo_, Jan. 1, 1853.

[XV-43] Art. 1. Great Britain recognized the islands to belong to Hond. The latter pledged herself not to cede them to any other nation. Art. 2. The former power recognized as part of Hond. the country till then occupied or possessed by the Mosquito Indians within the frontier of the republic, whatever that frontier might be. _La Union de Nic._, March 9, 1861; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 412-15. Further details in connection with the Bay Islands question may be seen in _Bay Islands, Queen's Warrant, etc._; _La Nacion_, Nov. 9, Dec. 26, 1856; _Brit. Quart. Rev._, xcix. 270-80; _Caicedo_, _Lat. Am._, 76-80.

[XV-44] The grounds alleged for this violent action were: 1st, That the Brit. vice-consul's residence had been broken into by Hond. troops, and robbed; 2d, That Omoa was sacked by these troops, and goods to the value of $100,000 had been stolen from British subjects; 3d, That some British subjects had been drafted into the army, and an Englishwoman unjustly imprisoned. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 25, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Sept. 21, 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, July 27, 1874.

[XV-45] Streber, who commanded the troops accused of these abuses, defends the rights of Honduras in the controversy, in _Exposic. Doc. Suc. Omoa_, 30-44, 66-103.

[XV-46] She had to settle, in 1850, claims of French citizens, and in 1851 of Prussian subjects. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Aug. 31, 1850; Jan. 15, 1852; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1850.

[XV-47] Nic. had claimed on the N. E. the river Patuca to its mouth, Hond. claimed the Coco to its mouth. The commissioners agreed upon a compromise line between those rivers, namely, the summit of the Dilpito cordillera, from the point where it becomes detached from the main body, which divides the waters running to both oceans; and from the point where it and the line continues eastwardly to the waters of the Atlantic in lat. 15° 10' N., and long. 83° 15' W. of Greenwich. _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1871, 5-7.

[XV-48] About this time he was on the Nic. frontier mediating for peace between the belligerents of that state. His efforts proving successful, he was warmly congratulated by his friends on his return. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Nov. 26, 1851; _El Siglo_, Dec. 13, 1851; _Cent. Am. Pamph._, vii. no. 2.

[XV-49] _Cabañas_, _El Presid ... á sus Conciud._, 1-6. The office had been provisionally in charge of Senator Francisco Gomez. _El Siglo_, Feb. 21, March 19, 1852.

[XV-50] Cabañas was of diminutive stature, but of erect mien. He was aged about 50 at this time. His face was pale and mild; his gestures were in keeping with the intelligent play of his features; his manners gentle, almost womanly, but beneath this placid exterior was a stern, indomitable spirit. After many years of prominence as a leader, during an anarchical period, even his enemies never accused him of selfishness or rancor. _Squier's Trav._, ii. 177; _Wells' Hond._, 184. Cabañas was a brave soldier, but could not be called a successful general. Perez, a political opponent, speaking of him as the chief of the coquimbo party, says: 'Mal general, excelente soldado, nunca vencedor, siempre con prestigio, y uno de los mas fogosos promotores de la nacionalidad centro Americana.' _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 16. The assembly, May 21, 1851, had conferred on him the title of 'soldado ilustre de la patria.' His death occurred Jan. 8, 1871. _El Siglo_, June 12, 1851; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 19, 1851; Jan. 29, 1871.

[XV-51] Astaburuaga attributes this war to Cabañas' attempts to promote an insurrection in Guat. against his old enemy Carrera. _Cent. Am._, 70-1.

[XV-52] The Guatemalans took the fort and city of Omoa, and carried away all the useful artillery, against the stipulations agreed upon at the surrender. _Wells' Hond._, 507-8; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 16, 23, 1853.

[XV-53] This Lopez commanded at Omoa when the place was given up in 1853 to the Guat. Col Zavala, since which he had been suspected of treachery. _Wells' Hond._, 515; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 15, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 30, 1854; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 10, 1854, to Feb. 10, 1855, passim; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 3, Dec. 22, 1854.

[XV-54] He had received no aid from Salv., owing to Carrera having falsely reported his intention to sell territory to a foreign power.

[XV-55] The executive office went, Oct. 14, 1855, into the hands of Vice-president S. Bueso, who pleading ill health left it in charge of Senator Francisco Aguilar. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 9, 1855, Feb. 16, 1856.

[XV-56] _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Campaña Nac._, 13.

[XV-57] Guardiola was a dark-colored, stout-built, and rather corpulent zambo, a man of fiendish instincts, but popular with his soldiers, whom he indulged in every way. He possessed all the vices and was guilty of about all the crimes known to man. When in his cups he would order men to be shot by way of pastime. At the mention of his approach to a town, the inhabitants would flee to the woods. He was the tiger of Cent. Am. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 237; _Wells' Hond._, 517; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 306-7. William V. Wells, _Explorations and Adventures in Honduras_, New York, 8vo, 588 pp., with maps and illustrations, went to Honduras with the object of obtaining from her government leave to work gold placers, and of opening commercial relations. He visited several places, both in Nicaragua and Honduras, which he describes quite accurately, together with the manners and customs of their inhabitants. His information on mines and mining is valuable. There are in the work three chapters devoted to history from 1821 to 1857, the groundwork of which is mostly from other authors, and one chapter is filled with data on commerce, revenue, debt, etc., and still another treats of coins and currency, weights and measures, and productions, with illustrations. The style is good, the work readable and instructive. Portions are evidently taken from Squier, and the illustrations are mostly identical with those of Squier's _States of Central America_. The same author gave to the press in New York, a 12mo, with 316 pp., map and portrait, under the title of _Walker's Expedition to Nicaragua_. This work, as the title implies, is almost entirely devoted to Walker's career in this country, which is justified as well as praised. Here and there he mentions some historical facts on British pretensions in Mosquito, a short résumé on Nicaragua, the Nicaragua transit route, and a short review on colonization, commerce, and mining, compiled from several sources. There is no system or arrangement, having been, as the author alleges, 'written, published, and put in circulation in twenty days,' a feat few authors would go out of their way to boast of. But taken all in all, the book is well worth perusing.

[XV-58] Decree of Jan. 5, 1861. _La Union de Nic._, Feb. 2, March 9, May 25, 1861.

[XV-59] Chiefly in Nacaome and Choluteca.

[XV-60] _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 25, March 22, 1862. This deed was said by the enemies of Pres. Barrios of Salv. to have been instigated by him. _Id._, _Boletin Pueb._, July 11, 1863. There was no ground for the charge. The government of Guat. proposed to other states to recognize no administration of Honduras until the criminals, who had been arrested, should suffer punishment. _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1862, 24.

[XV-61] Nic. despatched P. Zeledon as mediator, but the motives of his gov. were bitterly denounced by the press of Comayagua.

[XV-62] Feb. 4, 1862. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, 1862.

[XV-63] Castellanos declined going to the capital, and Medina went to his residence and formally surrendered the executive authority to him.

[XV-64] This was the result of the defeat of the troops of Salv. and Hond. by the forces of Guat. and Nic. on the plain of Santa Rosa.

[XV-65] This decree is signed by Medina as 'presidente de la república de Honduras,' July 20, and rescinded Sept. 8, 1863. _Nic._, _Boletin Pueb._, Aug. 9, Oct. 9, 1863.

[XV-66] His senatorial term having expired. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 13, 1864.

[XV-67] The election of Xatruch was afterward declared unconstitutional, Feb. 26, 1865. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, April 1, 1865.

[XV-68] Its sittings lasted from Sept. 7th to Oct. 29th. The sovereignty of the people was recognized. The catholic, any other kind of public worship being forbidden, was declared the state religion. The executive authority was vested in a president for four years, with a council of state consisting of his two ministers, one senator chosen by both houses of the assembly, and the chief justice. The legislative power rested in a senate and house of deputies. The existing political division of the republic was left unchanged. _Id._, Nov. 11, 1865; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527; _The Am. Cyclop._, viii. 790.

[XV-69] He had temporarily, pleading ill health, left the executive in the hands of Crescencio Gomez. The assembly appointed, as substitutes of Medina, Saturnino Bogran, C. Gomez, and Francisco Medina.

[XVI-1] Also with the view of extending the area of African slavery, as had been successfully carried out in Texas.

[XVI-2] The expedition was antagonized by the Transit company, and arrested by the authorities of the U. S. as a violation of their neutrality laws. Kinney reached San Juan del Norte, after some mishaps, with only a few followers, and was unable to do any serious injury to Cent. Am. _Costa R._, _Inf. Rel._, 1858, 4-6; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 16, 1854; _Nic._, _Doc. Dipl. Hist._, 15-58. His arrival was after the destruction of the town by the U. S. sloop of war _Cyane_, and infused new energy into the inhabitants. At a public meeting held on the 6th of Sept., 1855, the necessity of establishing a provisional government for the maintenance of peace and order was recognized, and Kinney was chosen civil and military governor to rule by and with the advice of a council composed of five persons. Among the resolutions was one adopting as a basis to regulate the action of the govt, the former constitution of San Juan del Norte, or Greytown, which was modelled after that of the U. S. with a few exceptions. Kinney did not hold the position long. He was disappointed in his expectations, and resigned; he afterward visited Granada, and at William Walker's instance an order of expulsion was issued against him. _Stout's Nic._, 177-82; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 3, 1855; _S. F. Golden Era_, March 9, 1856.

[XVI-3] Jerez had made a similar arrangement at Jalteva with one Fisher, to bring 500 men; and Gov. Espinosa of Rivas stipulated with Hornsby and De Brissot for the capture of Fort San Juan from the legitimists. These parties tendered their contracts to William Walker, the so-called ex-president of Sonora, who would not accept them.

[XVI-4] Under the contract the so-called colonists were to arrive at Realejo in Feb. or March 1855, and the time having elapsed, Castellon wrote Walker Apr. 9th authorizing him to land at that port 'la gente y municiones, ó tren de guerra que V. traiga á disposicion del gobierno provisorio.' _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 136-7; _Sac. Union_, Feb. 15, 1855.

[XVI-5] _El Nicaragüense_, Aug. 3, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, May 5, 1855.

[XVI-6] William Walker was born in Nashville, Tenn., in 1824, being of Scotch descent. After receiving a classical education, he studied law, and later followed the medical profession for a time in Philadelphia. He then travelled in Europe one year, and on his return was connected with some of the important newspapers of the country, north, south, and west. Tiring of that, he successfully practised law in Marysville, Cal. In 1852 he visited Guaymas, and from the operations of Count Raousset, conceived the plan of creating with adventurers from California independent republics in some of the sparsely populated territories of Mexico. Hence his expeditions to Sonora and Lower Cal., of which I give full accounts in my vol. on the north-western states of Mex. Few persons, unacquainted with Walker, would suspect the presence of so much ability and energy beneath his plain exterior. He was but little more than 5 ft. 4 in. in height, with a rather dull and slow appearance; a man of few words, though an attentive listener, his aspect was that of a serious, thoughtful person. A remarkable feature of his face was a deep, intensely brilliant blue-gray eye, large and intelligent. Sincere and devoted to his friends, says a devoted adherent, his enmity, though not violent, was not easily appeased. He was indifferent to personal ease and comfort, and to the acquisition of wealth. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 21-3, 199-201. He was not incapable of lofty conceptions, and possessed courage and abnegation; but there was little of what might be called genius about him, though his mind was sufficiently unbalanced in certain directions to give him a title to that distinction. He wished to be a great man like Cæsar or Napoleon, but the elements of that quality of greatness were absent. He might have carved for himself a career of honor and usefulness, but for the restless ambition that possessed him to attain a place among the notabilities of the world, even by a disregard of law and justice. The idea of manifest destiny, so prevalent among his countrymen, which implied the conquest of the Latin race in America by the Anglo-Saxon, afforded him, as he imagined, the opportunity for attaining the coveted renown, and at the same time securing, through his instrumentality, the future happiness of Spanish America. But unfortunately for him, he committed, at the inception of his career in Nic., acts which alienated him the men who had invited him to coöperate in the consolidation of democratic principles; and some of his later measures, whatever may be thought of his earlier ones, savored of recklessness, and of disregard for the good opinion of mankind.

[XVI-7] Muñoz had openly opposed all interference of foreigners in the affairs of Nic.

[XVI-8] They afterward returned to Leon, via Realejo, to continue serving. The legitimists had many killed and wounded, among the first being Col E. Argüello and F. Elizondo. Of Walker's foreign force, Col Achilles Kewen, Maj. Crockett, and eight others were killed, and 12 wounded. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 52; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 138; _S. F. Alta_, July 16, Aug. 14, 1855; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 88; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 271; _Ferrer de Conto_, _Cuest. de Méj._, 155.

[XVI-9] In his official report of the affair Walker laid the blame for his ill success on Muñoz, who had apprised Corral of the intended operations, and had induced Ramirez to forsake him during the action. He demanded an investigation into Muñoz' conduct, and if it were not granted he would quit the service. Castellon informed him in reply that in the present critical condition of the democratic cause it was unadvisable to displease Muñoz. After much correspondence and negotiation, Walker agreed to continue his services.

[XVI-10] Cholera spread rapidly throughout the country, causing great havoc everywhere.

[XVI-11] Muñoz' death never was attributed to the enemy's bullets. It was a regular case of assassination resulting from intrigues in his own party to rid themselves of him. The assassin was a young Honduran named José María Herrera, who later deserted from Walker's ranks, and being arrested and sentenced to death, confessed that he had killed Muñoz. A Nicaraguan named Santa María, who was shot at San Jorge in 1857, seems to have been an accomplice. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 141-3.

[XVI-12] He was suspected of treachery. He had displeased the officers by his coarseness, and had spread terror among the troops with his exaggerated reports of Yankee valor and skill with fire-arms. _Id._, 145; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 55-8; _S. F. Herald_, Oct. 10, 1855; _Id._, _Alta_, Oct. 10, 1855; _Sac. Union_, Oct. 19, 1855.

[XVI-13] He was joined by such men as T., C., and Daniel Canton, Máx. Espinosa, and Ramon Umaña. The last named brought troops and supplies from Leon.

[XVI-14] In the early part of Sept., Gen. José M. Ballestero, Muñoz' successor, had sent two companies in the direction of Managua, who were undone by Col Tomás Martinez with 200 men; on the 12th Gen. Pineda marched afterward with a double force against the legitimists, but failed to meet them.

[XVI-15] Corral was in Rivas with his numerous army. Fulgencio Vega, the comandante of Granada, who was hated by the democrats as the author of persecutions, hid himself and was not discovered.

[XVI-16] The legitimists who were pent up in the city tendered their allegiance, among them the minister Mayorga. There were others who volunteered their coöperation; among them the naturalized citizens Charles and Emile Thomas, Fermin Ferrer, a wealthy citizen, and the beloved and respected clergyman, Agustin Vigil, noted for his virtues, learning, and eloquence, who from the pulpit called Walker the 'angel tutelar de Nicaragua,' or the north star that was to guide Nic. to her advancement. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 61-5; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 150-1; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 271-2; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 89.

[XVI-17] The commissioners were Sebastian Escobar, José Argüello Arce, Hilario Salva, and R. Vives. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 152.

[XVI-18] The commissioners, Rosalío Cortés and Ramon Marenco, were imprisoned in irons at Leon.

[XVI-19] This person took asylum in the house of U. S. Minister Wheeler, who assured him that he was under the protection of the U. S. flag. But as Wheeler was mixed up in filibustering schemes, he broke his pledge and surrendered Mayorga. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 157.

[XVI-20] An American, who had been the recipient in Granada of many marks of consideration.

[XVI-21] Walker's organ gave a list of killed and wounded. _El Nicaragüense_, Nov. 17, 1855; _S. F. Herald_, Nov. 4, 1855; _S. F. Bulletin_, Nov. 5, 1855.

[XVI-22] It is claimed that he had been tried for treason by a court-martial of native officers. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 77.

[XVI-23] They reported, as coming from Walker, that he was resolved to shoot all the prisoners if he did not receive at 9 P. M. a satisfactory answer respecting arrangements. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 159; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, 273.

[XVI-24] Walker claimed to have powers, and Corral was 'facultado omnímodamente.' The following is a synopsis of the convention: 1st. Peace and friendship between the contending parties; 2d. Patricio Rivas to be president for 14 months, unless he should resolve, with the advice of his ministers, to order elections before the expiration of that term; 3d. The president is to have four ministers, namely, for war, relations, treasury, and pub. credit; 4th. Govt to respect and cause to be respected chapters 2d, 3d, and 4th, and clauses 2d and 3d of the general regulations of the constitution of 1838; 5th. General forgetfulness of and amnesty for past political offences; 6th. Debts incurred by both belligerents to be recognized by the govt; 7th. Military grades of both belligerents to be recognized; 8th. All persons desirous of leaving the republic may freely do so, with full guaranty of persons and estates; 9th. The French legion may continue in service by becoming Nicaraguan; 10th. Walker to order the force in front of Managua to retire at once to Leon, reducing it to 150 men; after which Corral should reduce the force in Managua to 100, under Gen. Martinez, and that in Masaya to 50, under Col Lino César, or some other honorable officer; 11th. The Rivas force will remain under Gen. Florencio Xatruch; 12th. The govts existing in Nic. to cease acting upon being notified of this arrangement by the respective generals; any one refusing to comply was to be treated as a disturber of the peace. Additional articles: 1st. Twenty-four hours after Rivas' arrival in Granada, Corral's army from Masaya was to enter Granada, and together with Walker's, escort the president and the two generals to church to return thanks to God for the restoration of peace. Walker to be the general-in-chief of the army, appointed by a special decree. Corral should surrender the command, arms, etc., unless otherwise ordered by the new govt; 2d. The govt must reside in Granada; 3d. The army was to use no other badge than a blue ribbon, with the inscription Nicaragua Independiente. _Id._, 161-4; _El Nicaragüense_, Oct. 27, 1855; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 9, 1856; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1855; _Stout's Nic._, 182; _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 17, 1855; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 77-80; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 16, 1855.

[XVI-25] A plan had been formed to proclaim Martinez their general, and to march against Granada, but the principal chiefs discountenanced it. Corral assured the troops that their former enemies were now friends and brothers, recommending strict discipline 'so pena de ser pasado por las armas el que de cualquiera manera violase la amistad y alianza prometidas.' _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 166-7.

[XVI-26] 'Cedí únicamente al imperio de las circunstancias, Sin tener libre voluntad para ello.' _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 29, 1856.

[XVI-27] Sacaza, Dueñas, Pedro J. Chamorro, and two others.

[XVI-28] Norberto Ramirez, who favored its ratification as the least of two evils, said in the council: 'I know that we have before us two abysms; one close by, and the other a little farther off: that the disapproval of the treaty carries us to the nearest one, and its approval to the other somewhat more distant.' His advice was followed. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 168.

[XVI-29] Máximo Jerez, B. Selva, A. Orozco, Rafael Jerez, Justo Lugo, P. Fonseca, and José Salinas.

[XVI-30] Rivas was reputed an honorable, firm, and enlightened man. He had repeatedly been a candidate of the conservatives for the executive office.

[XVI-31] To Xatruch he said, 'Nosotros estamos muy mal, muy mal, muy mal. Acuérdese de sus amigos. Ellos me han dejado esta pesada carga y espero su socorro.' To Guardiola, Nov. 1st: 'It is necessary that you write our friends of the peril we are in, and that they must go actively to work. If there is a delay of two months, it will then be too late. Think of us and of your offers.... Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and Guatemala will be lost if they allow this to assume proportions; let them come quickly if they expect to find auxiliaries.'

[XVI-32] Benito Lagos, the man to whom they were intrusted for delivery, took them to Granada and gave them to Valle, who surrendered them to Walker.

[XVI-33] Walker had, after adopting precautions against resistance, made them stack their arms in the plaza, and disperse.

[XVI-34] It was a violation of the constitution of 1838, and of the laws. Corral, as a minister, could not be tried without a prior impeachment, and only by the senate; and as a private citizen, by the common courts.

[XVI-35] Hornsby was president of the court; Fry, auditor or judge-advocate; French, counsel for the prisoner; and Charles Thomas, interpreter.

[XVI-36] He died bravely, Father Vigil attending him to the scaffold. He was shot by a squad of American riflemen, commanded by Lieut-col C. H. Gilman. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 91; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 171-3; _Stout's Nic._, 197-8; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 92-4.

[XVI-37] As opportunity occurred, they all ran away, some to the mountains, and others to the neighboring states to work in saving their country from the ruthless foreign sway.

[XVI-38] Yankees, so called, were all foreigners, of whatever nationality, serving with Walker.

[XVI-39] José Hilario Herdocia, vicario capitular, having addressed him a congratulatory letter, he answered that 'el temor de Dios es el fundamento de toda organizacion política y social.'

[XVI-40] His contract with Castellon authorized him only to bring 300 immigrants; but he soon obtained leave to augment his forces, and to enlist men as best he could. A decree published Nov. 23, 1855, offered 250 acres of land to each immigrant, and 100 more to each family. The title deed was to be issued six months after arrival. Fabens was named director of colonization.

[XVI-41] Art. 1st required the return of those sojourning in the republic within 15 days, and of those who were abroad within one month. Art. 2d imposed fines ranging from $50 to $10,000 on such as failed to obey. _El Nicaragüense_, Nov. 17, 1855.

[XVI-42] Among them Pres. Estrada, Gen. Martinez, and Col Fulgencio Vega.

[XVI-43] Hornsby went to Managua in the early part of December, and brought him to Granada, where he was treated as the guest of the nation.

[XVI-44] Diplomatic correspondence of the Salv. and Hond. govts Nov. 22 and 28, 1855, in _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. 5, 1856.

[XVI-45] 'Aunque sea en un rincon de Honduras.' Estrada well knew this was illegal; but following the advice, he applied to Guardiola for permission, and it was refused him.

[XVI-46] Though the Costa Ricans had a cordon sanitaire to prevent intercourse with cholera-stricken Nic., Gen. Cañas received orders to furnish resources to Gen. Florencio Xatruch, and other officials of the dept of Rivas, who fled to Costa Rica on hearing of Corral's execution.

[XVI-47] Bishop Llorente also warned them that their religion was in peril.

[XVI-48] Sec. of state Marcy wrote Dec. 21st, in answer to his communication of the 12th, that the president saw as yet no reason to hold diplomatic intercourse with the persons 'who now claim to exercise the political power in the state of Nicaragua.' He said that the persons chiefly instrumental in overthrowing the former govt were not citizens of Nic., 'nor have those citizens, or any considerable part of them, so far as is now known here, freely expressed their approval of, or acquiescence in, the present condition of political affairs in Nicaragua.'

[XVI-49] Wheeler was told, however, by the foreign minister of Nic. that though official relations were suspended, the utmost good feeling existed toward him. _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 2, 1856.

[XVI-50] The assistance would have been given him but for Walker, 'no mandaban los democráticos, sino Walker.' It was not for Walker's interest just then to engage in hostilities against any neighboring power. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 21.

[XVI-51] He exerted himself there in promoting action for the expulsion of Walker from Cent. Am.

[XVI-52] His most influential opponent was a small club of conservatives, the leaders of which were Fernando Guzman, Agustin Avilés, and Ramon Alegría. Gerónimo Perez was also a member. _Id._, 23-6.

[XVI-53] Hermenegildo Zepeda, G. Juarez, and N. Ramirez came from Leon to Granada to arrange it with Walker, who at once caused the decree to be issued. This journey brought Ramirez to his death, resulting from a fall, which broke a leg. He was an able, enlightened man, and had been chief of Salvador, and also of Nicaragua in 1849.

[XVI-54] The govt of Nic. was entitled to a share of the company's receipts, which it had never succeeded in getting. Chamorro had taken measures to force the company to pay their indebtedness, but was precluded by the revolution of 1854. The company was accused of aiding the revolutionists, and of having afterward encouraged the importation of the filibusters who overthrew the legitimist govt.

[XVI-55] Randolph, W. R. Garrison, and Macdonald had arrived at Granada from California, Dec. 17, 1855, bringing upwards of 100 recruits for Walker, contracted for with Crittenden, his friend and agent.

[XVI-56] This was done by Rivas, though firmly convinced that it was tantamount to a sale of Nicaragua.

[XVI-57] The decrees, orders, and editorial comments thereon, in the government's organ. _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 23, 1856; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 97-8; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, 279-80; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 208-15; _S. F. Bulletin_, March 22, April 10, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, March 23, 1856; _Sac. Union_, March 24, April 25, 1856.

[XVI-58] 'Para que recabe de aquel gabinete una franca explicacion sobre la política que ha estado observando con respecto al actual Gobierno de Nicaragua.' _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 16, 1856.

[XVI-59] Joaquin B. Calvo, min. of relations of Costa R., in his report to congress, Aug. 11, 1856, speaks of that mission with contempt, 'porque desconocida aquí la mision del filibustero, se le hizo regresar de la frontera.' _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 4.

[XVI-60] Laws of Feb. 27 and 28, 1856; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xiv. 7-14, 16; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 34, Sess. 1, Sen. Doc., 68, 121, 133-49, vol. xiii.

[XVI-61] Nominally; the real commander was a German officer named Baron Bulow. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 34; _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, no. 8; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 169.

[XVI-62] Perez, quoted above, 42, gives the 21st.

[XVI-63] According to Costa Rican reports, only 480 of their men took part in the action, the enemy's defeat being the effect of a surprise and a bayonet charge. Their casualties were set down at 4 officers and 15 soldiers killed. The filibusters had upwards of 20 slain. Id., 42-5; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 3-24, 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 9, 16, 1856. In California the report received was of 90 killed in the fight and 19 executed. _S. F. Alta_, May 2, 1856; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, 283; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 153-68.

[XVI-64] As armed invaders not serving under the flag of any recognized nation. _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 4; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 94. However correct the logic, it was an imprudent act, as Walker might retaliate on Costa Rican and other Cent. Am. prisoners. Wheeler, without instructions from the U. S. govt, took upon himself to officially say to Mora that the execution of these men was a cold-blooded murder, assuming at the same time that the men serving under Walker were citizens of his own country. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 170-5. The fact is that only two or three were natives of the U. S.

[XVI-65] He was accused of cowardice and even of treachery, and arrested for trial, but escaping afterward from prison, was sentenced to death as a deserter. He turned up in Teustepe, where he was allowed to serve in the legitimist force. _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 257-8.

[XVI-66] Commanded respectively by majors Alfaro Ruiz and Escalante, and Col Salvador Mora.

[XVI-67] 'Triunfó completamente sobre ellos, escarmentándolos, y poniéndolos de nuevo en vergonzosa fuga.' _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1856, 5. According to Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 96, the Costa Ricans had 120 killed, and Walker upwards of 200. Perez, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 48, gives the Costa Rican casualties to have been 150 killed and 300 wounded; and Walker's 60 killed and 70 wounded. Wells, claiming a glorious victory for his hero Walker, says that the Costa Rican loss could not have been less than 600 killed; and that of the wounded and deserters no precise estimate could be formed. Walker's loss he sets down at 30 killed and as many wounded. There is no honor or profit in such mendacity. _Walker's Exped._, 175-88, 245-7; _S. F. Bulletin_, June 2, 3, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, June 2, 1856; _Sac. Union_, June 4, 1856. Belly, _Le Nicaragua_, 283-4, states that though the battle cost the Costa Ricans 700 men, 'mais qui fit éprouver de telles pertes à l'envahisseur, qu'à dater de ce moment, il perdit confiance dans sa destinée.' His letter of April 15th to Senator Weller of Cal. proved this.

[XVI-68] Minister Salinas' circular Apr. 15, 1856. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856.

[XVI-69] Perez says: 'Trató con humanidad á los soldados que le fueron encomendados.' _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 49-52. _Jerónimo Perez_, _Memorias para la Historia de la Revolucion de Nicaragua, y de la guerra nacional contra los filibusteros, 1854-1857._ Managua, 1865, 8vo, pp. 173, 21. This first part of this author's work is a historical account of the civil war in Nicaragua, in the years 1854-5, during which latter year the filibuster chief, William Walker, appeared on the scene, taking part with one of the two parties to the strife, and temporarily destroying the power of the other. The political and military events of this period are concisely though vividly depicted, so that the reader may become fully informed on the mode of carrying on the war, and on the miserable condition of the country, as well as bitter animosity exhibited by the opposing parties. _Memorias para la Historia de la Campaña Nacional contra el filibusterismo, 1856-1857._ Masaya, 1873, 8vo, i.-iv., and 216 p., is a sequel or second part to the preceding by the same author, in which he furnishes a detailed history of Walker's filibustering schemes and career in Nicaragua during 1856-7, till his final surrender and removal from the country; ending with a short account of Walker's two other attempts to invade Central America. Perez took a part in the operations against Walker, and later has occupied high positions in his country.

[XVII-1] Francisco Ugarte, a legitimist who came with the Costa Ricans, and remained in concealment.

[XVII-2] Goicouría was sent to put down a rebellion in Chontales, and had a number of men executed. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 55.

[XVII-3] 1st. To recognize no other govt than Estrada's, declaring the convention of Oct. 23, 1855, void, and Rivas' govt null; 2d. To support that govt; 3d. Vest the executive office in Fernando Guzman till Estrada's return to Nic.; 4th. Fernando Chamorro recognized as provisional commander of the forces.

[XVII-4] Walker discovered in Rivas a letter from the president to Mora treating of peace negotiations, of which nothing had been hinted to him.

[XVII-5] He issued June 4th a proclamation full of affected love for the Nicaraguans, and especially for the Leonese, whom he called illustrious sons of liberty and lovers of progress. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 5, 1856; _El Nicaragüense_, June 14, 1856.

[XVII-6] It was followed by a change of public opinion in the U. S. favorable to him, and stopped the official opposition to the rush of emigrants to Nic. The benefit was, however, retarded by the combined efforts of the old Transit company's agents in San Juan del Norte, and of the opposition from various sources to Walker's plans.

[XVII-7] During Walker's stay in the city he made several demands, to which the president refused his assent, which greatly angered him. It was soon discovered that he had it planned to dispossess Rivas of the executive office. Naztmer's act was in obedience to his orders. The native soldiers were sent away, and the capital was left with a garrison of 200 foreigners. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 8, Oct. 24, 1856.

[XVII-8] Had it not been for an American resident, Dawson, they would have been brought back by Dolan, commandant at Chinandega, who had been ordered with his men to Leon. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 71. Gen. Mariano Salazar and others spread the report that the filibusters intended to murder the authorities. Salazar fell into Walker's hands later, taken by De Brissot in the gulf of Fonseca July 28th, and was shot at Granada Aug. 3d. _El Nicaragüense_, Aug. 9, 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 27, 1856; _Sac. Union_, Sept. 6, 1856.

[XVII-9] Decree of June 25th. Officers and men of the foreign phalanx were required to forsake Walker and submit to the government, when their rank would be recognized, their arrears of pay made good, and Nicaraguan citizenship conferred on them. Such as should disobey, whether native or foreign, were to be dealt with as traitors. Members of the foreign phalanx wishing to leave the country were to be, under another decree of the 28th, permitted to do so. Those who presented themselves with arms and ammunition, and prevailed on others to do the same, would be rewarded. Previously, on the 20th, the colonization decree of Nov. 23, 1855, was suspended. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 8, 16, 1856.

[XVII-10] Walker assumed to act under the clauses of the convention of Oct. 23, 1855. His decree bears date of June 20th, and further declares Rivas' acts from the 12th null. _El Nicaragüense_, June 21, 1856; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 8, 1856.

[XVII-11] The official organ published the returns showing this result. _El Nicaragüense_, July 12, 1856. Rivas' minister in a circular exposed the whole as a 'tejido de imposturas y supercherías.' _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 27, 1856.

[XVII-12] _S. F. Herald_, Aug. 15, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, Aug. 15, 1856.

[XVII-13] Minister Salinas' note of Aug. 12th to the secretary of state at Washington. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 4, 1856.

[XVII-14] The other ministers were generals Mateo Pineda and Manuel Carrascosa. _El Nicaragüense_, July 19, 1856.

[XVII-15] This action was said to have been suggested to win the sympathies of the slave-owners in the southern states of the U. S. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 79.

[XVII-16] The convention was signed at Guat. July 18, 1856. The following is a synopsis of the chief clauses: 1st. Previous treaties of alliance for defence of their independence and sovereignty were confirmed; 2d. Stipulated the union of their forces to expel the adventurers; 3d. Recognized P. Rivas as the head of a de facto govt in Nic., promising aid and coöperation; 7th. Invited Costa R. to join the others in the enterprise. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 21, Sept. 10, 1856; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 436-9.

[XVII-17] Shortly afterward they were joined by Gen. Fernando Chamorro, some barefooted officers and soldiers, and 12 or 14 Frenchmen. A little later came the Hungarian, Gros, with 300 Indians. The only arms on hand were 300 muskets with 10 mule-loads of ammunition.

[XVII-18] Such was the end of this honorable, enlightened, and patriotic citizen, who had risen by his virtues, talents, and learning, from a lowly position to the chief magistracy of his country. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt., 98-100.

[XVII-19] The convention was signed Sept. 12, 1856. It contained among its clauses that the first legislature installed should convoke the constituent assembly of 1854, or issue the bases for the election of another; a gen. amnesty for past political offences; debts contracted or damages caused by both parties to be held as indebtedness of the republic. _Id._, 114-17; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 20, 1856.

[XVII-20] Pedro Cardenal, Sebastian Salinas, Nicasio del Castillo, and Francisco Baca were made ministers of foreign relations, government, war, and treasury respectively. Jerez left the cabinet, preferring to serve in the field.

[XVII-21] His troops retreated after setting fire to the casa de alto, former residence of the chief magistrates of Nic. The allied army celebrated in Managua the victory of San Jacinto, a hacienda, north of the plain of Oscotal, distant one day's march from Granada. It was only a small affair in reality—120 riflemen under Byron Cole on one side, and 160 natives under Col D. Estrada on the other—but it was important in its effects. Cole was captured and killed, this being the end of the founder of filibusterism in Nic. Twenty-seven riflemen were slaughtered; and the Nicaraguans had 55 killed and wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 26, 1856.

[XVII-22] Troubles between Salvadorans and Nicaraguans were common. The former fraternized with the democratic Leonese. The legitimists did the same with the Guatemalans, whose 2d chief, Zavala, by his language and actions, kept up a bad feeling, not only with the Salvadorans, but with the Nicaraguans. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, pref. ii. and 108.

[XVII-23] Meantime several fights had taken place between the allied forces and Walker's.

[XVII-24] He had also a small and inefficient Cuban company, and very few, if any, Cent. Americans, aside from his ministers Pineda and Carrascosa.

[XVII-25] It has been calculated that from first to last he lost from 5,000 to 6,000 men by sickness. Several of his chief officers having died at about the same time, it was imputed to the natives selling poisoned edibles. A letter of Feb. 16, 1857, has it that Walker received 4,600 recruits since June 1855. The author sets down his deserters at 500, and his dead at no less than 3,600, there being from 1,500 to 2,000 buried in Granada. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 17, 1857; _Hayes' Scraps_, _Angeles_, ii. 255. However, an official report of P. R. Thompson, Walker's adj.-gen., dated Feb. 24, 1857, has the following figures, which do not seem to express the whole truth, as it might have been injudicious to have the real facts made known. Original number of men enlisted 2,288, of whom 61 were officers. Totals of death, 685, of whom 109 were officers; 37 resigned; 206 discharged; 9 dropped; 293 deserted, including 9 officers; leaving a total of 733 officers and men, with 141 unaccounted for. _Stout's Nic._, 209.

[XVII-26] Four young Nicaraguans, accused in Masaya of enticing men to desert, were arrested July 30th, and shot in a few hours as traitors to the republic! _El Nicaragüense_, Aug. 3, 1856. Turley and 25 others escaped from Granada, and attempted to reach Blewfields by way of Chontales, where the natives, not believing them deserters from Walker, killed all but one or two who escaped. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 129; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 20, 1856.

[XVII-27] Jerez distinguished himself in the defence, and the gen.-in-chief of the allies, Ramon Belloso, claimed a victory in his official report of Oct. 13th, adding that Walker 'huyó despavoridamente á la oscuridad de la noche,' leaving about 50 killed, and carrying off 200 wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 17, Nov. 7, 1856. On the other side, the victory was claimed for Walker. _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 31, 1856; _S. F. Herald_, Oct. 31. 1856.

[XVII-28] To look after the arms which had become wet. So says Perez, adding that Zavala, 'á mas de carecer de juicio, no conocia el terreno,' and Estrada went entirely by his directions. _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 131.

[XVII-29] They became intoxicated, and scattered in the streets after plunder. They discovered an American merchant, friendly to the filibusters, and killed him forthwith.

[XVII-30] On Zavala and Estrada arriving at Diriomo, a young Cuban named F. A. Lainé, who had been sent by Goicouría to complete with Walker an arrangement to liberate Cuba, was brought to them as a prisoner. He was ordered shot.

[XVII-31] _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 21, 1856; _Hayes' Scraps_, _Angeles_, ii. 206-7, 222, 232.

[XVII-32] Salvadorans, 1,300; Guatemalans, 1,500 or more; Nicaraguans under Martinez, no less than 800. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 134.

[XVII-33] The allies discovered his flight early on the 19th. Several of his men were found asleep, and butchered. The allied commanders showed lack of generalship. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 135-9. About this time the Cent. Americans experienced a serious blow in the loss of the Costa Rican schooner _Once de Abril_., which had on board 110 men, money, and a large supply of arms, ammunition, etc. After a heavy gale, she encountered the _San José_, alias _Granada_, and after two hours' fighting, caught fire and was destroyed. Most of the wrecked men were picked up by the _San José_. _S. F. Alta_, Dec. 20, 1856; _S. F. Herald_, Dec. 20, 1856; _Sac. Union_, Dec. 23, 1856.

[XVII-34] Henningsen had been, it was said, an officer of the Brit. army, an aide of the Carlist chief Zumalacarregui, in Spain, and a good democratic writer. His report was as follows: He had assumed command in the afternoon of Nov. 22, 1856, and had carried out Walker's orders to destroy Granada, and leave the place, taking away the stores, artillery, sick, and the American and native families. Some of the church jewelry was saved by a priest. Gen. D. Sousa saw a filibuster urinate into a chalice, and then throw the contents at some women who were also witnesses of the act. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, p. ii. 150-1, 161-3; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 2, 1868; _Id._, _Telég. Seten._, March 7, 28, 1857; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 15, 22, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Dec. 20, 1856; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 285-6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 372.

[XVII-35] At 6:30 they had upwards of 40 wounded, and no surgeons to attend to them. During the night it rained heavily.

[XVII-36] During the operations, the Guatemalan generals Paredes, ex-president, and Joaquin Solares died, the latter of fever on the 28th of November, and the former of cholera on the 2d of December.

[XVII-37] Several deserters from his camp in the plantain grove of Doña Sabina had made their appearance among the allies, so completely famished that they could hardly speak.

[XVII-38] In the southern part of Lake Nicaragua, eight or nine miles from the coast of Rivas. A large and productive island having two towns distant 12 miles from one another.

[XVII-39] Oct. 13, 1855, Walker arrived on the coast of Granada. Dec. 13, 1856, he left these shores never to see them again. In the small fort, known as El Fuertecito, his men left a pole with an inscription as a record that Granada had existed there.

[XVII-40] Xatruch was not credited with much ability; but he was patriotic and brave, and to his exertions was measurably due the coöperation of Hond. for the campaign.

[XVII-41] This expedition was promoted by Cornelius Vanderbilt, president of the Accessory Transit Co., through his agent Webster, as appeared in a letter from the commander of the Brit. naval force to the American consul. It was carried out, with the assistance of Spencer, an Am. engineer, who had been in the service of the company and was a pilot on the San Juan. The steamers thus taken were the _Wheeler_, _Morgan_, _Machuca_, and _Bulwer_. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 176-9; _Nic._, _Telég. Seten._, Feb. 28, 1857; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 100-1; _S. F. Herald_, Jan. 31, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Jan. 31, 1857. Official reports and Mora's proclamation in _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 9, 13, 1857.

[XVII-42] This is recognized with shame in the _Telég. Seten._, June 6, 1857. Meantime Mora had, on the 10th of Dec., tendered Walker's officers and soldiers a free passage to San Juan del Norte and New York; and the govt at Leon had, on the 22d, annulled the acts of the administration from Nov. 4, 1855, to June 12, 1856, with a few exceptions. A decree to close the transit between the two oceans was also issued. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 29, 1856; Jan. 9, 23, 1857.

[XVII-43] Two assaults in force, one by Henningsen with 600 men, and another by Walker himself with 450, failed. Another was made on the Castillo Viejo, defended by Cauty, met with the same result, though the assailants took the steamboat _Scott_, and Cauty had to destroy the _Machuca_. Mora's rept, Feb. 24, 1857, in _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 184-94.

[XVII-44] This selection was unfavorably received by the government, and was accorded but a temporary recognition till the allied governments should press their wishes. _Id._, 182-4; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1857.

[XVII-45] The following appointments were also made: Cañas, 2d in command; Zavala, adj.-gen.; Xatruch, inspector-gen.; Chamorro, quartermaster-gen.

[XVII-46] The casualties were 60 killed and 100 wounded. The survivors returned to Punta de Castilla, refusing to go on. Lockridge accused them of cowardice, and took away their arms. But the men claimed the protection of the British naval commander. Cauty went down in a steamer to the bay April 12th, and after conferring with the Brit. officer, occupied Punta de Castilla, securing the war material. He then tendered the men a passage to the U. S. at the expense of Costa R. This was the end of the famous Lockridge expedition. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt; _Nic._, _Telég. Seten._, April 11, 1857; _S. F. Herald_, April 21, May 16, 1857; _S. F. Bulletin_, April 21, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, May 16, 1857; _Pan. El Centinela_, April 22, 1857; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, April 29, 1857.

[XVII-47] Upwards of 300 killed, wounded, and missing.

[XVII-48] He did so, even though he agreed with Xatruch, Martinez, and Chamorro that the capitulation should not be accepted unless Walker pledged himself not to commit hostilities in future against any of the allied states. He also wished to be away before the arrival, then expected, of Gen. Barrios with large reënforcements of Guatemalans and Salvadorans, who would doubtless claim the glory of ending the war. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 209.

[XVII-49] The terms agreed upon between Walker and Davis were: 1st. Walker and the 16 officers of his staff were to leave Rivas with side-arms, pistols, horses, and other personal effects, under Davis' guaranty that they should not be molested by the enemy, but allowed to embark on the _Saint Mary's_ at San Juan del Sur, whence she should convey them to Panamá; 2d. The other officers of Walker's army would leave Rivas, with their arms, under the same guaranty, and be sent by Davis to Panamá in charge of an officer of the U. S.; 3d. The rank and file, citizens and officials, both the wounded and well, were to surrender their arms to Davis on a vessel apart from the deserters, so that there should be no contact between the former and the latter; 4th. Davis pledged himself to obtain for Central Americans then in Rivas permission to remain in their country with protection of life, liberty, and property; 5th. The officers should be allowed to remain at San Juan del Sur, under the protection of the U. S. consul, until an opportunity offered to leave for Panamá or San Francisco. The instrument bears also the signatures of C. F. Henningsen, P. Waters, J. W. Taylor, and P. R. Thompson. _Id._, 210-12; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 6, 17, 28, 1857; _Id._, _Telég. Seten._, May 9, 16, 23, 1857; _Sac. Union_, June 16-18, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, June 17, 18, July 1, 2, 1857; _S. F. Herald_, June 16, 1857; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 287; _Pineda de Mont_, _Notas_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 350, 745-6; _Democ. Rev._, July 1857, 117-23; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 102-3. _Francisco S. Astaburuaga_, _Repúblicas de Centro-América, ó Idea de su Historia y de su Estado actual._ Santiago (Chile), 1857, 8vo, map, dedic., and 116 pp. The author of this work held a diplomatic mission from Chile to Costa Rica, and being desirous of furnishing his countrymen some information on Central America, prepared his material, originally for the _Revista de Ciencias y Letras_ of Santiago; succinctly giving the physical peculiarities, agriculture, commerce, and other resources of the country, together with a sufficiently instructive sketch of the history of Central America in general, as well as of each state comprised in that term, in readable form. At the end is added his official correspondence with the several governments of Central America on the projected union of the Spanish American republics.

[XVII-50] The official correspondence between Mora and the govt of Nic. shows the high appreciation given by the latter to the service rendered by Davis. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 6, 1857.

[XVII-51] A full account of the affair was published in the government's organ. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 28, 1857.

[XVII-52] He had furnished war material to both parties, and tendered Costa Rica's aid to Martinez. His own words at embarking expressed the Machiavellian plot: 'Esta república estará pronto en guerra; dejo las navajas amarradas á los gallos.' Cañas disapproved in toto of those plans. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 212-13.

[XVII-53] Pres. Martinez of Nic. pronounced it a 'guerra injusta y traidora.' _Nic._, _Discurso ... Inaug._, 1.

[XVII-54] Full particulars on this war and the terms of peace, in _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1858, 2-3; _Id._, _Expos. Mot. del Cambio_, 36-7; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, 10-12, 30-1, 135-6; _Nic._, _Manif. Disc. Inaug._, no. 5, 3; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 92; _Ayon_, _Consid. Límites_, 30-2. Perez, while reverting to Costa Rica's plan to rob Nic. of the River San Juan, and a portion of the lake, mentions what Nic. had to suffer from the allied forces during the war. 'Cuantas exigencias, cuantos insultos, cuantas cosas teniamos que sufrir.' The allies appropriated as booty Nicaraguan movable property that was taken from the filibusters. _Mem. Camp. Nac._, _2d pt Carta_ (Pref.), p. ii.

[XVII-55] The official documents connected with the affair clearly prove that the U. S. govt was desirous of maintaining an honorable position before the world. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 35, Sess. 1, vol. vii., H. Ex. Doc., no. 24, 1-82, no. 26, 1; _Id._, Id., H. Jour., 165-73, 1302, 1368; _Id._, Cong. 35, Sess. 1, vol. i., Sen. Ex. Doc., no. 13; _Id._, Id., vol. xiii., Sen. Doc., no. 63; _Id._, Cong. 35, Sess. 2, vol. vii., no. 10; _Cong. Globe_, 1857-8, 1858-9, Index 'Cent. Am.,' 'Paulding,' 'Walker,' 'Neutrality Laws,' 'Clayton-Bulwer Treaty,' etc.; _Stout's Nic._, 211-21; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 294-7; _S. F. Bulletin_, Dec. 29, 1857; _S. F. Alta_, Jan. 14, 1858; _Sac. Union_, Feb. 3, 1858.

[XVII-56] To Paulding were voted thanks, a sword of honor, and 20 caballerías of land. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 2, 1862; _Id._, _Leyes Emit._, 1830, 3-5; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 217-20; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xv. 3; _Id._, _Informe Rel._, 1858, 1-2.

[XVII-57] His ultimate destination was Nicaragua, whose government hastened preparations for the defence of her territory, as well as to aid Hond. in the event of her needing assistance. _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1861, 9; _Id._, _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 16, 1861.

[XVII-58] He received the consolation of religion from a catholic priest, having joined that faith to become president of Nic. His remains were buried in Trujillo. Among his effects was found the seal of Nicaragua, which with his sword the government of Hond. transmitted to that of the former. _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 12, Sept. 28, 1861; _Nic._, _Informe Gobern._, no. ii. 7-9; _El Nacional_, Sept. 8-0ct. 27, 1860; _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 215-16; _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 382; _Eco_, _Hisp.-Am._, Sept. 15-Nov. 15, 1860; _Diario de Avisos_, Oct. 4, 1860; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 49-50; _Harper's Mag._, xxi. 693, 836; _S. F. Bulletin_, Sept. 3, 8, 17, 19, Oct. 3, 29, Nov. 12, 1860.

[XVII-59] The members were: Vicario capitular, J. H. Herdocia, J. de la Rocha, H. Zepeda, Gregorio Juarez, and G. Lacayo; substitutes, J. Baca, F. Diaz Zapata, and Joaquin Perez. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 23, 1857.

[XVII-60] The legitimists claimed it to be for the public weal, whereas the democrats thought it would damage them. _Perez_, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 2d pt, 170-6.

[XVII-61] But for arbitrary measures, on the 12th of June, the state would have divided into two parts, each following its own bent, even to incorporation with other states, which would have been the death of the republic. _Nic._, _Mensaje del Poder Ejec._, 1857, 2-3.

[XVII-62] _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857, 135-8.

[XVII-63] In the decree of convocation the members of the executive and the ministers were made ineligible for seats in that body.

[XVII-64] Only two electoral votes were not cast for him. The constituent assembly, which had been installed Nov. 8th, declared him to have been the people's choice. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, 1863.

[XVII-65] _Discurso Inaug._, 3. Tomás Martinez was a native of Leon, and had been engaged in trade and mining without taking part in the political agitations of his native place until the revolution of 1854, which did not meet his approval. It is believed that his reserve had made him an object of suspicion on the part of the democrats, which circumstance forced him to seek a refuge in the ranks of the conservatives, and to embrace, much against his liking, the military profession. Martinez was a lineal descendant of an heroic woman, Rafael Mora, who in 1780 distinguished herself in the defence of San Juan del Norte against Nelson's attack. He was in 1857 about 45 years old, tall of stature, and of reserved deportment. Self-instructed, plain, and unambitious of popularity, he cared not for honors or display, and abhorred sycophancy. He never used more words than were necessary to express his thoughts, and his whole aim, after he entered public life, was to serve his country. Moreover, he possessed a kindly disposition, and in his family relations was affectionate.

[XVII-66] During the war with Costa Rica he commanded the forces in the field; meantime the executive office was in charge of Deputy Agustin Avilés. He resumed the latter Jan. 25, 1858. In the course of his term he several times provisionally surrendered the office into the charge of others, on account of illness. _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1858, 3-7, 32; 1859, ii. 136, 137; 1860, iii. 71, 83-4, 177.

[XVII-67] The several portfolios were also for more or less time in charge of Pedro Zeledon, J. de la Rocha, Eduardo Castillo, Gerónimo Perez, Miguel Cárdenas, Nicasio del Castillo, and H. Zepeda.

[XVII-68] A number of decrees acknowledging the indebtedness appear in _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 132-54.

[XVII-69] The catholic religion was placed under state protection. The government was constituted in three branches; namely, executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive authority was vested in a president for four years, without reëlection for the next term. In his absence or inability, the office was to go into the hands of the senator called by congress to fill it. The president was to be a native and resident of Nic., 30 years of age or upwards, not having lost the rights of citizenship within five years of the election, and possessing real estate valued at no less than $4,000. The legislative power was to consist of a senate and house of deputies. The senators' term was to be of six years; they were to be at least 30 years old, and to possess no less than $2,000 in real estate, one third of their number to be renewed every two years. The deputies were to be upwards of 25 years old, and hold for four years, one half their number being renewed every two years. The natives of the other Central American states were eligible to the senate or house, after a residence in Nic. of ten or five years respectively. No churchman could be chosen president, senator, or deputy. The justices of the supreme court had to be lawyers of recognized ability and integrity. They were to hold office four years, the members being renewed every two years. The court was divided into two sections with at least four justices each. The constitution recognized liberty of thought, speech, writing, and the press; also the rights of property and emigration. Torture in any form, cruel punishments, confiscation of property, invasion of private domicile, and establishment of special courts were strictly forbidden. It was promulgated Sept. 15, 1858. _Rocha_, _Cód. Legis. Nic._, i. 25-42; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 309-27; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 11, 1872; _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern. y Guerra_, 1859, 3. The bishop and his chapter took the oath to obey it on the 15th of Apr., 1861. _La Union de Nic._, May 11, 1861.

[XVII-70] Because its acts tended to the organization of the country. But on the 25th of June, 1858, the government of José M. Estrada was also exempted from that annulment. _Rocha_, _Cód. Legis. Nic._, i. 82, 89-90.

[XVII-71] He was appointed minister plenipotentiary, first in Costa Rica, next in Washington, and was empowered to negotiate a treaty with the Spanish minister at the latter place. _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, 117, 243, ii. 21.

[XVII-72] Presid. Barrios of Salv. complained of the plots carried on against him in Nic. by refugees, and made demands, such as their being denied the use of the press, to which the Nic. govt could not accede. _Nic._, _Mens. del Presid._, in _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 19, 1861; _Id._, _Mem. Rel._, in _Id._, March 2, 1861.

[XVII-73] 'Ningun Nicaragüense preso, ni confinado, ni expulso por causas políticas; todos son libres, sin restriccion alguna.' _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 24, 1863.

[XVII-74] Official corresp. in _Id._, Feb. 7, 1863.

[XVII-75] Treaty of amity, defensive alliance, commerce, etc., duly ratified. _Id._, April 18, 1863.

[XVII-76] Jerez, Fernando Chamorro, and J. D. Estrada, for taking part against their government, were degraded to the ranks. _Id._, May 23, 30, 1863.

[XVII-77] Congress, Feb. 14, 1863, approved all his administrative acts to date. It had been represented to the people that Martinez, notwithstanding the clause in the constitution forbidding reëlection, could be reëlected, because the powers he had exercised in the past years had come to him, not under the constitution which was of subsequent date, but from the convocation decree of Aug. 26, 1857, and his choice was approved by the constituent assembly.

[XVII-78] _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1867-8, pt ii. 10-11; _Rocha_, _Cód. Leg. Nic._, i. 220. The cong. of Salv. voted him a sword of honor for aiding to defeat Barrios and the federalists. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 17, 24, 1865.

[XVII-79] During his second term the following persons acted as his ministers: E. Castillo, B. Selva, B. Salinas, B. Portocarrero, R. Alegría, R. Cortés, P. Zeledon, J. F. Aguilar, J. J. Lescano, and Antonio Silva. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, April 24, 1873.

[XVII-80] 'Quedan fuera de la amnistía todos aquellos que como autores principales.' _Nic._, _Gaceta_, April 29, May 28, 1864.

[XVII-81] Congress had not only approved his acts, but gave him two votes of thanks, March 11, 1865, and Jan. 19, 1867. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 18, 1865; _Id._, _Dec. Legisl._, 1865-6, 21-2; 1867-8, 5.

[XVII-82] By 433 electoral votes against 139 cast for Juan B. Sacasa; necessary for a choice, 285. _Id._, Oct. 27, 1866; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1867-8, pt ii. 4-5; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 19, 1867.

[XVII-83] Decrees of Jan. 22 and Feb. 28, 1867. _Nic._, _Dec. Legisl._, 1867, 10-11, 25-6.

[XVII-84] 'Por estar en oposicion con las atribuciones del Poder Ejecutivo.' Decree of Jan. 20, 1868. _Id._, 1868, 3.

[XVII-85] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 15, 1873; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, March 27, 1873.

[XVIII-1] Oct. 22d. _Album Semanal_, Sept. 26, 1856; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xiv. 41-2, 51-2.

[XVIII-2] The other ministers were Joaquin B. Calvo, of government and eccles. affairs; and Rafael G. Escalante, of treasury and war.

[XVIII-3] Dec. 11, 1856. _Costa R._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1857, 2-3.

[XVIII-4] In 1854 the pope bestowed on him the honor of Knight grand cross of the order of Gregory the Great, and the Costa Rican congress authorized him to accept it. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xiii. 28; xiv. 147-9.

[XVIII-5] Dec. 29, 1857, a medal was voted. Again, Feb. 26, 1858, a cross of honor was decreed to the generals and field-officers. _Id._, 207; xv. 3.

[XVIII-6] Escalante had been vice-president since Oct. 1857, and at the present time was temporarily in charge of the executive office. _Id._, xvi. 30-1.

[XVIII-7] Political grievances and private animosities were brought into action for his overthrow. He was accused of intending to keep himself in power for life, like Carrera in Guatemala, as was evidenced by his second reëlection, which violated both the spirit and letter of the national institutions; of his having imposed the weight of his own will on the financial department, the judiciary, and even the legislature, with the view of setting up the rule of one family over the ruins of republican liberty; of his having usurped the property and labor of others for his own benefit. Even the organization of an army, and his campaign against Walker, were made to appear as intended to improve his own pecuniary interests, which were said to be in a very bad state. The charge of assumption of dictatorial powers does not seem to be sustained by facts. The opposition journal, the _Album Semanal_, freely published strong articles against his administration. Pamphlets filled with vituperation, and traducing his character, circulated without hindrance; one of the publications called him the tzar of Costa Rica. This opposition was fanned by the hatred of persons who had private grudges against Mora. Among them Vicente Aguilar, his former partner, who had been made to disgorge $100,000 or more, of which he had wrongfully deprived Mora. Capitalists were hostile because the president had chartered a bank. The sale of a tract of public land near San José, upon which many persons had settled, was made the subject for much trouble. The exile of the bishop did not fail to have a powerful influence. Bishop Llorente had refused to pay, or to allow his clergy to pay, an equitable tax decreed by congress Sept. 29, 1858, for the support of hospitals. He not only refused compliance, but incited the populace to revolt. For this he was expelled. He was, however, after Mora's overthrow, recalled by the provisional government, and ruled the diocese till his death, which took place Sept. 23, 1871. _Costa R._, _Mem. Interior_, 1859, 9; 1860, 4; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xvi. 87-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 7, 1871; _El National_, Jan. 15, 1859; _Belly_, _Le Nicaragua_, i. 379-81. One of the publications which came out after Mora's downfall, not only charged him with abuse of power, peculation, and almost every conceivable offence, but of his having brought himself into political prominence by intrigue, and by treachery to Morazan, and to his relations and friends, who, it was asserted, had been ruined by him. This publication is dated San José, April 2, 1860, but is anonymous. _Costa R._, _Expos. ... Motivos ... Cambio Polít._, 37 pp. and 1 I.

[XVIII-8] The provisional administration claimed that the revolution had not merely changed the personnel, but also the principles on which the government was based, the people demanding greater freedom with clearly defined rights and duties, and a more extended suffrage. _Costa R._, _Mem. Interior_, 1860, 4; 1863, 2.

[XVIII-9] The govt was divided into three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial—each independent of the others. The legislative was vested in a congress of two chambers, the senate and house of representatives, and was to meet once a year in ordinary session, and also to hold extraordinary sessions when called for specified purposes. The senate was composed of two senators for each province; the house was composed of deputies chosen by the provinces in the ratio of population. The term of the members of both houses was fixed at four years. The executive authority was vested in a president for three years, without reëlection for the immediate following term. He had a council of state to deliberate upon such affairs as the executive referred to it for advice. The judiciary consisted of a supreme court, and such other lower courts as might be established by law. None but a native citizen, in full possession of his civil and political rights, could be president, or member of the supreme court. Churchmen were ineligible. _Costa R._, _Constituc. Polít._, 1-35; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xvi. 110-45.

[XVIII-10] First designado, Francisco Montealegre; second, Vicente Aguilar. _Id._, xvi. 169-71.

[XVIII-11] In January, Prudencio Blanco and others attempted a revolution in Guanacaste, now called Moracia, and failed. A decree of outlawry was issued against them Jan. 20, 1860, and their property was made amenable for the government's expenses. Another insurrection took place in Esparza with the same result, the govt issuing a decree of similar nature Sept. 16th, and on the 18th another, suspending the constitution. This last decree was revoked March 18, 1861. _Id._, xvi. 153-4, 188, 218-21; xvii. 9.

[XVIII-12] This place had been heavily intrenched, and a battery mounted in it, which was protected on both flanks by armed boats in the estuary, etc.

[XVIII-13] _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 382; _El Nacional_, Oct. 13, 27, Nov. 10, 1860; _Eco Hisp.-Am._, Oct. 31, 1860; _S. F. Bulletin_, Oct. 24, 25, 29, Nov. 14, 27, 1860; _S. F. Herald_, Oct. 29, 1860; _Harper's Monthly Mag._, xxii. 113; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 59-60.

[XVIII-14] The _Gaceta Oficial_, evidently inspired by President Martinez, forgot past grievances, only to bear in mind affectionately the promoter of the holy war for independence. In fact, Mora was in the eyes of both foreigners and natives the personification of Central American patriotism.

[XVIII-15] It will be remembered that Cañas served with distinction in the war against Walker.

[XVIII-16] Apr. 29, 1860. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xvi. 172-3; xvii. 87. A more gen. one was decreed May 1, 1862.

[XVIII-17] During this administration national industries were developed, and the country became more prosperous than ever. _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 383-6.

[XVIII-18] May 1, 1863. Men of all parties voted for him. _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Interior_, 1863, 1; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xviii. 15-16.

[XVIII-19] Congress afterward decreed that Montealegre's portrait should be placed in the office of the president. _Belly_, _Le Nic._, i. 386-7; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Interior_, 1864, 4; _Id._, _Discurso, Dr J. M. Montealegre_, 1863, 1.

[XVIII-20] _Costa R._, _Programa Admin._, 1863, 1. Jimenez adopted the high-handed measure of dissolving congress. In a proclamation to the people he stated that a majority of the members had established a systematic opposition to his government, and usurped all power in direct violation of the constitution. _Id._, _Prod. del Presid._, Aug. 1, 1863.

[XVIII-21] Ending May 8, 1869. _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1876, 111-12; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 17, Apr. 21, May 26, 1866. Castro in his inaugural address used these words: 'Quiero que mi patria, ya que no pueda ser temida por su fuerza, sea considerada por su justificacion y cordura.... No tenemos escuadras; tengamos la simpatía de las naciones.' _Costa R._, _Discurso Inaug., Presid. J. M. Castro_, 1-3.

[XVIII-22] May 15, 1866. They were 2 for each department, making together 16, besides the ministers. _Costa R._, _Col. Rey._, 1866, 114-16.

[XVIII-23] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 25, 1867.

[XVIII-24] Castro's enemies averred that his course was very mysterious, and some even suspected an intention on his part to retain power in his hands, though he supported the candidacy of his minister, Julian Volio. They said that the barracks assumed a menacing attitude, and Castro was on the point of decreeing several military promotions of members of his own family, and concentrating all the forces of the republic in and about his own residence. It came to be believed that he intended to nullify Salazar first, and Blanco next. But the former had in his favor most of the wealthy families, as well as a large support in Alajuela, Heredia, and Cartago. To make the story short, Salazar and Blanco concluded to act together. _El Quincenal Josefino_, no. 32, in _Star and Herald_, Dec. 24, 26, 1868. The editor of this publication was Lorenzo Montúfar. Whatever may be asserted against Castro, he had proved himself a liberal, enlightened, and upright ruler. His administration had given conclusive proof that the president valued liberty of the press and speech as necessary to the existence of a republican government. The country had been enjoying those privileges, and prospering as it had never done before. _U. S. Minister J. B. Blair, to Sec. Fish_, June 23, 1873.

[XVIII-25] The troops and people seemed to acquiesce in the new order of things. There was no bloodshed. Castro was left perfectly free in his own house. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 28, Dec. 5, 1868; Jan. 23, March 20, 1869; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 17, 1868; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xvii. 202-9; _U. S. Mess. and Doc._ (Dept of State, pt ii.), p. xii.; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 60-2.

[XVIII-26] Art. 5th, after declaring the Roman catholic religion to be that of the state, recognizes toleration of other forms of worship; 6th, makes primary education of both sexes obligatory, free, and to be provided by the nation, placing it under the direction of the municipal authorities; 17th, declares the military subordinate to the civil authority, strictly passive, and forbidden to deliberate on political affairs; 72d, grants eligibility for the position of deputy to naturalized citizens after four years' residence from the date of the certificate of naturalization. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 24-59. Art 31st recognized freedom of the press, and yet it was considerably modified by a press law issued by the provisional govt. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 8, 1839.

[XVIII-27] _Costa R._, _Informe Gobern._, etc., 1869, 12-15, 26-7; _Id._, _Informe Hac., Rel._ etc., 1869, 1-2. J. M. Montealegre had been the other candidate. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 19, 1868.

[XVIII-28] May 29, 1869. The action of the courts was restored May 31st. But the president had now unrestricted powers. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 94-5, 100-1, 103. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 19, 1869.

[XVIII-29] Those men drove to the barracks in an ox cart, covered by grass, and dashed in. It looks as if there must have been connivance on the part of the guard. Biscoubi had been, it is understood, invited to join the movement, but refused to lend himself.

[XVIII-30] Among the charges contemplated were that they had appropriated large sums out of the public treasury for personal purposes, and that upwards of $20,000 had been given Eusebio Figueroa to go on a trip of pleasure to Europe.

[XVIII-31] The ministers were then placed under bonds. _Id._, June 18, July 9, 1870.

[XVIII-32] April 29, 1870, Tomás Guardia was promoted to gen. of division, and Victor Guardia to gen. of brigade. The two Quirozes and Próspero Fernandez were made colonels. Other officers also rose in rank. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. 41-4, 50-1.

[XVIII-33] This person was a captain early in 1856, and went as Gen. Cañas' aide-de-camp to the Nic. campaign against Walker. On his return he was made a maj. As comandante of Alajuela he revolted against Presid. Castro Nov. 1, 1868. We have seen how he came to be made a general of division.

[XVIII-34] Guat. had several times attempted interference in Costa Rican affairs, insisting on the suppression of liberty of the press, and on other violations of law, all of which had been refused. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 27, 1870.

[XVIII-35] Report, Aug. 22, 1870, by Minister Lorenzo Montúfar to the national constituent assembly. _Costa R._, _Mem. Rel._, 1870, 1.

[XVIII-36] His ministers who countersigned that decree were B. Carazo, Pedro García, Lorenzo Montúfar, and in the absence of J. Lizano, sec. of the treasury, Salvador Gonzalez as under-secretary. García and Carazo were made brigadiers. García resigned Oct. 28th, and was succeeded by José Antonio Pinto. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. 124-6, 150.

[XVIII-37] Vicente Herrera, Aniceto Esquivel, Jesus Salazar, Cárlos Sancho, and Rafael Barroeta. _Id._, 127-31.

[XVIII-38] For supposed revolutionary schemes. It was even alleged that there was a plot to murder Guardia. _Costa R._, _Gac. Ofic._, May 12, 1871; _Nic._, _Gac._, May 27, June 3, 1871.

[XVIII-39] Excluding the president, his ministers, and the bishop from being electors. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xx. 118-22.

[XVIII-40] The legislative consisted of a chamber of deputies chosen for four years. During recess it was to be represented near the executive by a comision permanente of five deputies. All citizens able to read and write, and possessing property to the value of $500, or an occupation yielding $200 a year, could be chosen deputies, excepting the president, his ministers, members of the supreme court, and governors. Deputies could accept no offices except ministerial or diplomatic, and then they must resign the elections. The executive was vested in a president for four years, who must be a native, thirty years and upwards, and could not be reëlected for the next immediate term. He was allowed a council of state, composed of his ministers, the members of the comision permanente, and others that he might invite to join the deliberations. The judicial authority was vested in a supreme court, whose members must be natives of the country, and such other courts as might be established by law. _Id._, xx. 171-206; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Jan. 14, 1872; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 13, 1872.

[XVIII-41] Guardia went to Europe, where he was treated with marked consideration. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxi. 48-51; xxii. 6. During his absence there was no harmony between the acting president and the chief of the forces, Victor Guardia, nor between the latter and the commandant of artillery. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 17, 1872.

[XVIII-42] Guardia was accused of affording aid to the supporters of retrogression against the liberal governments existing in those states; and of openly permitting an expedition to sail on the _Sherman_ to commit hostilities against the other Cent. Am. states. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Aug. 10, 1873; _Aguirre_, _Recortes de un Periód._, 5-6. Circular of Nic. Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1876, in _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XVIII-43] As an open infringement of previous conventions, international law, and Costa Rica's rights. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 113, 116.

[XVIII-44] A. H. Rivas, foreign minister of Nic., Nov. 11th, in doing so, added that they were guarding their interests against Costa Rica's insidious projects, in gathering large quantities of war material to favor disgruntled Nicaraguans, which his govt well knew, though not officially. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 15, 1873; _Id._, _Informe Min. Delgadillo_, 1-14; _Nic._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1875, 6-7.

[XVIII-45] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, App., Dec. 3, 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 29, 1873.

[XVIII-46] It passed a decree on the 29th of November to check all violations of neutrality, and in a note to the other governments expressed itself in terms of conciliation, tantamount to a withdrawal of the circular of Oct. 24th. _Id._, suppl., Dec. 2, 13, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Dec. 11 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 11, 1873.

[XVIII-47] As stated in his organ, _El Costaricense_, no. 17, suppl.

[XVIII-48] A number of persons who had promoted the new policy, particularly some members of the cabinet, for their credulity and good intentions became the victims of Guardia's wrath, and were banished from their homes. Gonzalez had been let down easy, as having declined to continue in charge of the executive. _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 11, 12; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 194, 197, 200; 1874, 34-5, 53; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 20, 1873; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 11, 20, 1873.

[XVIII-49] He resumed control of the govt Nov. 4-5, 1875. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiii. 75-6, 275.

[XVIII-50] _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, nos. 13, 14; _Id._, _Informe Gobern._, 1875, app. 16-21; _Nic._, _Correspond. sobre Recl._, 3-17; _Nic._, _Mens. Presid._, 1875, 5-6.

[XVIII-51] _El Costaricense_, March 24th, said that the mission of Jerez was from Barrios, president of Guat., to Guardia. The _Quincenal Josefino_, March 26th, gave it as a certainty that Nic. would propose the withdrawal of both forces from the frontier as a conciliatory measure. The whole trouble arose from the boundary dispute. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 4, 1876.

[XVIII-52] _Costa R._, _Mensaje_, 1876, 2; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 24-5.

[XVIII-53] He assumed the office on the 8th, and formed his cabinet with Juan R. Mata, S. Lizano, M. Carazo Peralta, and B. Morales. _Id._, 36-8; _Id._, _Discurso ... Presid._, 1876, 1-4; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 22, 1876.

[XVIII-54] He had been declared a benemérito, and given a vote of thanks. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 62. Guardia's administration during the past six years was highly extolled in the _Gaceta Oficial_ of San José. It said that his surrender of power proved the falsity of the charge that he had intended holding it for life. We shall see how much this statement was worth. It claimed for him that he had at all times blended leniency with firmness, which facts fail to establish. He was equally credited with increasing the revenues by his successful measures to repress smuggling; with protecting industry and labor; endeavoring to provide the country with a railroad between the two oceans; improving the morale of the country; spreading public education; promoting political and commercial relations with other countries; forwarding public works; and lastly, vigorously defending Costa Rica's rights against Nicaragua's pretensions. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 22, 1876. On the other hand, we are told that Costa Rica's revenues were squandered in keeping 2,000 men on the frontier as a menace to Nicaragua. _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 1, 1876. Guardia has been justly called a tyrant, because of his arbitrary acts and violations of the constitution. Electoral and parliamentary freedom, under his rule, was a farce; results at elections being what his will dictated, and congress being mostly made up of his immediate friends and a number of puppets. There were some honorable exceptions, like that of Zacarías García, who, for acting as a real representative of the people, was imprisoned without protest on the part of his colleagues. The independence of the three powers, personal rights, freedom of the press, and other constitutional guaranties, were repeatedly trampled upon by Guardia, by his favorite, Pedro Quiroz, and by other satellites. Justices of the supreme court and numerous other prominent citizens were either imprisoned, banished, or mulcted in heavy sums of money, without any form of trial having preceded. José M. Castro, chief justice, and Salvador Jimenez, justice of the supreme court, were by Guardia's autocratic command made to live for a time on the Pacific coast. Even his brother, Victor Guardia, was harshly treated for showing an independent spirit; and his brother-in-law, Leon Fernandez, was several months kept in irons for some mysterious offence that was never brought to trial, and afterward transferred to a horrible dungeon in Limon, where he was cruelly treated until he succeeded in effecting his escape. Other infringements of the laws are also mentioned, and not a few cases of brutality, even the use of the lash on respectable citizens, which Guardia and his myrmidons were challenged to contradict to the face of Costa Ricans. _Aguirre, J. M._, _Recortes ... Corresp. Hist. Polít._, 1-21. This is a letter dated and published at Panamá May 1, 1876, and addressed to Francisco Chavez C., editor of _El Costaricense_, Guardia's press organ, whom he handles without gloves for his defence of Guardia's acts and abuse of Guardia's opponents. The writer had been one of the victims of both, and was evidently well posted on the history of Guardia's rule. Making allowance for exaggeration in some instances, the conclusion to be arrived at is that Guardia acted like an autocrat who would brook no opposition. It does not appear, however, that he was sanguinary.

[XVIII-55] The people took no part. It was a result of the abuse by the salaried press of the government, of the violation of pledges, and the tacit authorization of crimes against good and loyal servants of the country. _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 20, 1876. Nepotism was also probably a cause. Esquivel's min. of pub. works, and the superintendent of the railroad were brothers-in-law of his. Incompetency, mismanagement, and waste were said to prevail. _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 1, Aug. 18, 1876. The government of Nic. attributed Esquivel's downfall mainly to his friendly policy toward her, which did not suit Guardia. Circular of Nic. Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1875, in _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct 26, 1876.

[XVIII-56] He represented himself as free from political animosities, and promised to maintain order, and to push the work of the railroad. He created a council of state of five members, one of whom was Víctor Guardia. _El Costaricense_, Aug. 4, 10, 1876; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 145.

[XVIII-57] Because her govt had refused him recognition. _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1877, 1-3. Guardia had been appointed plenipotentiary to Guat. and Salv. He visited Guat. first, and arrived at San Salvador Aug. 3d. In presenting his credentials he said that he had been instructed to pave the way for the fusion of the positive interests of Cent. Am. The real object of his mission seems, however, to have been to enlist the two governments in his projects of war against Nic. Both failed him. _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Aug. 5, 15, Dec. 7, 1876; Feb. 25, 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 17, 1877; _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1879, p. iii.-iv. 23-5. Relations with Nic. were not restored till June 30, 1878. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiv. 168-9; xxv. 97-8.

[XVIII-58] Almost his first act was to dismiss from the educational establishments the able teachers who had been brought out at great expense, replacing them with jesuits. For this act he was rewarded with an autograph letter from the pope. He removed the competent foreigners from the management of the railroad on the plea of economy, employing in their places inefficient, because inexperienced, natives; the result being deterioration of rolling stock, and general mismanagement. He forbade cutting rubber on the waste lands, and imposed a duty of 3 cents per ℔. He tried to force Great Britain to recall one of her consular agents. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 20, 1877.

[XVIII-59] He pretended to temporarily do so on the plea of ill health.

[XVIII-60] He chose Pedro Quiróz and Rafael Barroeta his substitutes. _Costa R._, _Informe Gobern._, 1878, 2.

[XVIII-61] Appointing members of the supreme court, enacting laws, and discharging the functions of a consultive council. _Id._, 1878, 1-2; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 25, Oct. 11, 1878.

[XVIII-62] Promulgated the 18th by Guardia. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxv. 186-7, 210-11, 217-19, 228-30; _Id._, _Col. Disp. Legis._, 1878, 16-17.

[XVIII-63] Decree of Dec. 19, 1877. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 45th Cong., 3d Sess., i. 76-9. Relations with Hond. were also interrupted in 1878. _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Rel._, 1879, 2; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxv. 237.

[XVIII-64] _Costa R._, _Col. Disp. Legis._, 1878, 19-20, 25-6; _Id._, _Procl._, Jan. 24, 1878; _Id._, _Informe Gobern._, 1878, 2-3; _Id._, _Inf. Guerra y Marina_, 1878, 2.

[XVIII-65] Finally Mora was forbidden by the Nicaraguan government to reside within the eastern and southern departments. _Nic._, _Mem. Rel._, 1879, p. iv.

[XVIII-66] Sept. 12, 1878. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 11, 1878.

[XVIII-67] _Costa R._, _Instal. Asamblea Legis._, 1880, 7 f.

[XVIII-68] Abolition of capital punishment adopted; also the following clauses: laws to have no retroactive effect; all persons, not convicted of crime, were free, and to have the privilege of entering and leaving the republic; right of congregating unarmed to discuss public affairs, and the conduct of officials, of petitioning individually or collectively, and of expressing political opinions, together with freedom of the press fully recognized. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 16, 1880.

[XVIII-69] Free expressions of opinion were an open road to persecution. _Id._, Nov. 6, 1880.

[XVIII-70] _Costa R._, _Honores Fún._, 1882, 1-59; _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 20, 1882.

[XVIII-71] Fernandez was born in San José July 18, 1834. He received a portion of his education in Guat., and at 18 years of age entered the Costa Rican army. In 1854 he was a sub-lieutenant, and in 1856 served in Nic. against Walker. In 1860 he fought against the invaders under Ex-presid. Mora at Angostura. In 1870 he was one of the few men that captured the artillery barracks, thereby causing the overthrow of Presid. Jimenez. During Guardia's rule he held several positions of trust and rose to gen. of division. His wife was named Cristina Guardia. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 14, 1885; _Id._, _Gaceta_, April 30, 1885.

[XVIII-72] Aug. 11, 1882, a gen. amnesty for political offences to date was decreed.

[XVIII-73] A sort of compromise was agreed to; a few officials were removed, and the _Quincenal Josefino_, Montúfar's journal, ceased publication. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 24, 1883.

[XVIII-74] They were embarked the 19th at Limon; and the fact was telegraphed the same day to the other Cent. Am. governments by Sec. of State Castro. _El Guatemalteco_, July 30, 1884; _Costa R._, _Informe Rel._, 1885, 17, 89-91; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1885.

[XVIII-75] July 19th, cemeteries were secularized. July 22d, religious orders were suppressed. All these executive decrees were countersigned by Minister Bernardo Soto, who later became president. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 9, 1885.

[XVIII-76] The federation plan had been opposed in 1883 by Costa Rica refusing to accredit delegates. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, pt 1, 54.

[XVIII-77] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 9-12, 1885.

[XVIII-78] Further honors to his memory at a later date. Aug. 3, 1885, it was ordered that his bust should be placed in the public square of San José. _Id._, March 13, 14, Aug. 5, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, 1885; _El Universal_ (Pan.), March 17, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, Sept. 9, 1885.

[XVIII-79] Soto is a native of Alajuela, Feb. 12, 1854; his parents being Gen. Apolinar de J. Soto, and Joaquin Alfaro. He was educated in Costa Rica, and in 1877 was admitted to the bar, and practised the legal profession till 1880, when he travelled in the U. S. On his return he was made governor of the province of Alajuela, in which position he exerted himself for the advancement of the province. He did not complete his term, having to make a visit to Europe. On his return in April 1882, he was again appointed governor of Alajuela, and in August of the same year the executive called him to fill a position in his cabinet as minister of government, police, and public works. Apr. 19, 1885, he married Pacífica, a daughter of Ex-president Fernandez; and May 15th, congress declared him a benemérito, and gen. of division. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 16, June 9, 1885.

[XVIII-80] The first named was given the portfolio of foreign affairs. _Id._, March 13, 14, 1885.

[XVIII-81] Circular of March 17, 1885. It also explained the motives prompting Costa R., Salv., and Nic. to resist Barrios' projects. _Id._, _Manif. del Gob._, 1885-6. Costa R. sent a contingent of troops to Nic., Hond., and Salv. Her troops, however, had no opportunity to fight. Presid. Soto tendered his resignation on the 5th of June, but it was not accepted, and extraordinary powers were conferred on him for sixty days. _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 22, 23, June 6, 1885.

[XVIII-82] He was also deprived of his political rights, 'por el delito de conspiracion para rebelion, cometido en servicio activo de las armas.' _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 27, 1885.

[XIX-1] In 1829, when convents were closed in Guat., he had to leave the cloister, and afterward obtained a papal dispensation from his vows. He then studied law, and received the degree of licentiate in 1836.

[XIX-2] Slowness and procrastination ruled supreme. A citizen of Salvador said of Dueñas to describe his policy: 'El mejor caballo para Dueñas es el que no anda.'

[XIX-3] In Jan. 1866 he married a wealthy widow, who had been educated in the U. S. That same year the university conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, March 3, 1866.

[XIX-4] The Hondurans claimed on the strength of art. 8th of the treaty concluded at Santa Rosa on the 25th of March, 1862, the concentration in the interior of Salvador of Gen. Florencio Xatruch, the priest Miguel Bustillo, and José Manuel Selva, Hondurans; and also of certain Nicaraguans, who after their rebellion against the government of Fernando Guzman in their own country, had found a refuge in Salvador, and made common cause with the enemies of President Medina, because he had supported Guzman with the moral and diplomatic influence of his government. The Salvadoran negotiator denied that Xatruch was a political refugee. He was sent by Nic. in 1863 to Salv. at the head of an auxiliary force. Later with Nicaragua's permission he was employed by Salv., he being since 1858 a general of division of her army, a rank conferred on him for his services against Walker and his filibusters; and was therefore entitled to all the rights of a Salvadoran citizen. Salv. pledged, however, that he would do no hostile act against Hond. As to adopting any action against the Nicaraguans, the demand could not be acceded to, because they did not come under the provisions of the treaty with Honduras, nor were they political refugees at all. The commissioner of Salv. made counter-charges: 1st. Hond. had violated art. 9 of the treaty of Santa Rosa, in that her legislature had empowered the executive to declare war against Salv. without first complying with the terms of that clause. 2d. She had allowed asylum to Salvadoran refugees, giving them employment on the frontier of Salv., where they had been constantly plotting and uttering menaces against their govt, using arms obtained from Honduran govt warehouses. All remonstrances against such proceedings had been disregarded. 3d. Hond., heeding false reports, had raised 1,500 men, keeping a portion on the Salv. frontier, and maintaining a warlike attitude. The Honduran commissioners denied the correctness of the charges, and quoted instances in which their government had given proofs of deference and friendship toward its neighbor. _Salv._, _Protocolo de las Conf._, 1-16.

[XIX-5] Nic. had mediated on behalf of peace, accrediting H. Zepeda and M. Montealegre as commissioners at Amapala. But an affair of arms at Pasaquina frustrated the efforts of the legation. Circular of Nic. Foreign Min., Sept. 5, 1876, in _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XIX-6] The oligarchs pretended contempt for Medina's action; some said, 'Medina es un loco, y Honduras un esqueleto;' others, 'La quijotesca actitud de Honduras afianzará mas nuestro poder.' _Uriarte_, _Observ. ... Union Rep. Cent. Am._, 3.

[XIX-7] It was said that Medina was enticed into assisting the liberals, under the delusion that they would call him to rule over the united states of Guat., Salv. and Hond.

[XIX-8] San Salvador, the capital, had been several days fortified awaiting an assault, but the invaders, not knowing how much force there might be at hand for its defence, preferred to march on to Santa Ana.

[XIX-9] _Hond._, _Boletin Ofic._, no. 2, contains the official report of the action, copied in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 13, 1871.

[XIX-10] A guard was kept around the minister's house as long as Dueñas was his guest.

[XIX-11] He was kept there, treated with respect and consideration till after his trial. The particulars of his surrender appear in the official correspondence of Min. Torbert with both his own and the Salvadoran governments. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. 693-5.

[XIX-12] There was no reason to keep him a prisoner. He could no longer injure Medina, and moreover, the government took into account his valuable services to Cent. Am. in 1856-7 against Walker. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 197-8.

[XIX-13] The process was accordingly passed to the cámara de 2d instancia. _El Porvenir de Nic._, June 2, 1872.

[XIX-14] The revolution was declared one for the restoration of the people's rights, Gonzalez being recognized as provisional president. His recall of the supreme court was approved of.

[XIX-15] Freedom to meet peaceably for the discussion of public affairs and the conduct of the rulers; freedom of speech and of the press were fully recognized and established, as also the inviolability of life, personal liberty, property, and honor, which no man could be deprived of except for cause after undergoing a fair trial. A citizen's domicile and private papers were also declared inviolable. Primary instruction was to be uniform, gratuitous, and obligatory. Secondary and superior education were to be free, though subject to the supervision of the civil authorities. Passports were abolished. The Roman catholic was declared to be the state religion, but other christian sects not repugnant to morality and good order were tolerated. Foreigners could become naturalized after two years' residence, and Spanish Americans after one year. All Salvadorans of 21 years or upwards, and of good moral character, were citizens, provided they had either one of the following qualifications: being father of a family, or head of a household; knowing how to read and write; possessing an independent livelihood. Those of only 18 years of age having a literary degree were also voters. The military in active service could neither vote nor be voted for. The government was vested in three distinct powers: legislative, composed of a senate, renewable yearly by thirds, each senator owning at least $2,000 in real estate, and a house of deputies, the whole renewed yearly; the executive, vested in a president owning at least $10,000 in real estate, his term being for only two years; and the judiciary, consisting of the supreme and lower courts. No ecclesiastic was eligible. The president, vice-president, and members of both houses of congress were to be chosen by electoral colleges. _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatémala_, 199-202; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Nov. 26, 1871; Jan. 7, 1872; _Ruiz_, _Calend. Salv._, 70.

[XIX-16] Full Sp. text in _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatémala_, 343-82; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, For. Rel., ii. 788-94, 811-20; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 30, 1872; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 28, 1872.

[XIX-17] Salvador's acceptance of the war declared by Hond. March 25th was signed by President Gonzalez, and countersigned by his cabinet; namely, Gregorio Arbizú, min. of foreign rel.; Manuel Mendez, min. of pub. instruction; Borja Bustamante, min. of the treasury and war; and Antonio G. Valdés, acting min. of govt. _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 12, 1872.

[XIX-18] A plot was to break out simultaneously in San Salvador, San Vicente, Sensuntepeque and Cojutepeque, with ramifications in Guatemala. The Indians of Cojutepeque rose against the garrison and were beaten off.

[XIX-19] The report was dated Oct. 4th, and signed by the ministers, G. Arbizú, J. J. Samayoa, and Fabio Castillo. The legislative sanction was given Oct. 14th. Report of Thomas Biddle, Am. minister, in _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, ii. 784-7.

[XIX-20] Mendez held also the position of minister of public instruction, justice, and ecclesiastical affairs. He was an honorable, energetic, and talented man, and his loss was much deplored by the country, and particularly by Pres. Gonzalez. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 547-8. The republic also lost this year, Dec. 10th, one of her most gifted and valuable sons, Gregorio Arbizú, who had likewise been vice-president, and for many years minister of foreign relations. His funeral was conducted and the expenses defrayed by the government, as a mark of respect and appreciation of his services. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 26, 1872.

[XIX-21] He was captured in Jan. 1875, and shot on the 29th of Apr. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 20, May 1, 1875.

[XIX-22] Such was the flattering account given by the government to the national congress, on the opening of its labors Jan. 18th. _Salv._, _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 20. 1875; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1875, 1-12; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 20, 1875.

[XIX-23] Under a decree of amnesty of Nov. 2, 1875. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 4, 1875.

[XIX-24] The governments of Guat., Nic., and Hond. tendered aid. The rebels were eventually pardoned after some months' imprisonment. _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 6, 28, 1875; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, June 23 to July 21, 1875.

[XIX-25] This intervention was apparently on the ground of humanity, to stop the civil war raging there. But the main reason recognized was that the situation in Hond. was a menace to Salv., and might lead to an interruption of friendly relations between the latter and Guat. Salv., on being accused of violating the compact, alleged that by strict rights it had become obsolete after the action of Naranjo, when Leiva's administration demolished its foes and recovered its full authority. However, Salv. was disposed to fulfil her agreement. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 23, 1876.

[XIX-26] These decrees were countersigned by the other ministers, J. Barberena, F. Lainfiesta, and Joaquin Macal. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, 202-6; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 17, 1876.

[XIX-27] It denies all the charges of Barrios and his govt as unfounded in fact and slanderous, and imputes to Barrios the intent to conquer Cent. Am., beginning with Salv. and Hond. This decree is countersigned by the ministers Manuel Cáceres, Dositeo Fiallos, Julian Escoto, and Cárlos Bonilla. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 29, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 8, 1876.

[XIX-28] Uraga acted under orders, and wonders why the Salvadorans did not fall upon Chingo and capture all the supplies there. _Réplica_, 12-16.

[XIX-29] The victors did not occupy Apaneca because the enemy, though defeated, was still much superior in numbers. The Salvadoran general-in-chief claimed a victory over 2,500 well-disciplined Guatemalans. The _Diario Ofic._ of San Salv., Apr. 18, 1876, had it that 4,000 Guatemalans were put hors de combat in the two fights of Apaneca—evidently an exaggeration.

[XIX-30] The Salvadoran army of the east was annihilated. Gen. Delgado, and colonels Henriquez and Jerez were killed, Gen. Figueroa and Col Benj. Molina wounded. A large number of prisoners, about 1,500 Remington rifles, and much other war material fell into the victors' hands. _El Guatemalteco_, Apr. 25, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 1, 2, 1876. According to a Salvadoran account, the eastern expeditionary force consisted of 1,500, while that of Solares was of 2,500. The former claimed a victory on the 17th, confessing, however, that they had finally to retreat. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 19, 23, 25, 1876.

[XIX-31] He had thrown into it 900 bombs without other result than destroying a few buildings. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 26; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 21, 1876. Gen. Gonzalez told a different story.

[XIX-32] Gonzalez said that during the negotiations there were 2,300 men in Ahuachapan and 2,000 in Santa Ana; of the latter only one half were well armed. The Guatemalans had every advantage—numbers, arms, discipline, and abundant resources of every kind. They had but few desertions, whereas from the Salv. ranks there had been many. Barrios' army on entering Santa Ana exceeded 9,000 men. Salv. still had a chance of obtaining honorable terms. If these were refused, she could, after providing for the defense of the capital, concentrate the remainder of her forces in Santa Ana, and trust to the chances of a battle. _Gonzalez_, _Rel. de los Hechos Ocurr._, 1-18, in _Pap. Var._, ccxxvii. no. 14.

[XIX-33] The commissioners were José Valle, Jacinto Castellanos, and E. Mejía for Salv., and Gen. Lopez Uraga for Guat. The terms are here epitomized: 1st. Presid. Valle was to resign the executive office to the person hereafter named. 2d. Gen. Gonzalez to give up the command of the forces to Valle. Both were to have full guaranties for their persons and property. 3d. The Salv. forces now at Santa Ana were to retire to San Salv.; Santa Ana to be evacuated by 12 M. of the 27th inst. War material that could not be removed in time was to be delivered to Uraga under inventory. 4th. Santa Ana, and territory within two leagues of the town, were to be occupied by the Guatemalans, the civil authorities being allowed to exercise their functions therein, but expected to furnish supplies; Barrios guaranteeing security of persons and property to the inhabitants. The Guat. forces in the east were to occupy San Miguel, and territory within one league, under the same guaranties allowed the civil authorities and people of Santa Ana. 5th. Presid. Valle was to convoke a junta of notables, within four days from the ratification of this convention, to meet at Santa Ana, and choose in accord with Barrios the person in whose hands Valle must resign his offices. 6th. The acting executive must, within ten days, convoke the people of Salv. to freely choose, a month later, the president of the republic. 7th. The person designated by the notables shall have organized his government and issued the convocation, the forces of Guat. will leave the Salv. territory. 8th. Barrios and the provisional executive of Salv. will make a treaty of peace between the two republics. 9th. This convention must be ratified by Barrios at once, and by telegram within twenty-four hours by Valle, the ratifications to be exchanged within six hours after. An additional article made free the transit between the two countries. The convention was duly ratified. Upwards of 200 persons at Santa Ana sent Barrios, after the occupation of the town by his troops, April 30th, an address of thanks for his magnanimity and generosity, adding that no Salvadoran could justly complain of the behavior of the Guat. army. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, no. 8; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 7-11; _Salv._, _Diario, Ofic._, May 4, 7, 1876; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 26, 30, 1876; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1876, 11-12; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 16, 1876.

[XIX-34] Cruz Ulloa, min. of foreign relations, justice, eccles. affairs, and pub. instruction; José Lopez, of govern.; Estanislao Perez, of war; and Fabio Moran, of treasury. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, May 6, 1876.

[XIX-35] By Cruz Ulloa and Marco Aurelio Soto. The treaty provided also for the surrender of common criminals, the concentration away from the frontier of political refugees; fostering legitimate and checking illicit trade; excluding Jesuits. In the event of misunderstandings, the parties must resort to arbitration. The treaty of Jan. 24, 1872, and the Rivas-Carazo with Nic., were repealed. Honduras and Costa Rica were to be invited to join it. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 11, 1876; _La Regeneracion_, May 16, 1876; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, April 1, 1879; _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 1, 1876.

[XIX-36] _Costa R._, _Pap. Sueltos_, no. 17. Gen. Indalecio Miranda, who had been proclaimed president in some parts, recognized Zaldívar.

[XIX-37] A native of Salv., he studied medicine in Cent. Am. and completed his professional studies in Paris. On his return home he soon had a remunerative practice, and came to be considered one of the best physicians in Cent. Am. His professional duties did not, however, keep him out of politics.

[XIX-38] He effected his escape from the capital disguised as an Indian with a load of grass on his head.

[XIX-39] In Feb. 1879 congress thanked the emperor of Germany for the honor of knighthood conferred on Zaldívar. In France he was given the title of officer of pub. instruction. The same month and year congress gave him a vote of thanks for his services. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 6, 8, 1879.

[XIX-40] He therefore saw good reason to tender congratulations to the representatives of the people on the promising condition of Salvador and the other Cent. Am. republics. _Zaldívar_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 5, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 17, 1883; _Pan. El Cronista_, Jan. 20, 1883.

[XIX-41] Among the persons taken as leaders of the movement were Gen. Francisco Menendez, Dr Manuel Gallardo, Marcial Estevez, and Manuel A. Loucel. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 16, 17, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 5, 7, 1883.

[XIX-42] June 1st. This decree caused much satisfaction among all classes.

[XIX-43] The grounds for the convocation as stated were that the people had almost unanimously declared that some of the clauses of the constitution of 1880 were not suited to the national requirements. The _Diario Oficial_ expressed the hope that the revision would give a more judicious application of the principles of a republican government, thus strengthening the public liberties without weakening the principle of authority.

[XIX-44] The govt was vested in three distinct powers: legislative in two chambers; executive in a president for four years; and judicial in a supreme court.

[XIX-45] He constituted his cabinet with the following ministers: Salvador Gallegos, of foreign affairs; Domingo Lopez, interior; Pedro Melendez, treasury and navy; Asun. Mora, war and public works; Luciano Hernandez, education; and Antonio J. Castro, justice. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1884, p. 6; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1884, 5-6; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 16, Feb. 23, 26, 1884.

[XIX-46] He visited the U. S. and France, being received with the honors due his rank as chief magistrate of a friendly nation. _La Estrella de Pan._, Aug. 14, Sept. 11, 1884; _El Guatemalteco_, Apr. 29, 1884.

[XIX-47] Proclamations and manifestoes of Pres. Zaldívar and the assembly of Salv., March 14, 15, 17, 1885. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 21, April 1, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, 1885.

[XIX-48] The Salv. official reports claimed victories at Coco and San Lorenzo. The attack against the latter was made at 10 P. M. of the 31st, and repulsed. Repeated the next day from 5 A. M. to 3 P. M.; the assailants were driven back by Gen. Monterosa. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, April 2, 1885.

[XIX-49] According to a Guat. account, an error was committed in not bombarding the Salv. stronghold, Casa Blanca. Barrios at 8 A. M. of the 2d led the assault on the N. E. side of the fortification with the Jiron brigade of Jalapas, which on that day behaved cowardly. Shortly after the assault, a little past 9, Barrios was mortally wounded, and forthwith removed. The Jalapas gave way, divulging to other troops the death of the president. Thus it came to pass that the first who saw Barrios fall were the first to take to flight, followed by men of several other brigades. To avert a disaster, the troops operating on the N. side were recalled. The firing ceased on both sides at 4:30, and the retreat to the Magdalena began at 6:30, the Salvadorans not pursuing. The same authority claimed that if the firing had been kept up an hour longer, the Guatemalans would have won the day, several bodies of troops having abandoned the town, and the supply of ammunition in the place being already scanty. He asserts that the Guat. loss in all the fights was in killed, besides the president, and his son Gen. Venancio Barrios, colonels A. Jiron, V. Bonilla Cruz, Urbano Sanchez, Major Gonzalez, a few other officers, and 200 rank and file. _Campaña de la Union Cent. Am._, in _La Estrella de Pan._, May 30, 1885.

[XIX-50] Further details may be seen in _Zaldívar_, _Mensaje_, May 4, 1885; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 1-4; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 5, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, May 2, 9, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 10, 24, 27, 1885; _S. F. Cronista_, Apr. 4, 11, 15, 25, May 2, 1885; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 4, 1885; _Id._, _Monitor Rel._, June 20, 1885; _Id._, _La Prensa_, supl. no. 162.

[XIX-51] The gov. of Salv. proclaimed peace on the 15th of April, and granted a full amnesty to all who took part in the war against Salv., and generally to all in exile for political offences.

[XIX-52] Though the gov. had made common cause with Barrios, it manifested a disposition to cut loose from the alliance after the late events.

[XIX-53] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 19, June 24, 1885. Zaldívar well knew that there was a powerful opposition to him.

[XIX-54] Menendez was a man of energy and courage. He possessed good common sense and natural shrewdness. His habits were simple. Polite and unassuming, he always made a favorable impression.

[XIX-55] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 1, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 18, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, July 25, 1885.

[XIX-56] Nov. 26 and 27, 1885. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 9, Dec. 7, 1885. This state of things still existed in March 1886. Correspondence of March 1st, to _S. F. Post_, April 2, 1886.

[XIX-57] The supreme court would not recognize the right of the Salv. courts to demand it. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 1, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1885.

[XX-1] A general officer then filling the position of civil and military chief of the department of Chiquimula. It has been said that Carrera, shortly before his death, suggested him for the succession. The conservative element claimed that for his abilities and meritorious services Cerna had won himself popular regard. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 20, 1865. Events will show that his mental calibre was very ordinary, being a religious fanatic, and retrogressionist of the old oligarchic school of the Aycinenas, Pavons, and Batres. He was a warm friend and constant associate of the jesuits, to whom he went to confession, if reports did not belie him, about once a week; so he must have had a tender conscience, or else was a confirmed sinner.

[XX-2] 'Su probidad, rectas intenciones, inteligencia, y larga práctica de los negocios merecen la estimacion y confianza de todos los buenos guatemaltecos.' _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, no. 3.

[XX-3] It is understood that his father, a peaceable citizen of Los Altos, for some unguarded words against the govt, was taken as a prisoner to the capital, and cruelly treated. The son then had gone off to Chiapas, whence he had made occasional raids.

[XX-4] The govt deprived Cruz of his rank as a mariscal de campo, suspended constitutional guaranties, such as they were, and declared traitors all persons implicated in the rebellion, or holding relations with the insurgents. On the 5th of Feb. troops were despatched to the disturbed districts. _Pan. Mercantile Chronicle_, March 3, 1867.

[XX-5] One of his plans was to destroy the rum-stills belonging to a monopoly, from which the treasury derived a large revenue. The cry of Down with the aguardiente company! raised by any popular man would bring him stanch followers. Carrera himself had used it in his early days.

[XX-6] He had signed a pledge not to return to Guat. without leave of the govt, and neither directly nor indirectly to disturb the public peace. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 27, May 25, 1867; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 20, 1867; _Pan. Mercantile Chronicle_, May 22, 1867.

[XX-7] Cruz and some of his officers were executed; others were sentenced to ten years' confinement in San Felipe castle. J. Rufino Barrios escaped, and his hacienda, El Malacate, being partly in Guat. and partly in Soconusco, an active pursuit of him was not easy. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Aug. 16, 1867; _Pan. Merc. Chronicle_, Sept. 4, 18, Oct. 4, 1867. Barrios made another raid from his hacienda in Apr. 1838, which also failed in effecting his purpose. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 29, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 23, 1868.

[XX-8] May 8th, suspended certain clauses of the constitution. The decree alleged that Cruz had been inveigling the Indians of Los Altos 'con promesas peligrosas de distribucion de tierras.' Cruz was declared amenable to the laws for his seditious acts of 1867 as well as for the present ones. All others concerned with him were made indictable for treason, if after the public. of the decree they did not surrender. Passports had to be obtained to travel. _Guat._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Apr. 9, 1869; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 17, 1869; _Salv._, _Constitutional_, May 20, 1869.

[XX-9] The distillery was destroyed as a matter of course.

[XX-10] The official report added that the insurgents left 24 dead and 16 prisoners; and that it was rumored Cruz had been shot in the heart.

[XX-11] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 12, 19, Aug. 7, Sept. 18, Dec. 18, 1869; _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 17, Sept. 17, 1869; _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Nov. 24, 1869.

[XX-12] Zavala was accused by the conservatives of political inconsistency, in that he had all along claimed to be a supporter of Cerna. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 2, 1869.

[XX-13] The vote stood 31 for Cerna, 21 for Zavala, 5 scattered. Not a bad showing for the liberals, if we consider that the electors had been chosen under the influence of the oligarchic government. _Id._, Feb. 23, June 17, 1869.

[XX-14] In his message to congress Nov. 25th, Cerna acknowledged that the country was in a sad plight. He called his account 'un cuadro desconsolador,' and requested a postponement of the session.

[XX-15] The govt had raised a loan in London, and for a few months was able to tide over many of its difficulties, internal debts, and arrears due the army and officials being settled, and the treasury still having a surplus.

[XX-16] The government had supposed him in a distant department fleeing from its troops, when he quietly slipped into Palencia, a town distant 8 or 9 miles from Guatemala, in the night of Saturday. Feeling certain that the govt was ignorant of his whereabouts, and confident that the people of Palencia were friendly, he failed to adopt proper precautions, and even had high mass chanted for his troops in the small hours of the morning. But it so happened that the authorities of Guatemala received late in the night information of his arrival, and of the number of his men. An overwhelming force of Santa Rosa Indians, devoted to Cerna and hostile to Cruz' Indians, was despatched under command of Brig. Solares, who surrounded Cruz and attacked him before he had begun to prepare for his own attack of the capital. He made a desperate fight of two hours, however, behind the adobe walls of a corral, but it availed naught. His only chance of escape was in flight. A rush carried him and his remaining men to the edge of a ravine, and he had gone down half of the steep descent when a ball struck him in the thigh and broke it. No quarter was asked or given. He was slain while fiercely fighting to the last. His fleeing men were relentlessly pursued for several days, and such as were not killed in the ravines were captured and executed. _Peatfield's Glimpse at a Cent. Am. Rep._, in _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 163-5; see also _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Jan. 15, 1870; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 28, 1870; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 5, 19, 1870; _Nueva Era_, Paso del Norte, Apr. 3, 1885. The victorious Solares was promoted to mariscal de campo; his officers also received promotion, and the rank and file one month's extra pay; but he lived to enjoy his new honors less than a year, his death occurring in Nov. 1870. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 3, 1870.

[XX-17] It was exposed to the public gaze at the door of the hospital, where a photograph of it was taken, copies of which were sold at half a dollar each.

[XX-18] On parole not to return without permission of the govt. He and some members of his family had to sign a $10,000 bond.

[XX-19] Silas A. Hudson, the Am. minister, claimed that much had been due to his advice, and the favorable opinion had of his friendly course. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 41, Sess. 3, 444.

[XX-20] Cerna was blind himself, or tried to throw dust into the eyes of the representatives of the people when in his message of Nov. 25, 1870, he assured them that peace had been fully restored. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 17, 1870.

[XX-21] The particulars of this revolution appear in another chapter.

[XX-22] The _Boletin de Noticias_ said, respecting his movement, 'cometió el acto de demencia.'

[XX-23] So said the _Boletin de Noticias_ of Guat., copied by _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 3, 1871.

[XX-24] The preamble said that Cerna's govt had become intolerable by its arbitrary and cruel acts in violation of the constitution and other laws; that it had usurped powers, and had assailed the representatives of the people; it had ruined the public treasury, and compromised the independence of the country by contracting without authority of law a ruinous loan in Europe. Consequently, the people would no longer forbear with its tyrannical domination, and had resolved to set it aside. The following are the resolutions epitomized: 1st. To depose the tyrant and usurper Cerna; 2d. To appoint Miguel García Granados provisional president with full authority to reorganize a government on the bases proclaimed by him May 8, 1871; 3d. He was also instructed when expedient to convoke a constituent assembly for framing a new fundamental law; 4th. The officers solemnly bound themselves not to lay down their arms until these purposes were effected. Signed by Gen. of Brigade J. Rufino Barrios, Colonel Francisco del Riego, lieut-colonels Juan Viteri, Julio García Granados, etc. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley., Gob. Democ._, i. 1-3 et seq.

[XX-25] He had been, he said, for 20 years energetically opposing the government's illegal proceedings in the chamber of deputies; and it had never dared to touch him until after its triumph over Cruz in Jan. 1870. _García Granados_, _Procl._, June 2, 1871.

[XX-26] A contemporary gives the following lists of bequests left by the conservative rule of thirty years. A large number of jesuits, well fed on the sweat of the people, and their acolytes and choristers; another large quantity of Capuchin friars who preyed on the inhabitants of Antigua, Guat.; about 200 friars and lay brothers in the capital, most of them lazy and stupid; nearly 200 useless nuns, of whom some 40 were in a state of insanity or idiocy, and in condition to be canonized; one archbishop, 2 bishops, 12 or 15 vicars and canons, and a high steward of church property, etc; a foreign debt of five million dollars; a nearly complete absence of public education, necessitating the establishment of at least 500 schools and colleges adequately supplied; few, if any, roads or bridges; no steam vessels; no adequate postal service; no telegraphs; no public lands, for immense tracts of unproductive lands were held by the church and by a few aristocrats. _Juan Álvarez_, _Dos Palabras_, 12-13. Prior to the revolution of 1871, which regenerated the country, the capital wore a monkish and funereal look. After the triumph of this movement, abuses were eradicated, anachronisms disappeared, and modern ideas began to prevail. _Batres_, _A Sketch of Guat._, 16-17.

[XX-27] The men had been pressed into the service, and moreover, dreading the superior arms of their opponents, in several instances fled at the first onset, throwing down their arms.

[XX-28] It has been averred that he partook of some coffee which had been drugged.

[XX-29] Cerna must either pursue, giving him a vantage-ground, or rush to the defence of the capital, making the success of the revolution equally certain, for the whole country would then rise against his detested rule.

[XX-30] An unfortunate circumstance occurred. A portion of the troops with which Julio G. Granados had forced the passage of the ravine, going toward the farm of Dieguez, encountered two companies of Solares' men, and the two forces mistaking one another for the enemy, fought some minutes; some men were wounded, and a field-officer named Juan Solórzano was slain. _Guat._, _Boletin de Noticias_, Aug. 4, 1871; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 16, 1871.

[XX-31] They all behaved well; but special credit must be given, not only to the chief and Barrios, but to Solares and Viteri, who struck decisive blows.

[XX-32] Cerna fled to Chiquimula with a few followers. The Indians were still faithful to him, and begged he should lead them to the field in defence of his cause; but he knew any such effort must end in disaster, and refused. He then continued his flight to Honduras. Most of his ministers also escaped. Indeed, no effort was made to detain them, or other men of the fallen administration, it being considered a better policy not to be hampered with the responsibility of disposing of them. The old minister of war remained behind and was not molested. Full particulars on the campaign are given in _Salv._, _El Republicano_, July 3, 1871; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, July 11, 12, 1879; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 21, 1871; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Rel._, 1872, 14; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, 1885; _J. J. Peatfield's Glimpse at a Cent. Am. Rep._, in _Overland Monthly_, xiv. 166-7; _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 6-9; _Uriarte_, _Observ._, 4-6.

[XX-33] There were not wanting men who reproached García Granados for his generosity to the vanquished.

[XX-34] Congress had ceased to exist; the heads of important offices had fled; the treasury was empty. There was danger to be apprehended from the radical element among the liberals, composed of a large portion of the mechanics and artisans, who claimed that the change had mainly resulted from their influence, and they now wished to dictate measures which the new government could not decree. Their violent feeling was manifested specially toward the jesuits and other religious orders. Their discussions in the club de los artesanos, and elsewhere, often disclosed a marked suspicion of and conveyed warnings to the authorities. There were also misgivings about Barrios' intentions. Indeed, many believed that though not actually at the head of affairs, he had the control; even after leaving the city, he was supposed to aspire to the presidency, to which he would have himself elected as soon as the constituent assembly should meet. Meantime, it was said, he would allow García Granados to put the disrupted state in order, and enact the needed measures.

[XX-35] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 3-4. It recognized freedom of speech and of the press, though requiring publications to bear the signatures of their authors. Champerico was made a port of entry for both export and import, which the people of Los Altos had loudly demanded. The cultivation and sale of tobacco were declared free to all; and the importation of Chiapas rum was permitted. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 5, 1871.

[XX-36] He denied that his government had ever contemplated wounding the religious feelings of the nation.

[XX-37] The power of the church had been almost as great as that of the government. Under the constitution the church nominated a number of deputies to the assembly, and was the only one recognized or tolerated. Its influence in the assembly had been large, and its interests were well represented. _Crosby's Statement_, MS., 91, 110-11. This influence had always been exercised to uphold the despotic sway of the oligarchs.

[XX-38] The rebels were routed Sept. 24th at Santa Rosa by the forces under Barrios, and again the 28th at Jalapa. They lost their artillery, other arms, and much ammunition. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 13-15; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 4, 1871; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871.

[XX-39] _Id._, Nov. 26, 1871; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 24-5.

[XX-40] Decree no. 59, in _Boletin Ofic._, no. 52. The order had been removed from Guat. by command of King Cárlos III., in 1767, its members leaving the capital on the 1st of July for the coast, and being embarked for Spain. _Hist. of Mex._, iii. 432-3, this series. But a law of June 7, 1851, sanctioned by the assembly Nov. 5th, authorized their permanent reëstablishment, revoking all other laws or decrees to the contrary, notably one of 1845, notwithstanding the many protests made against the measure. The most plausible pretext for the restoration of the jesuits had been the alleged scarcity of competent priests for the work of spreading the gospel; which was equivalent to saying that the 300 priests living in the republic were both insufficient and incapable. The real object of the hasty reintroduction of the order was said to be the aggrandizement of the house of Canon Juan José Aycinena, closely connected by family ties with Manuel F. Pavon and Luis Batres. Aycinena had pledged himself to bring the order in, and in exchange for this service it was to influence his appointment as archbishop of Guatemala. It was a well-understood bargain. _Guat._, _Carta al Ilmo. Sr. Arzob. por un Catól. Apostól. romano_, Guat., Aug. 20, 1851, in _Cent. Am. Pamph._, v. no. 12.

[XX-41] Report of the comandante of San José, in _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 25, 1871; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 89-90; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 22, 1871; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 9, 1885; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 15, 1871.

[XX-42] The jesuits fared no better in Salvador, where the constituent assembly, being consulted as to whether they should be allowed to enter, resolved that their presence in the country would not be beneficial. Only four votes were cast in their favor. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871. A few who lived in Salv. were made to depart in 1872, and forbidden to reënter. A treaty was made with Guat., under which neither government was ever after to allow jesuits to reside within their respective territories. _Id._, March 24, 1872; _Ore. Uana_, _Refutacion_, 1-11.

[XX-43] The decree was issued with the clause that any deficit experienced by the archdiocese in consequence should be covered out of the pub. treasury. Decree of Dec. 22, 1871, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 23-6, 70-1.

[XX-44] The decree contained nine articles, and regulated the manner of disposing of the property which had belonged to these associations. The religious orders thus suppressed were those of the Franciscans, and recollects, dominicans, mercedari, clergymen of the oratory of Saint Philip de Neri, jesuits, paulists, and lastly the capuchins, otherwise called bethlehemites. These capuchins were natives of Spain, most of whom had been partisans of the pretender called Cárlos V. They occupied a convent which had belonged to the bethlehemites, when they were taken by a military guard to the coast and shipped away, with orders never to return. They had made themselves particularly obnoxious, and not being citizens of the country, the gov. was free to make them leave. Friars who were natives of Cent. Am. were permitted to remain, and given a monthly allowance for their support; but forbidden to show themselves in public with their habits on. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, July 4, 1872; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 3, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, July 14, 1872; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 290-1; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 91, 101-2; _Peatfield's Glimpse_, in _S. F. Overland Monthly_, xiv. 159; _S. F. Post_, July 2, 1872.

[XX-45] With toleration of all religious sects throughout the republic. This subject was being discussed in the constituent assembly, with much opposition to the clause being inserted in the fundamental law. The govt then cut the gordian knot. Later other decrees were passed, further curtailing eccles. jurisdiction, including the secularization of cemeteries. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, _Justicia, etc._, 1880, 2-5; _Id._, 1882, 11-12; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 159-61; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 27, 1873.

[XX-46] Placing a notice on the convent door that any one entering it without permission of the ecclesiastic authority would be excommunicated. The nuns had been kept away from intercourse with their relatives, and the civil authorities had been debarred access to them. The official journal said, March 6th, that history and indisputable facts proved they had not always been the abode either of justice, morality, or true religion. The removal of the teresas, capuchinas, and claras to the Santa Catarina was made under the personal inspection of the jefe político of the department. Their number was about 126, and most of them were natives of the other Cent. Am. republics. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 24, 1873.

[XX-47] The property of all religious houses having been confiscated, each one of these ex-nuns was allowed a life pension of $12 per month. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 13-14, 58, 64-5, 205.

[XX-48] The work was against Guat. and Salv. Costa R. was expected to side with the latter. Nicaragua's administration was not well disposed toward them. _Guat._, _El Centro Americano_, Feb. 19, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 5, 1872.

[XX-49] Martial law was established, together with stringent rules for dealing with rebels. Freedom of the press was temporarily suspended. This last measure was repealed in May. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 73-5, 80-1, 95-100; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 24, 1872.

[XX-50] García Granados' decree of May 8, 1872. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 87-8; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 518; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, May 30, 1872.

[XX-51] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 19, 1876; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, May 30, June 6, July 4, 1872; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 88, 102.

[XX-52] F. Alburez, in treasury; José M. Samayoa, in fomento; Víctor Zavala, in war; Ramirez ad int., in foreign relations; M. A. Soto ad int., in government, justice, and eccles. affairs.

[XX-53] Notwithstanding that his conduct had been seditious in 1871, he had been given the rank of col, and the offices of jefe político and comandante de armas of Amatitlan. _Barrios_, _Procl._, at Quezaltenango, Jan. 23, 1873.

[XX-54] Cerna had declined to take any part in the movement. The defeat of the rebels by Solares at Las Arrayanas and Cumbres de los Ajos on March 10th, with the loss of several prominent men, reduced them to straits. _Id._, i. 155-6, 177-80; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Feb. 20, March 6, May 8, July 24, Aug. 21, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 23, March 28, Apr. 6, 27, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 11, 22, May 13, June 12, 1873; _El Monitor Repub._, Apr. 18, 1873.

[XX-55] The office had been in charge of Barrios since Feb. 11th. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 155. During this tenure Barrios called for a forced loan. On the 15th he summoned to his presence at the comandancia general a number of citizens, one of whom imprudently said that he would go armed to punish any insult. Barrios accused them of hostility to the government, and of rendering pecuniary assistance to the insurgents. He warned them of their danger, and suggested the expediency of their aiding the govt to bring the insurrection to an end. It is said that the armed one, Rafael Batres, a son of the late minister of state, two or three times laughed in a contemptuous manner, enraging Barrios, who walked up to him, tore open his coat, and pulled out of it a revolver, upbraiding him as a coward and would-be murderer; then ordered that 100 blows should be inflicted on his back with a supple stick or rod, such as was used to punish private soldiers. Batres received his punishment, and was afterward sent to jail. The other men were also confined in the common jail, and the next morning were brought with shackles on through the streets to the comandancia, and told that they would not be released till they signed bonds to pay their respective shares of the forced loan; after doing which they were set at liberty. Julian Volio, ex-minister of Costa R. and Guat., did not receive any ill treatment, but was made to leave the country. Batres was also banished. Referring to this incident in a message to congress, he said that the rebellion had been instigated with the pretext that religion was menaced. His measures he confessed had been severe, but necessary. The result realized his expectations, for as soon as these men ceased furnishing resources to the rebellion it collapsed. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 5-6.

[XX-56] It was called Dec. 11, 1871. _Id._, i. 53-69, 83-4; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 11, May 5, 1872; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 9, 1876.

[XX-57] All proposed amendments to the old constitution had been rejected as not adequate to the present requirements of the country. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 10, 1872.

[XX-58] García Granados, who on the 2d of June had been declared a benemérito de la patria, after surrendering the presidency, made a visit to Europe, returning in March 1874, when he was cordially welcomed by all classes. His death occurred Sept. 8, 1878, and was much deplored. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 182-3; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 12, 1878; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 6, 1880.

[XXI-1] _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 22, 1885.

[XXI-2] He rose to prominence by military prowess, and yet knew but little of the military art. His enemies would not even concede him courage, or that he had risen by any effort of his own, but merely by circumstances. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 6-8.

[XXI-3] I will quote in corroboration what foreign correspondents said. Barrios' administration in 1875 was enjoying the confidence of the people, and had the support of public opinion. He had in his favor not only the testimony of the liberal portion of the Cent. Am. press, but of intelligent travellers just from the theatre of his so-called atrocities against the liberty of his people. He had more: the direct as well as tacit testimony of the property holders, both native and foreign. The guiding principle of Barrios' govt was to check evil practices, and to encourage good deeds. Again in 1880 Barrios continued as indefatigable as ever, travelling over the country, devising measures for the benefit of his fellow-citizens. The country was at peace. Foreigners, in comparing Dec. 1870 with Dec. 1880, can scarcely realize that they are living in the same country, and that only one decade has elapsed since the terrors of 1870. Since then Guat. has seen progress in every respect, and all due to the energy of this man, who has not wavered in his efforts to educate his fellow-citizens to the standard of the times. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 12, 14, 1875; Jan. 12, 1881.

[XXI-4] In 1876 there were primary schools in all the towns for the compulsory and gratuitous education of children of the poor. _Boddam Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 39. Later there were established three high schools: the Politécnica, for the education of officers at the expense of the state; alumni were also admitted at their own charge, who were not bound to accept commissions in the army; the Normal, for the training of teachers; and the Belen, for the instruction of females. All those schools were in charge of teachers from the U. S. and Europe; the Belen being conducted on the plan pursued in the U. S.

[XXI-5] He was a man of the people, flattered the lower classes and the soldiers, especially those of Los Altos, and won their good-will.

[XXI-6] Espionage existed. Domestic servants even were used as spies. The postal service was like an office of the old inquisition. These charges are probably true, and the system, one of long standing, may have been demanded by the political situation. It has been said that he had a young Spanish priest named Félix Pagés murdered in cold blood. The other side of the story is that Pagés shot at him Sept. 14, 1877, in San Pedro Jocopilas, missed him, a scuffle ensued for the possession of the weapon, when other persons entered the room, one of whom was Barrios' body-servant, Inés Cruz, who seeing Pagés again trying to discharge the revolver at his master, drew out his own weapon, and shot the priest dead. This version is the official one, and was communicated by U. S. Minister Williamson to his government. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 45th Cong., 3d Sess., i. pt 1, 73-4; _Star and Herald_, Oct. 20, 1877. It is that some women were gagged, confined in the common jail, and afterward banished to distant towns. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 24. I have no space for the innumerable accusations of anonymous and irresponsible persons. The following are given because made by a prominent Mexican general who served some time under Barrios: Innocent men of respectable position were whipped by his order, and women confined in the common jail. A judge was set to sowing grass. A distinguished lawyer was made to march in a religious procession through the streets dressed as a private soldier. An ecclesiastic, for failing to salute him, was kept for hours opposite his balcony with head uncovered and erect, and treated with contumely. He had the head of a city councilman shaved like a priest's, and then shut him up in a convent. It was Barrios' practice to have men beaten till they told what he wanted of them, and he invented a cruel torture called el apreton, which was compressing the person's temples. His assassinations were wanton and cold-blooded. This general, however, was a considerable time in Barrios' service, and had a falling out with him. His statements may be the result of spite. As a ruler who had in his hands during nearly 12 years the destinies of his country, he undoubtedly committed many errors, and as a man he had defects; but how deny, speaking with truth, the benefits his abilities, patriotism, constancy, and energy bestowed? _Uraga, J. L._, _Réplica á J. R. Barrios_, 6-7, 33-4. Another Mexican who says horrible things of Barrios, whom he called La Pantera de Guat., signed himself I. Martinez, in _S. F. El Cornista_, March 4, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 2, 1885.

[XXI-7] Decree of Nov. 4, 1873, requiring them to surrender with their arms. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 203; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 23, Nov. 22, 1873; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 5. For his complicity in the insurrection, the guardian of the archdiocese had to leave the country, and remained absent till he was permitted to return. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Aug. 17, 1873.

[XXI-8] Gonzalez was expelled in disgrace from the army, and sentenced, moreover, to confinement for ten years in the fortress of San Felipe. He was also deprived of all right to hold office. Bulnes was also deprived of this right, and condemned to three years imprisonment. And yet he had instigated Gonzalez to commit the outrage, and was morally the guiltier of the two. _U. S. Govt Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, Doc. 1, pt 1, 177-83.

[XXI-9] There were present on shore, upon that occasion, the commanding gen. of the Guat. forces, the British rear-admiral, Cochrane, and officers of four of his ships lying at San José, the British chargé, the Am. minister, and others, besides 200 Guat. troops, and a like number of marines and sailors from the British ships. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 44, Sess. 1, Doc. 1, pt 1, 128-9.

[XXI-10] The victim of Gonzalez' brutality declined to receive any portion of the money. Scolfield, the British representative at Guatemala, for the manner in which he conducted the affair, was knighted.

[XXI-11] Butler had several conferences with the min. of foreign affairs, insisting on the revocation of that decree, which the min. invariably refused. El Progreso, Aug. 29, 1875. However, it seems that Guat. gave way, and declared her recognition of Cuban independ. to be null. _The Mexican Financier_, Apr. 18, 1885.

[XXI-12] In 1876 the Sp. gov. recognized that the captain-gen. had exceeded his powers, and must be censured. But in March 1880 it asked Guat. as a favor to forego that clause, which the latter acceded to on being reassured that in future the usages of international etiquette should be observed in the relations between the two governments. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 129; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Rel. Est._, 1881, 13-14.

[XXI-13] Circular of Nic. foreign min., Sept. 5, 1876, in _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XXI-14] Both places within Guat. territory, but near the boundaries of the other two states.

[XXI-15] Barrios reviewed in Guat. 11,000 men, and ostensibly disbanded them. He really had about 18,000 under arms, and it would have been easy for him to make the number 20,000 in eight or ten days. Salv. went slow in the work of disarming. She had 2,300 men in Santa Ana, 3,000 in San Salvador, and 2,000 in other places; and the government had decreed a forced loan of half a million dollars, of which one half had been collected. Having taken the laboring men from their peaceful vocations, the govt feared a revolution if it desisted from war with Guat. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 14, 16, 1876.

[XXI-16] Neither cajolery, argument, nor movement of troops produced the desired effect, for the delegates could only see in his propositions the destruction of their several nationalities.

[XXI-17] The war cost Guat. about 2,000 lives, and one and a half million dollars, however. The events connected with Salvador and Honduras appear in the history of those states for this period.

[XXI-18] Nicaragua in 1877 joined the three in treaties to act in concert, and harmonize 'las tendencias de la familia Centro-Americana.' _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 3, 1877.

[XXI-19] Gregorio Solares, to whom the successes were chiefly due, entered the city quietly, receiving no share of the popular plaudits, which were all bestowed on Barrios as the victor.

[XXI-20] Sept. 9, 1876. It was revoked March 22, 1885, when Barrios undertook to establish the Cent. Am. republic by force. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 23, 1885.

[XXI-21] The sword was delivered him Sept. 15, 1877. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 26, 1876; Feb. 25, March 21, Sept. 28, 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 1, 1877.

[XXI-22] He would not go to the palace, but made the ministers come to his residence, and adopted measures without consultation with them. He was in fear of being poisoned. _Uraga, J. L._, _Réplica_, 18-20.

[XXI-23] It had been originally convoked Oct. 21, 1875, the date of meeting being left for future consideration. Its first meeting was Aug. 31st, when its officers were chosen. This was the seventh constituent assembly in 55 years of national existence. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 159-68; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 9, 24, 1876.

[XXI-24] In the temporary absence of the president, the council of ministers was to take charge of the executive office. In case of his death or other inability, the council of state was to convoke an assembly. The president was called upon to appoint a council of state composed of competent and upright men, which he did. _Id._, Nov. 3, 9, Dec. 8, 1876.

[XXI-25] Samayoa gave way to J. M. Barrundia, and went to Europe; Alburez, min. of the treasury, was succeeded by J. A. Salazar; Lainfiesta in fomento by M. M. Herrera; Barberena was min. of the interior, and Macal of foreign affairs, who later was replaced by Lorenzo Montúfar.

[XXI-26] With the evidence obtained during the day and night of the 1st, several persons said to be implicated were arrested, and the judicial investigation was initiated. The plan of the sedition was ascertained from the acknowledgments and confessions of its promoters and others. The priest, Gabriel Aguilar, José Lara Pavon, Enrique Guzman, and others, as appeared in the testimony, had organized themselves as a society, recognizing one another by means of signs, to promote a revolt. The execution of their plan was left to A. Kopeski, commander of the artillery, and his second, Capt. Leon de Rodas, at whose quarters assembled in the night of the 1st a number of men who were then armed, to be ready for relieving the guards at the palace and comandancia general, after they had been narcotized with wine and morphine furnished by Aguilar. This part of the plot once accomplished, the commanders of other bodies of troops were to receive forged orders to bring their men, without arms, into the city, when others in the conspiracy stationed outside would seize the arms. One of these orders, ostensibly signed by Barrios, was sent Oct. 31st to the comandante at Palencia, who, not doubting its genuineness, was on the point of obeying it; but despatched an officer to inquire where he was to station his men, and the object of the call. The president at once telegraphed to other commanders, and was advised that they had similar orders. One man was arrested, and then another, until the plot was unravelled. A large portion of the criminal element, as well as of the lower classes, were mixed up in the affair. The president, his family, ministers, and friends were to be assassinated. Rich men would have to ransom their lives with sums ranging from $50,000 down to $10,000. Daggers, gags, and morphine were discovered. Barrios decreed, Nov. 5th, that the parties should be tried by court-martial. This decree was countersigned by all his ministers; namely, J. Barberena, José Ant. Salazar, Lorenzo Montúfar, and under sec. of war A. Ubico, then in charge of the portfolio. Foreigners as well as natives realized their narrow escape from a fearful catastrophe, and commended Barrios and his ministers for their action. The justice of the sentences was fully acknowledged. Barrios, in his message to the constituent assembly, in March 1879, alluding to the affair, said: 'La sociedad guatemalteca se vió por un momento al borde de un abismo de sangre y devastacion.' The reactionists, he added, unable to demand the abolition of the reforms which had so greatly improved the condition of the people, 'pedian al puñal y al veneno, á ese recurso traidor y alevoso, una hecatombe suprema, una montaña de cadáveres.' _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, March 15, 1879; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Nov. 13, 18, 1877; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 1, 1877; _La Voz de Méx._, S. F., Feb. 23, 1878.

[XXI-27] In the preamble he alludes to the declaration of the last assembly on Oct. 23, 1876, adding that he accepted the dictatorship as a necessity, because of the unsettled condition of the country, though well aware that unrestricted powers are incompatible with republican principles. The election of deputies was to begin Jan. 10th, and all citizens were made eligible, excepting only such as held certain offices, as jefes políticos, revenue officials, judges, and military commandants, who could not be candidates in their official departments or districts. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Cong. 46, Sess. 2, i. pt 1, 140; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 22, 1878; Jan. 22, 1879; _La Voz de Méx._, May 6, 1879.

[XXI-28] He had endeavored, he said, to maintain friendly relations with the other Cent. Am. governments, and as for those with Salv., Hond., and Nic., 'jamás se han cultivado con el verdadero espíritu de fraternidad con que hoy se mantienen y fomentan.'

[XXI-29] The same course was pursued by Guat. toward Mexican citizens residing in her territory, who were causing in 1879 and 1880 disturbances in Soconusco and Chiapas. The correspondence and proceedings of the governments in both affairs appear in _Mex._, _Correspond. Dipl._, ii. 221-91; _El Guatemalteco_, Sept. 7, 1879; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 8, Dec. 2, 1879.

[XXI-30] Every principle won with the loss of so much blood was secured. The legislative authority was vested in a chamber of representatives, and the executive in a president, whose term of office was six years. _Guat._, _Mem., Sec. Gobern._, 1880, 7. Objections were made by foreign representatives, including the minister of Mexico, to art. 5th of the constitution respecting Guatemalan nationality. On this point a constituent assembly in 1885 authorized the government to settle it by treaties, which was equivalent to nullifying the clause. There were exceptions also to the 14th, intended to set down as a principle that neither citizens nor foreigners were entitled to indemnity for damages accruing to them during civil wars from the acts of revolutionary factions. The right of Guat. to insert in her fundamental law every principle or rule she might deem proper for her internal administration was fully recognized; but as regarded those dependent for their sanction on the consent of nations, in their intercourse with one another, the representatives reserved their respective country's rights. _Mex._, _Correspond. Dipl._, ii. 293-8; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Est._, 1880, 6.

[XXI-31] The new constitution was to have effect from March 1, 1880. Thus Barrios had the glory of endowing his country with a political constitution of its own, and with a republican and democratic form of government. It will be borne in mind that after the disruption of the Cent. Am. confederation, since 1840, Guat. had been under a dictatorship, or under institutions which greatly curtailed the political rights of the ruled.

[XXI-32] A treaty of peace, amity, commerce, and extradition was concluded July 17, 1880, between Guat. and Hond., giving to Guatemalans in Hond., and Hondurans in Guat., the same civil and political rights enjoyed by the natives of the respective country, though exempting them from military service and forced loans. Refugees could be allowed asylum, but were not to use the privilege to promote hostile acts against their own or other governments. Merchandise, excepting such articles as were subject to estanco, or monopoly, were to be allowed free entry. _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Rel. Exter._, 1881, 28-34.

[XXI-33] _Star and Herald_, Jan. 23, 1883; _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Rel. Exter._, 1881-5; _Id._, _Gobern. y Just._, 1881-5; _Id._, _Hac. y Créd. Púb._, 1881-5; _Id._, _Guerra_, 1881-5; _Id._, _Formento_, 1881-5; _Id._, _Instruc. Púb._, 1881-5. The following persons acted as ministers of state during some portion of Barrios' present term: Lorenzo Montúfar, Fernando Cruz, Cayetano Diaz Mérida, Delfino Sanchez, J. M. Orantes, J. Martin Barrundia, M. M. Herrera, Ángel Peña, R. A. Salazar, Ramon Murga, and F. Lainfiesta.

[XXI-34] The Guat. govt manifested its high appreciation of those courtesies on the part of the authorities and people of the U. S., in a note to the Am. minister, H. C. Hall. _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt 1, 46-7.

[XXI-35] This question is fully treated of in _Hist. Mex._, vi. chap. xix., this series; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i., For Rel. no. 1, pt 1, 326-33.

[XXI-36] He did not resume his office till the 6th of January, Gen. Orantes continuing at the head of the government.

[XXI-37] He added that he wished to stand aloof, and observe the working of the free institutions he had contributed to establish on a firm basis as he hoped; without neglecting, however, the duty he owed at all times to his country, and to those who, like himself, shed their blood in their efforts to the same end. He would be ever found ready to support the liberal government, and hoped that no credence would be given to the slander that he desired to leave the country, and thus shirk responsibility. This charge was made when he left for the U. S. to settle the boundary question with Mexico. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Dec. 29, 1882. Even more had been said, to wit, that he had the plan of annexing Guat. to the U. S., which was an absurd charge.

[XXI-38] It was beyond question that he had a strong hold on the affections of those who did not belong to the reactionary party, and 'even among the latter he would be preferred to any one who would be likely to succeed him.' U. S. Min. Hall's desp. to sec. of state, Jan. 8, 1883, in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, no. 1, pt 1, 32-3.

[XXI-39] A measure might be adopted in the next ordinary session, when, perhaps, 'events may have occurred in regard to the Cent. Am. union.'

[XXI-40] He urged them to labor for the development of the country, whose progress and prosperity were certain, if all would coöperate to that end.

[XXI-41] Barrios addressed, Feb. 24, 1883, an extensive circular to the liberal party of Cent. Am., to assure them that his motives in working for the consolidation had been to promote the general weal, and not his personal aggrandizement. He repeated that he did not wish, nor would he accept, the presidency of Cent. Am., disclaiming that he had ever tried to impose his will on the other states, and pledging his word never to attempt it in the future. _Pan._, _El Cronista_, March 10, et seq., 1884; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Cong. 48, Sess. 1, no. 1, pt 1, 49-53.

[XXI-42] As appears in a telegram of March 28th from Nic. govt to Guat. foreign min., who replied next day, that if Costa R. refused to join the diet, the meeting of delegates from only four states could have no practical effect. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1844, 3-5, annexes A to D; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1883, 3, ann. 1 and 13; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 20, 23, 1883; _Pan. Canal_, Feb. 16, March 21, 22, 1883.

[XXI-43] 'Tantas ambiciones pequeñas, tantos menguados intereses de localidad, y tantas miras estrechas.' _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, March 1, 1884; _El Guatemalteco_, March 4, 1884.

[XXI-44] It was to be perpetual as to peace and friendship; and as regarded the other clauses, its duration was to be of ten years. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1884, annex 3.

[XXI-45] Barrios published an address to the inhabitants expressing gratitude for their sympathy. He made special mention of the cordial manifestation of the diplomatic corps, and the foreign residents. _El Guatemalteco_, Apr. 18, 22, 1884; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 17, 1884; _Hond._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 21, 1884; _Méx._, _Clamor Púb._, June 2, 1884.

[XXI-46] Four to death, two to the chain-gang with hard labor for life, one to simple imprisonment for 10 years, and two others were acquitted. One of the chief implicated made a full confession, the plot being to cause a change in the govt by killing Barrios. _El Guatemalteco_, May 16, July 5, 12, 1884. The chief person implicated has, since the death of Barrios, made a representation to the assembly declaring the accusation false, and that the real authors of the bomb plot were in the process made to appear as the victims. _Rodriguez, G._, _Expos. y Docs._, pp. i.-iii., 1-120, 3-17.

[XXI-47] The president of Costa R. also received an invitation, but being unable to leave the state, expressed through his min. of foreign affairs warm congratulations. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 19-20.

[XXI-48] It was countersigned by all his ministers, to wit: J. Martin Barrundia, of war; Fernando Cruz, of foreign affairs; Francisco Lainfiesta, of fomento; Delfino Sanchez, of treasury and pub. credit; Cayetano Diaz Mérida, of govt and justice; and Ramon Murga, of pub. instruction. The following is a synopsis of the decree. Art. 1. The ruler of the rep. of Guat. proclaims the union of Cent. Am.; to which end he assumes the rôle of supreme military chief with absolute control. Art. 2. He will accept the coöperation of such govts, communities, and rulers, as, within the terms laid down, should acquiesce and make common cause with them. Art. 3. A gen. assembly of 15 members from each state, freely chosen by popular suffrage, should meet at Guatemala May 1st to enact the political constitution of Cent. Am., and establish the manner, time, and form of choosing the president, his official term, date upon which he was to receive the executive authority from the assembly, and the place where the supreme federal authorities were to reside. Art. 4. Any person attempting by word or deed to oppose this decree would be dealt with as a traitor to the cause of Cent. Am. Art. 5. The people of Cent. Am. are urged to aid the accomplishment of this project. Art. 6. Suitable rewards offered to officers of army and militia efficaciously aiding. Art. 7. Rewards also offered to the rank and file. Art. 8. Establishes the flag of the rep.: three vertical stripes, the middle one white, the other two blue; the white stripe exhibiting the coat of arms, a quetzal perched upon a column, with the following inscription: 'Libertad y Union—15 de Setiembre de 1821-28 de Febrero de 1885.' Art. 9. No negotiations relating to territory, international treaties, foreign or national loans, or other stipulations of analogous nature or importance, entered into by the other states of Cent. Am. after the date of this decree, would be recognized. Art. 10. The minister of foreign affairs was directed to lay this decree before the assembly of Guat., the other govern. of Cent. Am., and all powers of Am. and Europe with which Guat. had relations of friendship and trade. _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, 1885; _El Cronista_ (S. F.), March 14, 21, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, March 10, 13, 1885; _S. F. Call_, March 13, 1885. It will be well to mention here the reasons which prompted the legislative assembly to proclaim the unity of Cent. Am. in the manner adopted by Barrios: 'El inmenso prestigio de que gozaba aquel memorable jefe, el civismo de que siempre habia dado inequívocas muestras, y los muchos elementos de que disponia para hacer práctico aquel pensamiento, acariciado por todos los buenos hijos de la América Central. This was said after Barrios was dead. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 21-5, 35.

[XXI-49] 'Bastante he saboreado, por triste experiencia, todas las amarguras del poder.'

[XXI-50] Art. 1. The people of Hond. proclaim the union of Cent. Am. Art. 2. Gives the executive full power to render Barrios every possible aid. Art. 3. Congress and the executive were to frankly explain the true motives of the revolution.

[XXI-51] Zaldívar then, as well as afterward, denied having betrayed Barrios. The circular of Feb. 24, 1883, to the liberal party, was issued by the latter after a conference with the former at Asuncion Mita. In that famous manifesto, Barrios pledged his honor not to attempt effecting the unification, except by peaceful means, and with the concurrence of the five republics. His message to the Guat. assembly in 1884 indicated that violent means were out of the question. A correspondent of a Panamá paper, who seemed to have personal knowledge of the negotiations, both public and confidential, assures us that at every interview between the two rulers the Salvadoran had opposed without ambiguity all propositions, open or implied, to employ force; and that Barrios had every time admitted the weight of the reasons adduced by him. Indeed, only 20 days before his attempted assumption of supreme command over Cent. Am. Barrios assured of Salvadoran minister of foreign affairs, Gallegos, who had gone to Guat. upon a confidential mission from Zaldívar, of his conviction that never had the plan of reconstructing Cent. Am. by compulsion been so unpropitious and dangerous as at the present time; adding these words: 'Poner hoy la mano en este asunto equivaldría á meterla en un avispero.' _La Estella de Pan._, May 9, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 5, 1885.

[XXI-52] 'El gobierno de Vd. no responde, y no necesito decir por qué no lo hace.' These words would seem to imply that there had been an understanding between the two, and treachery was suspected.

[XXI-53] Menendez, calling himself a soldier of the union, had urged all Central Americans to aid Barrios. Zaldívar on March 15th promulgated an act of the Salv. congress declaring Menendez a traitor to his country. This decree was in force only a short time.

[XXI-54] Melchor Ordoñez, Spanish minister accredited to both republics, had in a telegram assured him that Zaldívar was his sincere friend, but was in a difficult position, having to act in accord with public opinion. He should bear in mind the Salvadorans had been led to believe that he, Barrios, intended to deprive them of their nationality to gratify his own ambition.

[XXI-55] 'Las medidas á que toda nacion prudente apela durante el estado de guerra en que se colocan sus vecinos.'

[XXI-56] The govt issued a stirring manifesto to friendly powers on the 17th of March, 1885, against Barrios' coup d'etat, signed by J. M. Castro, sec. of foreign relations. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 27-9; _Id._, _Manif. del Gob. Rep._, 1-6.

[XXI-57] The telegraphic despatches and diplomatic notes which passed between the two governments appear in _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, March 12, Apr. 1, 29, May 5, 1885; _Id._, _Siglo XIX._, March 13, 25, 30, 1885; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 14, 1885.

[XXI-58] The treaty was signed in the city of Santa Ana, Salv., by the plenipotentiaries José Duran for Costa R., Buenav. Selva for Nic., and Salv. Gallegos for Salv. It was to be in force until Barrios should be overthrown, and another govt established entirely disconnected with him and offering guaranties of peace for Cent. Am., after which the issue of Cent. Am. union might be considered by the parties in a proper spirit, and at an opportune occasion. Costa R. pledged herself to furnish 3,000 men at her own cost, but if only 1,000 were called for, she would contribute also $100,000, and 1,000 Remington rifles with 500 cartridges for each. Nic. agreed to furnish 4,000 troops also at her own cost. Salv. would contribute her whole available military force. The command-in-chief was vested first in the president of Salv., next in that of Nic., and third in that of Costa R., or of such persons as one or the other might designate. Costa R., however, supplied 2,000 men, and offered to loan money to Salv. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 31-3. Mex. placed a force near the Guat. frontier as soon as hostilities began in Cent. Am.

[XXI-59] In an unsuccessful assault against the fortifications of Chalchuapa. He was slain between 9 and 10 o'clock in the morning. One of his sons also perished fighting at his side. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 9, 1885; _Méx._, _La Prensa_, suppl. ap. 4, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, Apr. 3, 5, 10, 1885; _S. F. Alta_, Apr. 23, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, Apr. 23, 1885.

[XXI-60] Barrios' last will executed at Guatemala on the 23d of March, 1885, which was filed Dec. 7th of said year in the office of the surrogate in New York, declared his wife to be the sole heir of all his property and interests. He had full confidence that she would deal fairly by each of their seven children. He desired her to pay $25,000 to his nephew Luciano Barrios as a memento of his good services. She was also to continue providing for Antonio Barrios, then in the U. S. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 21, 1885.

[XXI-61] Sinibaldi, chosen by the assembly Apr. 30, 1884, 1st designado, vice J. M. Orantes resigned, had been in charge of the executive office since Barrios prepared to go to the front.

[XXI-62] On the following grounds: 1st. The decree of Feb. 28th having been revoked, and Barrios being dead, the causes which placed Guat. at war with Salv., Nic., and Costa R. had ceased to exist; 2d. It was a patriotic duty to promote feelings of fraternity and concord; 3. That the governments of the republics of Cent. Am. were prompted by the same sentiments, and those of Salv., Nic., and Costa R. had already made peace with Hond., which had seconded the movement of the late president of Guat.; 4. That through the friendly mediation of the foreign corps an understanding with Salv. had been easily arrived at, and honorable terms agreed upon for a firm and stable peace between the two republics and Salvador's allies.

[XXI-63] Salv., Nic., and Costa R., also made similar declarations in regard to Guat.

[XXI-64] The same decree included a national vote of thanks to the diplomatic body accredited to the governments of Cent. Am. for their friendly intervention to bring the war to an end, and appointed Sunday the 19th to solemnize the peace thus restored. Countersigned by the four ministers, to wit: Ángel M. Arroyo, of foreign relations and pub. instruction; Antonio Aguirre, of treasury and pub. credit; Manuel J. Dardon, of governm. and justice; and E. Martinez Sobral, of fomento. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 35-8; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 23, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 23, 1885.

[XXI-65] Pres. Diaz also in a telegram to Zaldívar manifested a desire to see cordial relations restored between Salv. and Guat. _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 11 1885; _La Nueva Era_ (Paso del Norte), Apr. 17, 1885.

[XXI-66] _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel. Exter._, 1885, 55-7; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 23, 1885.

[XXI-67] Decrees of June 23d and 27th. All subsidies were suspended for one year. The purpose of calling a convention was to effect some amendments to the constitution, and to enact some needed laws.

[XXI-68] Notwithstanding the great necessity of allaying the excitement still existing, there were riotous scenes on several occasions in the chamber. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 9-30, 1885, passim.

[XXI-69] The president's inauguration was on the 15th of March, 1886.

[XXII-1] Feb. 9th. He was to draw from the pub. treasury as pay $200 monthly when in actual service. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, April 14, 1866. Later he was made a captain-general.

[XXII-2] The escutcheon was to be the same as formerly, with the sole exception of exhibiting a rising sun in lieu of the Phrygian cap. The flag was to be as follows: Two blue stripes with a white one between them, all three running horizontally, three to four varas in length, and nine inches in width; with the national coat of arms in the centre of the white stripe, and a group of five blue stars in a semicircle under it. Merchant vessels were to use the same dimensions and colors without the coat of arms.

[XXII-3] Under the constitution of 1865 the congress consisted of a senate with seven members, and a legislative assembly of eleven. The council of state was constituted with the ministers and seven other members.

[XXII-4] For the bestowal of decorations of the order was created a senate of six members to reside in the capital. This body was also empowered to dismiss any member of the order for good cause. The president was authorized to frame the statutes and appoint the senators, conferring grades of the order before its installation. The senate, once installed, was to grant decorations. The same right was reserved for congress, and the president of the republic, who was made ex-officio president of the senate of the order. A copy of the decree in Spanish is given in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 23, 1868; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 427-8.

[XXII-5] In connection with the subject is mentioned the name of Bustelli Foscolo, an agent of the Hond. govt, sentenced to imprisonment in Paris for fraudulent transactions.

[XXII-6] This body was called by the regular congress at the solicitation, as it was made to appear, of the several municipalities, and was installed Aug. 8, 1869. On the 13th it declared that in view of the popular actas in the several towns proclaiming Medina president for the next term, he was actually elected. The same day the 33d article of the fundamental law was amended to read thus: 'The presidential term shall be of four years, commencing on the 1st of Feb. in the year of renewal.' On the 19th the convention adjourned sine die; Medina having warmly thanked it for the trust reposed in him, and accepted it, with the pledge of not holding the office a day after the expiration of his term. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 11, 18, 1869; Feb. 5, 1870; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 18, 1869.

[XXII-7] I will, however, repeat here in a few words the causes alleged by Hond. Salvador had violated the treaty of Santa Rosa of March 25, 1862, in refusing to surrender the perpetrators of two atrocious murders. She had abetted the refugees who, in the last six years, had been fanning the flame of discord in Hond.; had refused to heed the remonstrances of the latter; and on the contrary, had placed a force on the frontier, and generally assumed a hostile attitude.

[XXII-8] The guaranty was given as a consideration for certain advantages, which could not accrue till after the road was finished. The Am. gov. could not therefore be required to repel an invasion of the route from abroad. The correspondence between ministers Baxter and Torbert with the govts of Hond. and Salv., and with their own, appears in _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt 1, 575-8, 685-93.

[XXII-9] _Hond._, _Clarin Ofic._, March 26, 1871; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 22, 29, May 13, 1871.

[XXII-10] Particulars in Salv. historical chapter.

[XXII-11] This course was doubtless adopted because of the dissatisfaction appearing, and of a revolution which was attempted during the last war. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871.

[XXII-12] A full amnesty was granted to all the insurgents. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 300-2; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 2 to Nov. 4, 1871; Feb. 3, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1 to Nov. 12, 1871; Jan. 7, 1872.

[XXII-13] Convention signed at Leon Dec. 18, 1871, by Manuel Colindres, on behalf of Medina, Ex-pres. Martinez of Nic., Miguel Velez, Nicasio del Castillo, Rosalío Cortés, R. Alegría, Buenav. Selva, Seferino Gonzalez, and three others. This doc. at first was considered apocryphal, but proved to be genuine. _El Porvenir de Nic._, June 23, 1872.

[XXII-14] With the avowed object of bringing Hond. under republican institutions. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 28 to Aug. 14, 1872, passim; _Nic._, _El Semanal Nic._, May 30, 1872.

[XXII-15] After this victory the presidents of Guat. and Salv. had an interview with Arias, and returned with their troops to their respective countries, leaving 800 men to aid Arias in reorganizing the country. The campaign had lasted 24 days from the date on which Langue on the Hond. side of the frontier was occupied.

[XXII-16] _Id._, Aug. 1, 1872; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 116-17.

[XXII-17] Juan A. Medina, Gen. Miranda, and a few friends succeeded in escaping. _Nic._, _El Semanal Nic._, Aug. 8, 29, 1872.

[XXII-18] Further details may be found in _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1873, 7-8; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 26, June 2, 1872; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 303-6; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 15 to Nov. 30, 1872; _Id._, _Col. Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1872, 50-1; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 9, 1872. Circular of Nic. Min. of For. Rel., Sept. 5, 1876, referring to his government's fruitless efforts at mediation between the belligerents, adds that it finally accepted accomplished facts, and opened relations with Arias' govt. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XXII-19] Crescencio Gomez, Máx. Aranjo, Casto Alvarado, Jesús Inestrosa, and a few others were also pardoned, but required to stay away from Hond. until after the promulgation of a new constitution. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 30, 1872; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 26, 1872.

[XXII-20] Life, liberty, equality, security, property, inviolability of domicile, and correspondence, and writings, freedom of transit, of peaceable assembling, and of the press, rights of petition, and of preferring against public officials.

[XXII-21] Juan N. Venero, of treas. and for. affairs; Miguel del Cid, of justice, govt, and pub. worship; Andrés Van Severen, of war.

[XXII-22] Any Honduran in full possession of his civil rights, having besides property worth $1,000, or upwards, or being a licentiate, could be chosen. The only exceptions were the president of the repub., and the military in active service.

[XXII-23] That expedition sailed from Colon, and was led by Enrique Palacios, Casto Alvarado, Miranda Baraona, and others. It landed at Utila, one of the Bay Islands, and organized a govt for Hond., Colindres and Padilla, ministers of Medina, assuming the executive under art. 30 of the constitution of 1865, in view of the events of July 1872 at Omoa. From Utila the exped. proceeded to Trujillo, which was surrendered June 9th. That part of the plan failed, and the expedition then went to Puerto Cortés. The invaders had an understanding with Betancourt, the officer in command at Omoa, who toward the end of June rebelled with the garrison of 150 men; but he was attacked and defeated by Streber, of Arias' govt. It was during this trouble that Streber's troops pillaged, in July, the mercantile houses of Omoa, foreign as well as native, which culminated in the bombardment afterward of the port by a British man-of-war, of which I gave the details elsewhere. The house of the Am. consul having been likewise invaded, the government had to give satisfaction, saluting the U. S. flag March 22, 1874, in the plaza of Comayagua, in the presence of their representative, troops, the ministers of state, and others.

[XXII-24] _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, June 28, July 17, 1872.

[XXII-25] The remnants of the insurgents fled by the railroad. _Id._, Aug. 7, 21, 28, Sept. 18, 1873.

[XXII-26] The constituent congress, called by Arias, assembled Dec. 14th, and refused to accept his resignation. It also adopted other measures, which it is unnecessary to recite here, as they never took effect.

[XXII-27] A circular of the Nic. minister of foreign affairs of Sept. 5, 1876, alludes to these events. Further particulars appear in _Arias_, _Mensaje_, Dec. 14, 1873; _U. S. Govt Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 141; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 18, 24, Feb, 19, 1874; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XXII-28] Leiva seemed to be a non-partisan, a man of intelligent and liberal views, and a popular favorite.

[XXII-29] Guat. objected to the treatment awarded Arias, and sent Ramon Rosa as confidential agent to Leiva to represent that Arias had been solemnly pledged security for his life and liberty, and respect for his high character and personal merits; against which pledge Arias had been kept in prison and subjected to prosecution. The gov. of Guat. believed that the men composing that assembly were not competent to try Arias, for they were reactionists, and he one of the truest liberals in Cent. Am. Leiva answered, July 8th, that he had exerted himself in Arias' favor, and that the exile he was sentenced to he would have undergone of his own accord; for he could not live in the country for some time. It was for his own benefit that the terms of the surrender had been modified. _U. S. Gov. Docs._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, Doc. 1, pt i. 179-80.

[XXII-30] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 5, 12, March 3, 11, Apr. 4, 1875; _Mex. Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875, annex 3, Doc. 7, p. 36; _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Est._, 1875, vi.-xi., app. 7-10.

[XXII-31] The grounds alleged for the revolt were: 1st, that the liberties of Hond. were under thraldom to Salv., which had failed to carry out the objects of the revolution of 1871; 2d, the deplorable state of the finances, because Amapala had been made a free port; 3d, that the die of Hond. had been given to Salvador. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 4, 5, 21, 30, March 26, 1876; _La Regeneracion_, Oct. 9, 1876.

[XXII-32] Further particulars in _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 2 to June 1, 1876, passim; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 8, Oct. 26, 1876.

[XXII-33] At this time war broke out between Guat. and Salvador, and the former sent an army under Solares through Honduras to operate against Salvador's eastern departments. Details on these events are given in other chapters on treating of the relations between the two belligerents. At the conclusion of peace, Hond. joined them in a treaty of alliance.

[XXII-34] He resigned his portfolio Feb. 26th, with the understanding that he was to be president of Honduras.

[XXII-35] Negotiated by Cruz Lozano, on behalf of both Salvador and Medina, and M. Vigil and Luis Bogran for Leiva, both contestants giving up their claims, and agreeing to recognize Marcelino Mejía as the provisional president, which was done. _Id._, June 24, 1876.

[XXII-36] It was said that Soto had been proclaimed in several places, and that he enjoyed the confidence of the governments of Guat., Salv., and Costa R.

[XXII-37] Another version is that Roderico Toledo arrived at Comayagua, as commissioner from Guat. and Salv., and demanded of Gomez the surrender of the executive to Soto, which is quite possible, Gomez affecting the surrender through his former chief, Medina.

[XXII-38] The garrison had declared in his favor on the 21st, the comandante Col Salvador Ferrandis losing his life.

[XXII-39] _El Porvenir de Nic._, March 18, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 4, 1876; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 44th Cong., 2d Sess., i. 36-9; _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Rel._, 1876, 11-14.

[XXII-40] _Soto_, _Mensaje_, May 27, 1877; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 22, 1877.

[XXII-41] The order for their trial was issued by the comandante general of the republic Dec. 12th, the executive having first, on the 10th, asked the advice of the supreme court of justice, which was given on the next day. The crimes preferred against the prisoners were conspiracy, instigation to rebellion, high treason, and concealment of government arms. The officers forming the court-martial were Gen. Emilio Delgado, president, generals Eusebio Toro and Luis Bogran, colonels Inocente Solís, Belisario Villela, Manuel Bonilla, Antonio Cerro; auditor de guerra, Justo Cáliz; prosecuting officer, Gen. Agustin Aguilar. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, suppl., Feb. 28, 1878; _Voz de Méx._, July 17, 1878.

[XXII-42] U. S. Minister Geo. Williamson, in reporting these executions to his gov., Feb. 16, 1878, uses these words: 'Medina's lack of wisdom in yielding to the selection (as president) of a man who from the dictates of a cowardly or cruel policy thought it necessary to select so illustrious a victim as himself, has led to this deplorable event.... It is said neither the victims nor any one else believed the sentence of the council of war would be either approved or executed.' _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 45, Sess. 3, i. 79-80. It has been said that the execution of Medina, now aged and infirm, was in obedience to orders from Barrios. _Un Guatemalteco_, _Cartas_, 25.

[XXII-43] Had generals Juan Lopez and J. A. Medina carried out the order to the letter, every inhabitant of Olancho would have been annihilated. As it was, 200 men were shot and 500 hanged, all without trial. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Nov. 26, 1871.

[XXII-44] _Diario Cent. Am._, Dec. 27, 1880.

[XXII-45] The exhibit of the state of affairs, both present and prospective, was encouraging, and appeared to be well founded. A synopsis of the address is given in _Pan. Daily Canal_, March 20, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883.

[XXII-46] He was permitted to visit the U. S. and Europe, where, as the majority of the committee to whom the subject had been referred said, free from official cares he might place himself under medical treatment, if necessary. Some members of the committee favored the acceptance, claiming it as a matter of justice, but the majority thought it would cause inconveniences in the orderly march of affairs. A journal, _La Paz_ of Tegucigalpa, remarked: 'Friends and enemies of Dr Soto, men and parties the most opposite in ideas, join in considering that the withdrawal of Dr Soto would be the precursor of political misfortunes and catastrophes.' _Id._, Apr. 18, 1883.

[XXII-47] To adjust Honduras' share of the old federal debt, which was still unpaid; and to make some settlement respecting the loans contracted in London and Paris for constructing the interoceanic railway.

[XXII-48] A little later Barrios of Guat. claimed that it was due to his own constant support rather than to Soto's administration, which he declared to have been bad and ruinous to Hond.

[XXII-49] In his journey he was accompanied by his kinsman and former minister of relations, Ramon Rosa.

[XXII-50] 'Hasta el punto de valerse de mi, como del pretexto mejor para justificar el paso de fuga y desercion que ha dado y se propone consumar; no piense que ese plan tan ruin se oculta á ninguno.' Both letters are given in full in _Pan._, _El Cronista_, Aug. 25, 29, 1883; _La República_ (S. F.), Sept. 1, 8, 1883.

[XXII-51] _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 17, 1883; _La República_ (S. F.), Sept. 15, 24, 1883; _Diaz_, _Miscel._, no. 12, 3.

[XXII-52] Bogran was quite young, energetic, and frank in his manners, open-hearted and unpretentious. His character was in keeping with his appearance. He was master of the political situation.

[XXII-53] Rafael Alvarado, of war, education, and justice; Jerónimo Zelaya, of foreign affairs; Crescencio Gomez, of govt; Abelardo Zelaya, of treasury and public credit; and Francisco Planas, of public works. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Ext._, 1884, 8; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1884, 3; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 19, 1884; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 18, 1884.

[XXII-54] So said _La República_, of Tegucigalpa, official organ. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 10, 1885.

[XXIII-1] All appropriations had been covered, and a portion of the foreign debt paid. _Presid. Martinez' Mess._, in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 19, 1867.

[XXIII-2] 'Donde la libertad, la seguridad, y el órden no sean una quimera.' _Nic._, _Manif._, 1867, 1-7.

[XXIII-3] _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1869-70, 3, 26. It will be well to mention here that on the 4th of Jan. an attempt had been made to poison the president with arsenic placed in pine-apple preserve, of which he, together with his son and two or three others, partook.

[XXIII-4] It was remarkable that Martinez, an old conservative, should be acting in conjunction with and under Jerez, the confirmed radical democrat.

[XXIII-5] The grounds alleged by the insurgents were: 1st. Violation by Guzman of the pledges given at his inauguration. It was said that as he had detached himself from the party which raised him to the presidential chair, and on the other hand, had not shown any predilection for the old conservatives, who had tried to surround him, the true liberals had reposed faith in him, but he had not realized their expectations. Jerez and his associates, on their return from Costa Rica, had awaited an invitation to effect a fusion of parties, in order that the people should see the govt pursuing a liberal and generous policy. Jerez' advances had been coldly, and even disdainfully, met. Hence his letter to Guzman of June 26th, telling him that while he had pretended sympathy for the liberal cause, its friends had never seen any tangible proof of it. 'Muchas veces V. ha manifestado simpatías por las causas liberales; pero no las hemos visto eficaces.' Other charges were: usurpation of powers, inefficiency, illegal expenditures of public moneys, nepotism, encouragement to smugglers, etc. At a subsequent date, after his arms had proved victorious, Guzman denied that he had done any of the things imputed to him, proudly asserting that no government had in these latter days respected the rights of all citizens as his administration had done, and he challenged one and all to bring forward proofs that he had before the revolution broke out deprived any citizen of his life, liberty, or property. Faults may have been committed by the govt, but it was folly to deny that republicanism had not become a reality under it. The knowledge of this by the people confined the revolution within narrow bounds, and gave victory to Guzman; and it was by his generosity that the promoters of the rebellion escaped the consequences of their ill-advised step.

[XXIII-6] 1. Special attention to primary instruction supported by the gov.; 2. Freedom to teach; 3. Suppression of monopolies, and establishment of a single tax; 4. Protection to industry and trade; 5. Americanism, or unity on the American continent, for the support and progress of republican liberty; 6. Restoration of the Cent. Am. union, by force of arms if necessary; 7. Encouragement of immigration by liberal measures; 8. Liberal principles in religious matters, as far as willingly accepted by the gen. convictions of the people; 9. Abolition of the death penalty; 10. Trial by jury; 11. Direct elections. This plan was signed by M. Jerez, T. Martinez, Buenav. Selva, and Francisco Baca. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), July 1, 1869.

[XXIII-7] Holding it till Aug. 11th, when for ill health, as was made to appear, he turned it over to Martinez. _Id._, July 30, Aug. 4, 1869. The latter in joining the revolution said that he had left his retirement 'para ponerme á cubierto de las demasías y violencias de la administracion.' It appears, however, that the govt of Guzman had tendered him the position of minister plenipotentiary in London. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 8, 1867.

[XXIII-8] Martial law established throughout the republic; passports were required to leave the same, and to go from one department to another; a forced loan of $100,000; and a board created to procure resources for the army. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 3, 1869. A number of citizens known or suspected to favor the rebellion were arrested and their property seized. Their friends accused the government of having confined the prisoners 'en calabozos inmundos, oscuros, y malsanos,' which is not unlikely. Others fled, among them being Gerónimo Perez.

[XXIII-9] 'Proclamar con los revolucionarios la libertad de cultos, la separacion de la Iglesia y el Estado, la enseñanza libre.' _Nic._, _Inf. Min. Neg. Ecles._, 1870, 8.

[XXIII-10] Text of Min. Delgadillo's note in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 14, 1869.

[XXIII-11] At any rate, no step was taken to check them, nor effort made on behalf of peace. When the govern. won a signal victory, and was on the point of attacking Leon, the bishop went off to Rome, leaving his flock in tribulation. At the end of the war the vicar acknowledged the guilt of the parish priests, and by his edict of Nov. 6th suspended them. But after a while he allowed them one third of the parochial fees, and the privilege of exercising priestly functions. The consequence was that they kept up their disorderly behavior, as well as their hostility to the govt.

[XXIII-12] Once because the terms proposed by the insurgents were declared by the government inadmissible; again a convention was signed Sept. 25th at Masaya, which had no effect because the authorities at Leon insisted on amendments. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), Aug. 4, 19, 28, Sept. 4, 1869; _Id._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, Doc. no. iv. 5-6; _Id._, _Doc. Mediacion_, 1-32; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 28-Oct. 23, passim; Nov. 6, 1869.

[XXIII-13] They claimed a signal victory, for which their commander, Seferino Gonzalez, wounded in the fight, was promoted to gen. of division. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), July 30, Aug. 4, 1869; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 28, 1869.

[XXIII-14] According to Gen. Jerez' report of Aug. 31st, the fight lasted from 3 o'clock till dark; Medina's defeat was complete, losing 360 rifles and 4 pieces of artillery. The victors also had several prominent officers killed and wounded. _Nic._, _Boletin Gob._ (Leon), Aug. 31, 1869.

[XXIII-15] Sept. 12th. The former gen.-in-chief, J. D. Estrada, an officer who distinguished himself in the campaign against Walker, had died Aug. 12th. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 18, 1869.

[XXIII-16] _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1870, Doc. iv. 6, 14-15.

[XXIII-17] He also asked them to forsake the cause of those men. The govt had on the 21st, decreed a full pardon to all who should voluntarily surrender. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 23, 1869.

[XXIII-18] Convention of Oct. 24th, between Guzman and Riotte, associated with Francisco Zamora, the representative of the insurgent chiefs. 1. Full amnesty. 2. Gen. Sebastian Gutierrez, one of the two officers asked for by the revolutionists, was to be made military governor of the dept of Leon. 3. A constituent congress to be convoked within six months, or earlier, if possible. 4. The constituent congress to resolve upon the recognition and payment of the debt contracted by the revolution, the govt being willing to place it on the same footing with that incurred by it since June 25th. 5. The insurgents were to surrender all public arms and war material of every kind to the person appointed by Guzman to receive them. Riotte was authorized to do so. 6. Perfect freedom in the elections about to be made. 7. The government to place at the head of the departments only peaceably disposed men, to promote and maintain conciliation between political parties. 8. The convention to be definitive from the moment of its being signed, Riotte promising that the delivery of arms by the insurgents should begin on the 26th. This convention was ratified at Managua Oct. 25th by Acting Pres. Chamorro, countersigned by Antonio Falla, sec. of govt and war. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 8, March 19, 1870; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 2, 1873; _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1870, Doc. iv. In 1870 congress rejected the 3d clause and approved the 4th. During these troubles the rights of foreign residents were protected by Min. Riotte. _Id._, _Informe Min. Rel._, 1870, 1-24. Credit is also due to the efforts of the commissioners from the other Cent. Am. states to bring about peace. The revolutionists began the surrender of arms on the 27th, placing at Riotte's command 20 pieces of artillery, 2,292 other fire-arms, etc.

[XXIII-19] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 30, Nov. 20, Dec. 4, 1869.

[XXIII-20] 'Por el tino, firmeza, y energía que supo desplegar en la emergencia por que acaba de pasar Nicaragua.' _Id._, Jan. 29, 1870; _Nic._, _Decretos Legisl._, 1869-70, 94.

[XXIII-21] In his inaugural speech, he promised to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor, whose policy he extolled, expressing his acknowledgments. His words were: 'Dejando en práctica principios políticos, y mejoras materiales, que antes de él apénas se habian ensayado.' _Id._, March 4, 11, 1871; _Id._, _Manif. Disc. Inaug._, no. ix.; _Id._, _Mensaje_, March 1, 1871, 1-10.

[XXIII-22] Message and reply in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 8, 1871.

[XXIII-23] The gov. encountered much difficulty to effect a loan, except on ruinous terms. Meantime, the utmost economy was observed; nearly all public works were at a stand-still.

[XXIII-24] Their supporters believed that their example would be beneficial to the morals of the native clergy, which made a writer remark: 'Debe hacerle mucha cosquilla á nuestros clérigos, que casi todos son doblemente padres.' _El Porvenir de Nic._, Dec. 3, 1871.

[XXIII-25] Its opponents abused Quadra for doing what the condition of the country required. Easing the treasury, reforming the administrative system, and restoring public credit. For this they called him a retrogressionist, a despot, and a fool; for being a respecter of the laws they claimed he should be censured.

[XXIII-26] It was insinuated that the Pan. R. R. Co. might be underhandedly promoting discord, to throw obstacles in the way of an interoceanic canal being made in Nic. The company had been also suspected of doing so in the late war between Salv. and Hond., to prevent, or at least retard, the construction of an interoceanic railway in the latter state. Such reports probably had no foundation in fact.

[XXIII-27] In Subtiava, dept of Leon, there was a sedition of Indians, accompanied with murders, and finally the authorities had to resort to force. _Salgado_, _Mem._, 1-18; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 12, 19, 1872. There were scandalous proceedings in Rivas, Chinandega, Chichigalpa, island of Ometepe, Matagalpa, and elsewhere. In some places the priests headed the drunken rabble, armed with clubs and crying Viva la religion! Mueran los herejes! To the native priests and jesuits were imputed all the troubles. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 20, 1872.

[XXIII-28] He spoke of certain exiles, 'individuos de órdenes monásticas, cuyo establecimiento definitivo en el país no permiten las leyes, pero que permanecen aún asilados.' _Id._, Jan. 12, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 11, 1873; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 2, 1873.

[XXIII-29] Several members visited him to congratulate him on the second anniversary of his accession to the executive office. _Nic._, _Renuncia_, 1-3; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 8, 1873.

[XXIII-30] By a vote of 10 against 5 in the chamber of deputies. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 16, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 12, 1873.

[XXIII-31] Congress acknowledged that Nic. could not remain a passive spectator of those events. _Nic._, _Mensaje_, 1-8; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Aug. 28, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Sept. 7, 1873; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 27, Oct. 4, 18, 1873.

[XXIII-32] The Costa Rican officer Ramon Tinoco was implicated. The money—some $22,000—was brought by P. Salamanca, apparently for the purchase of cattle, but really for revolutionary purposes. Both Salamanca and Tinoco, when their plan became known, escaped. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Aug. 28, 1873.

[XXIII-33] The memorandum of B. Carazo, minister of Guatemala and Salvador, had for its main objects the overthrow of the existing govt of Costa R., and the expulsion of the jesuits from Nicaraguan territory. After a discussion on the latter point, Carazo no longer insisted on that action. _Nic._, _Informe Min. Rel._, in _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 18, 1873. In the last preceding chapter this subject was also mentioned.

[XXIII-34] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 198-200; _U. S. Govt Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, 112, 117, 123.

[XXIII-35] Máximo Jerez, though a champion of unity, opposed the treaty on the ground that it violated that of friendship with Costa Rica, wherein it was stipulated that neither party should wage war against the other, nor enter into offensive alliances without first having asked for explanations; which formality he claimed had not yet been complied with. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 18, Nov. 8, 1873. The treaty was approved in the senate by nine votes against two, the two nays being those of Jerez and Seferino Gonzalez. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 9, 1873; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 12, 1873.

[XXIII-36] The loyal people of Nic. at once manifested their resolve to sustain the govt. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 20, 29, Dec. 4, 6, 11, 20, 1873; Jan. 3, 10, 1874.

[XXIII-37] Dec. 6th, to Gen. F. Espinosa, the Salvadoran commander. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern_, 1875, 3-5; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Nov. 6-20, 1873; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 15, Dec. 20, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 16, 1873.

[XXIII-38] The troops were congratulated on their good fortune in not being used as 'instrumentos inocentes de venganzas y pasiones ajenas,' as so many before them had been. _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 31, 1874. The proprietor and editor of this journal was A. H. Rivas, the min. of foreign affairs.

[XXIII-39] There were a few local riots, and the government was made the subject of violent abuse in flying sheets. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1875, 7-12; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 10, Nov. 21, 1874.

[XXIII-40] _Nic._, _Mensaje del Presid._, 1-11; _Id._, _Contestacion_, 1-2; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 3, 1875.

[XXIII-41] No policy was laid down by him to be pursued without deviation, except that in general terms he assured congress and the people of his disposition to respect the laws, maintain peace, and do his best for the happiness and prosperity of his country. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 10, 11, 1875.

[XXIII-42] She placed a large force in Guanacaste, and Nic. had to station another on the frontier under Gen. Joaquin Zavala. A plot was discovered in March 1876, and about 20 prominent persons concerned in it were expelled, some going to Costa R., and others to Hond. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, March 22, 26, 1876.

[XXIII-43] The govt had endeavored to maintain and develop the harmony which Quadra had established with the ecclesiastical authorities. The bishop and his clergy efficaciously impressed on the masses respect for pub. authority, love for their institutions, and a spirit of independence. _Nic._, _Mensaje del Presid._, Jan. 24, 1877.

[XXIII-44] Nov. 15, 1876. Later on the govts of Guat. and Salv. united their efforts to restore a friendly feeling betw. Nic. and Costa R., and finally succeeded in their purpose. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 7, 12, 1877. Relations were reopened in June 1878.

[XXIII-45] A visitation of locusts did great havoc in the corps; and a succession of gales from the 3d to the 5th of October caused heavy damages in the city and department of Managua, in Granada, Rivas, and other parts, including a large portion of Mosquitia, ruining many valuable estates.

[XXIII-46] _Chamorro_, _Discurso en el acto de entrega_, March 1, 1879.

[XXIII-47] He based his conclusion on this ground: 'La trasmision legal y tranquila del Mando Supremo, que viene repitiéndose desde tantos años en Nicaragua.' _Nic._, _Discurso Inaug. del Presid. Zavala_, March 1, 1879; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 28, Nov. 12, Dec. 12, 22, 1878; Jan. 22, March 13, 1879; _Voz de Méj._, May 6, 1879.

[XXIII-48] The following measures were passed: law of civil registration; penal code; mode of procedure in criminal cases; creation of justices of the peace, and military courts of first resort, to take the place of the governors of departments, where for greater economy it has been deemed expedient to suppress these officers, as well as the respective military garrisons; restoration of the universities; and the appropriations for the current fiscal biennial term. It also sanctioned the treaty concluded with Guat. and Salv. in 1877, and the treaties and conventions lately entered into with Hond.; namely, amity, commerce, extradition, exportation of cattle, postal, and telegraphic.

[XXIII-49] Those on the railway decreed by the assembly of 1876, and begun by the former administration, were progressing. Two important contracts were made, one for navigation on the lake by fair-sized steam vessels, and another for the construction of a railroad from Chinandega to Moábita or Leon Viejo, and thence to Granada. The section between Corinto and Chinandega went into operation Jan. 1st. Telegraphic lines were in working order. A contract had also been concluded to lay a submarine cable to connect with the Mexican telegraphs.

[XXIII-50] Excise tax on real estates, export duties, and certain monopolies were abolished.

[XXIII-51] _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 1881.

[XXIII-52] Among them were one for amending the constitution, and for abolishing judicial fees, in order to have gratuitous administration of justice. An act to seize private lands, by paying for it, for facilitating the construction of railroads, was passed. _Id._, Apr. 1, 1881.

[XXIII-53] It was proved beyond a doubt. _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 28, 1881.

[XXIII-54] In exhorting the young to avail themselves of the advantages the institute would afford them, he said that christianity was the true basis of education, and added that liberty of conscience and of speech was necessary for the perfect education of free men.

[XXIII-55] Several prominent citizens, among whom were Ex-president Chamorro, and Ex-minister Rivas, urged the govt to let the jesuits remain; but their arguments could not stand against Zavala's determination to rid his country of a dangerous religious and political body. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1883, 5-6, annexes A and B; _Costa R._, June 9, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 21, June 16-18, 1883; _S. F. Bulletin_, July 6, 16, 1881.

[XXIII-56] He was a man about 55 years of age, of small stature, gray-haired, and wearing spectacles. His sharp, intelligent eyes showed the man of culture and shrewdness.

[XXIII-57] He organized his cabinet with the following ministers: Teodoro Delgadillo, of justice and religion; Francisco Castellon, of foreign affairs and pub. instruction; Jose Chamorro, of pub. works; Joaquin Elizondo, of war and marine. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1884, 8; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 20, Dec. 1, 1882; March 20, Apr. 17, 1883.

[XXIII-58] Vicente Navas, Enrique Guzman, Gilberto Larios, and Ladislao Argüello were appointed to represent Nic. at the conference of delegates of the five republics.

[XXIII-59] Small-pox and dysentery broke out in several districts, destroying many lives. The town of San Cárlos was burned down; and the eruption of Ometepe volcano drove the inhabitants of that island from their homes. The govt afforded relief to the sufferers. Other places have been lately injured by earthquakes. _Nic._, _Mensaje Pres. Cárdenas_, Jan. 15, 1885; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 4, 1885.

[XXIII-60] On the 13th and 14th of March they issued manifestos to Central Americans in general, as well as to their own people, inviting them to resist Barrios, who, as they said, claiming to seek the reconstruction of the old union, really was bent on conquest for his own aggrandizement. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 13, 23, 29, Apr. 2, 1885; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Sen Jour., 1884-5, 568-71; _S. F. Call_, March 13, 1885; _S. F. Chronicle_, March 13, 1885.

[XXIII-61] _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, June 2, 1885.

[XXIII-62] They fled in disorder on the approach of govt troops. Costa R. and Hond. had placed forces on the frontiers to secure their neutrality. _Id._, Nov. 4, 8, 10, Dec. 4, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 29, 1885.

[XXIV-1] Urbina was made a brigadier a few months after he became governor, and died Feb. 22, 1805, on which day the teniente rey Mata took the govt. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 3, 1868.

[XXIV-2] Each province was ruled by a governor and comandante de armas, and the partidos by alcaldes mayores, all being, however, under the governor at the capital, in whose hands were the superior civil government, the real patronato, and the superintendency of the treasury. _Pan. Docs._, in _Pan._, _Col. Docs._, MS., no. 36, 6; _Arosemena_, _Apunt. Hist._, 3-4; _Id._, in _Pan. Bol. Ofic._, Feb. 25, 1868; _Arosemena, Mariano_, _Apuntamientos Históricos con relacion al Istmo de Panamá_, Pan., 1868, 8vo, 48 pp. The author, one of the prominent citizens who took an active part in the affairs related by him, and was one of the signers of the independence, kept a diary of events occurring on the Isthmus during many years, and in 1868, as he tells us, purposed the publication of his memoranda from 1801 to 1840. I have succeeded in obtaining a portion of his writings, and find them important for the period embraced. Mariano Arosemena died at Panamá on the 31st of May, 1868. He had several sons and daughters, one of the former being the distinguished Colombian statesman, Justo Arosemena, who has held high diplomatic positions in Europe, the United States, and South American republics, besides some of the most important offices in his own country.

[XXIV-3] _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 5; _Bol. Of._ (1868), 32. For the district of Panamá proper, there was, moreover, a high justice, 'justicia mayor de cruces,' who on entering the city had power to take cognizance of all affairs laid before the alcaldes.

[XXIV-4] In addition to the regular troops of one company of artillery and one battalion of infantry, distributed in various places, there were militia forces comprising one battalion of white and one of colored soldiers at Panamá, an equal force at Natá, one battalion of whites in Veragua, and seven companies infantry and artillery scattered in different places. _Bol. Of._ (1868), 32.

[XXIV-5] Arosemena, _Apunt._, 10-11, gives several titles of such books, of which as specimens may be mentioned _Las Fábulas de Samaniego_, _El Año Cristiano_, _El Semanario Santo_.

[XXIV-6] There was a college de propaganda fide of Franciscans; convents of barefooted Augustinians, Dominicans, and the order of Mercy; nunneries of la Concepcion and San Juan de Dios; moreover a hospital, and a charitable institution, dedicated to Santo Tomás de Villanueva, for poor women. Hospitals belonging to the order of San Juan de Dios existed likewise at Natá and Portobello. _Bol. Of._ (1868), 32.

[XXIV-7] The transportation into town was effected at night, and generally in packages, similar in size and shape to those used for carrying country products to market. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 8.

[XXIV-8] Prompted by the Franciscans, public processions were held, at which some persons wore crowns of thorns, others carried heavy crosses on their shoulders, or ropes round their necks, etc.

[XXIV-9] Full particulars on this point have been given in connection with the histories of Mexico and Guatemala for that period.

[XXIV-10] Distinctions of classes, resulting from differences of color, were natural enough; but the rivalry was now intense between natives of Spain, and Americans of pure Spanish descent.

[XXIV-11] The permission was granted by the governor of Panamá, and never revoked even though its political influence became apparent, because of the increase of revenue resulting from that trade. _Bol. Of._ (1868), 72.

[XXIV-12] A detailed account of the occurrences at Cartagena is given in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, ii. 165-8.

[XXIV-13] The governor of Panamá had hastened to send an auxiliary force of several hundred men, but it arrived too late. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 19.

[XXIV-14] 'Una expresion indiscreta que el español Don José Llorente dijo á Don Francisco Morales ... por la que despreciaba á los americanos.' _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, ii. 174.

[XXIV-15] In August the same junta obliged the viceroy to go to Cartagena, and thence to Spain. _Id._, 191.

[XXIV-16] Indeed, the authority of the Spanish córtes was formally recognized by the several provinces as late as 1811, and it was only afterward that thoughts of absolute independence were expressed.

[XXIV-17] The Spanish party ridiculed the aspirations of the patriots, because of certain dissensions already cropping out among them. _Bol. Ofic._, 1868, 75.

[XXIV-18] 'Deben ser el primer objeto de la defensa y de la tierna solicitud del congreso ... redimiendo las segundas de las cadenas que hoy las oprimen.' _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 22; _Bol. Ofic._, 1868, 75.

[XXIV-19] He assumed the government at Portobello, Feb. 19th, and somewhat later transferred himself to Panamá. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, viii. 28, followed by Perez, _Jeog._, 109.

[XXIV-20] A letter from the vice-president of the junta gubernativa at Cartagena to Commandant Ríbon at Mompós let out the object of the mission. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 24.

[XXIV-21] Gov. Mata had died in 1812, soon after his promotion to mariscal de campo. He was succeeded by Brigadier Victor Salcedo, who ruled only a few days.

[XXIV-22] The cause was dissatisfaction of the regency at Cádiz because he had remained in Panamá instead of selecting some other place from which he might have reached Bogotá.

[XXIV-23] 'Arrancó el ayuntamiento de Panamá con insidiosos manejos del gobierno de Cádiz el decreto de que fuese el R. Obispo removido de su silla.' _Torrente_, _Hist. Rev._, ii. 69. The name of the bishop was Joaquin Gonzalez, who died in July 1813. His successor was José Higinio Duran y Martel, mentioned as bishop for the first time in 1814, who was one of the signers of the independence—_Bol. Of._ (1868), 88—and still in office in 1821. See also _Pan. Col. Doc._, no. 125, MS.

[XXIV-24] Other distinctions, among which an addition to the coat of arms, were also resolved in the same session. _Córtes_, _Actas Ord._ (1814), ii. 206.

[XXIV-25] His decree of May 4, 1814, was carried out on the Isthmus in August of the same year. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, no. 36, MS., 8-19.

[XXIV-26] Bustamante, _Cuad. Hist._, iv. 161-3, gives the number as 10,473, which agrees with the figures given by Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, vi. 49; but this authority refers only to the troops.

[XXIV-27] This was the principal object; 'asegurar este istmo en sujecion perpetua á la España, fuera cual fuese el éxito final de la guerra de la independencia de las colonias de S. M. C. en el Nuevo Mundo;' which is confirmed by the words of the royal order of May 9, 1815, speaking of the expedition as made in view of 'la importancia de poner en el respetable pié de defensa que conviene, al Istmo de Panamá, llave de ambas Américas.' _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 29-30.

[XXIV-28] The vessel carrying Hore and part of his force was captured near Cartagena by two small ships belonging to the revolutionists. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vi. 95-6; _Torrente_, _Hist. Rev._, ii. 178-9.

[XXIV-29] It had been held ad interim by Juan Domingo Iturralde, _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 30-1, who was the governor of Veragua and adjoining districts. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, no. 36, MS., 8.

[XXIV-30] Arosemena, _Apunt._, 31, speaks of his 'detestacion de los principios de gobierno representativo,' and says on page 42 that he was the man employed by Fernando VII. to dissolve in 1814 the Spanish córtes.

[XXIV-31] The king had decreed the reëstablishment of the order in Spanish America, but it was not carried out on the Isthmus, there being no members of the society here, nor any one willing to join it. 'Andábamos ya algo despreocupados,' says an authority. The society was already looked on as an agent of despotism and perpetual state of vassalage. _Bol. Ofic._, 1868, 112.

[XXIV-32] 'Prometiéndoles ganancias enormes, pero propias de las circunstancias.' _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vii. 168.

[XXIV-33] While the assailants had all their attention centred on Portobello, a Spanish vessel, with $70,000 on board, passed the port unperceived. _Weatherhead's Darien_, 29.

[XXIV-34] MacGregor had probably never read the adventures of Vasco Nuñez de Balboa.

[XXIV-35] Weatherhead, _Darien_, 43, says that Spanish officers in disguise fearlessly walked the streets, and entered the fort to drink with the men. They had passports issued by the former alcalde, who had returned after the occupation of the city, and in whom MacGregor foolishly placed confidence.

[XXIV-36] Such is Weatherhead's version. _Darien_, 57-62. Hore denied having agreed to the capitulation, adding that he regarded the men as bandits; and had demanded their surrender at discretion. Restrepo, giving no credence to Hore's assertion, declares his proceeding 'accion vil, digna de los jefes españoles de América.' Arosemena says: 'Bajo capitulacion, ó sin ella, pues esto no es del todo conocido, se sindieron.' _Apunt._, 38-9. Santa Cruz, who was made governor of Portobello, shortly after Hore went to Panamá captured two vessels which had on board about 100 men brought from England to reinforce MacGregor; but it is unknown what became of the prisoners. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, vii. 173-4, 176.

[XXIV-37] 'Terminó por la ineptitud del gefe esta espedicion que hizo mucho ruido,' observes Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, vii. 175. Weatherhead, _Darien_, 63-7, though admitting the general's incompetency, tries to apologize for his behavior.

[XXIV-38] This was pursuant to general orders from the king. The same treatment was to be awarded to persons captured under similar circumstances, 'sin dar cuenta, ni consultar á esta superioridad hasta despues de haberlo verificado.' _Doc._, in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, x. 190.

[XXIV-39] Weatherhead, _Darien_, 96, speaks of 14, while Restrepo, _Hist. Col._, vii. 177-8, mentions only 10.

[XXIV-40] Restrepo says that only 40 had survived, while Weatherhead gives the figures as in the text. I have in most cases preferred to follow the latter authority in his _An Account of the Late Expedition against the Isthmus of Darien_, London, 1821, pp. 134, map, by W. D. Weatherhead, as the work was written under the fresh impression of the events described, and by one whose position and participation in the expedition as a surgeon enabled him to obtain the most reliable information. This is furnished, together with such other historical data as the author, by means of slight investigation, could procure in addition to the narrative of the expedition and descriptions of different places on the Isthmus. Appended is professional information on diseases, climates, and state of medical science in the province of Tierra Firme.

[XXIV-41] The constitution of the Spanish monarchy was published on the Isthmus about May 1821. Its publication in Alange took place in that month. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 36, fol. 26.

[XXIV-42] Alcaldes—Luis Laso de la Vega, and Mariano Arosemena. Regidores—Manuel de Arce Delgado, Juan Manuel Berguido, Pedro Jimenez, Cárlos Icaza, Juan José Calvo, Remigio Laso, José Pablo Jimenez, and Tadeo Perez. Secretary—Manuel Maria Ayala. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 41-2.

[XXIV-43] He died July 8, 1820. Arosemena, _Apunt._, 42, places the death in Aug. Another trouble was his inability to pay the soldiers, who clamored for their dues. _Weatherhead's Darien_, 116-17.

[XXIV-44] The application of municipal revenue to local purposes; and that the police be composed of citizens under the control of the cabildo; the military patrols should be discontinued.

[XXIV-45] Many families abandoned the city to escape his persecutions.

[XXIV-46] His influence was to be seen, nevertheless, in the low tone of the press, and in the discontinuance of political meetings.

[XXIV-47] Their names are given in _Bol. Of._ (1869), 31.

[XXIV-48] _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, viii. 28; _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 47.

[XXIV-49] Perez, _Jeog._, 110, calls him Murjea.

[XXIV-50] His arrival at Chagres is set down by Arosemena, _Apunt._, 47-8, on the 2d of Aug., 1821; others place him in Panamá on the 17th. _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, viii. 29; _Perez_, _Jeog._, 110.

[XXIV-51] Porras had been transferred to Yucatan, and his successor, Brigadier Tomás Cires, had been detained at Puerto Cabello. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 48. Fábrega was the governor of Veragua and adjoining districts. _Pan._, _Doc. Hist._, in _Pan._, _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 36, 25.

[XXIV-52] The church lent him some money, and he obtained $20,000 more from the sale of armament to Peru. _Bol. Ofic._, 1869, 31.

[XXIV-53] Mourgeon had the idea of taking with him some persons whom he suspected of disloyalty, but desisted. _Arosemena_, _Apunt._, 48.

[XXIV-54] 'No declararon el gobierno que se daban, ni cosa alguna sobre los negocios de la transformacion política: novicios, se contentaron con llamarse independientes.' _Bol._ _Ofic._, 1869, 31.

[XXIV-55] The commissioners were José María Chiari and Juan de la Cruz Perez.

[XXIV-56] Mollien, _Colombie_, ii. 140-1, asserts that the officers were induced to desert, partly by threats, and partly by paying them two months' arrears due them by the government.

[XXIV-57] Blas, Mariano, and Gaspar Arosemena, and José María Barrientos.

[XXIV-58] The deserters became so many recruits for an independent army.

[XXIV-59] 'Panamá, espontáneamente, y conforme al voto general de los pueblos de su comprension, se declara libre é independiente del Gobierno español.' Bol. _Ofic._, 1869, 32. The anniversary of the independence has been ever since celebrated with due honors on the 28th of November.

[XXIV-60] Some had favored absolute independence, and others union with Peru.

[XXIV-61] The military were left free to stay or leave the Isthmus. In the latter event they would be furnished means to go to Cuba, provided they pledged themselves not to use arms against the independent states of America. Similar provisions were made for soldiers and officers detained by sickness. Another document speaks only of defraying the expenses to Chagres or Portobello, the transfer to be made as soon as the forts there surrendered. _Pan. Doc._

[XXIV-62] In the _Bol. Of._ (1869), 32, the names of 25 are given, whereas a printed copy of the act in _Pan. Doc._ gives four more. Other copies of the text will be found in the _Gac._, _Imp. Mex._ (1821), ii. 110-12; _Gac._, _Guad._ (1822), 315-16; _Am. St. Pap._, iv. 832-5; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 28, 1883.

[XXIV-63] Niles, _S. Am. and Mex._, ii. 118, gives the day as Dec. 15th, a date also vaguely indicated by Scheffer in _Revue Amér._, i. 183.

[XXIV-64] The motion had been made by the inhabitants of Natá, and was adopted by the citizens assembled at Santiago under the presidency of Casimiro del Bal, the political chief ad interim. The oath of independence included also the condition to uphold the Roman catholic religion, and to defend the purity of the virgin Mary. The full text is given in _Veraguas_, _Acta de Independencia_, in _Pan. Col. Doc._, no. 54, a certified manuscript copy of the original record in the archives of Santiago.

[XXIV-65] 'Otros pensaron que viniera otra espedicion española sin que tuviéramos previo conocimiento de ella.' _Bol. Ofic._, 1869, 32.

[XXIV-66] 'Con esta clase de pasaporte zarparon del puerto, diciendo, sin embargo, que no podian llevar á efecto el convenio.... Pero mas tarde se entregaron, al fin, al Gobierno republicano del Perú.' _Bol. Ofic._, 1869, 32. From that time, it is believed no Spanish war vessel visited the Isthmus till August 1863, when, though Spain had not as yet recognized Colombia's independence, a squadron of that nation entered Panamá Bay. The visit was altogether friendly. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 71.

[XXIV-67] Copies of the various constitutions framed from 1811 to 1821 will be found in _Restrepo_, _Hist. Col._, i. 135-42; viii. 5-19, 221-44; ix. 5-31; x. 37-54. A French translation of the last of Aug. 30, 1821, appears in _Colombia Const._, in _Ancillon_, _Mélanges Pol._, 9-120, and commented on in _Revue Amér._, i. 186-215.

[XXIV-68] _Veraguas_, _Decretos del Libertador Bolívar, Presidente de Colombia_, 1827-8, in _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., no. 64.

[XXIV-69] _Pan. Comand. gen. del istmo_, in _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 30, p. 3-8, 11. The Spanish córtes, not knowing what had occurred on the Isthmus, authorized the government, Apr. 30, 1822, to create an intendencia in Panamá. _Córtes_, _Diario, _, 1822, v. Apr. 30, 2.

[XXIV-70] _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, v. 581-2; _Méx._, _Col. Órd. y Dec._, ii. 38-9.

[XXIV-71] _Seemann's Voy._, i. 301. In Veragua orders were issued, July 23, 1822, to register in future as free all colored children born of slave mothers. In 1847 there were only about 380 slaves in the province of Panamá. The national government in April of that year prohibited the importation and exportation of slaves. In the latter part of 1849 there were left in the province of Chiriquí only 32 slaves, and measures were proposed for their manumission. _Gov. Herrera's mess._, Sept. 15, 1847, in _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1848; _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., nos. 81, 82; _Chiriquí_, _Mem. de su prim. gobr_, in _Id._, no. 85, p. 10-11.

[XXIV-72] Soon after there were no slaves in the country. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 32-3; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Jan. 22, March 29, Aug. 29, 1852; _S. F. Daily Herald_, Feb. 9, 1852. It was currently reported, and indeed with good foundation, that a plot was carried out by certain parties from Cartagena, in or about 1862, who ran off a number of colored men and women of Panamá to Cuba, where they were sold into slavery. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 27, 1862.

[XXV-1] It was supposed that France, now under an absolute king, by the prompting of the alliance, had conceived a vast plan for the conquest of the Spanish American countries, which till within a few years had been under the catholic king's domination. Many eminent men in Europe and the U. S. approved the idea of the American congress, and bestowed high encomiums on its author. Abbé de Pradt championed it in his work, _Congrés de Panamá_, saying: 'The congress of Panamá will be one of the greatest events of our times, and its effects will be felt to the remotest posterity.' _Pradt_, _Cong. de Pan._ (Sp. Transl.), 171.

[XXV-2] The plenipotentiaries of the U. S. were R. G. Anderson, then minister to Bogotá, and J. Sergeant. Anderson died at Cartagena while on his journey to the Isthmus. Sergeant arrived too late, but afterward proceeded to Mexico for the purpose of carrying out his instructions. Full particulars on the course of the U. S. government will be found in _Niles' Reg._, xxviii. 131-2; xxix. index 'Panamá' and 'Congress,' subhead 'Pan.;' xxx. index, p. iv., p. vii., 54-172, passim, 248; xxxi. index 'Pan.,' 263, 318, 400, 16, 38, 44-7, 65, 129, 312-16; xxxii. 214, 282, 308; xxxvi. index 'Pan.', p. iii., 23-80, passim; _Benton's Thirty Years_, i. 65-9; _Am. St. Pap._, For. Rel., v. 834-40, 899-905, 916-20; vi. (new set) 356-65, 383-4, 555; _U. S. Cong. Debates_, 1825-6, i. index, p. ii. iii. viii. x.; ii., app. p. 43-105; _Id._, 1828-9, Index, p. i.; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Cong. 19, Sess. 1, H. Doc., 740; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc. 144, viii.; _Id._, Cong. 19, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Doc. 23, ii. St. Pap.; _Id._, Cong. 19, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc., i. p. 9, vol. i.; _Id._, Cong. 19, Sess. 1, Sen. Jour., 411-70; _Id._, Cong. 19, Sess. 1, Rept Commit., ii. Doc. 137, app. nos. 36-41; _Pan. Miss. Speeches_; _Johnson's Speech on Pan. Miss._; _Hayne's Speech on Pan. Miss._, _Mayer's Mex. as it was, etc._, 368; _Rev. Amér._, 111-25, 542-8; _Dem. Rev._, i. 489; _Young's Am. Statesman_, 352-61; _Lafond_, _Voy._, i. bk. i. 289-90; _N. Am. Rev._, xxi. 162-76; _Am. Annual Reg._, 1825-6, 79-126; _Pub. Doc._ 49, 103.

[XXV-3] Dawkins, the British commissioner, according to Restrepo, _Hist. Revol. Colombia_, acted with commendable frankness. He limited himself to imparting good advice, assuring the Sp. Am. plenipotentiaries that his government would assuredly mediate with Spain; meantime they should avoid all cause of offence to European powers. Col Van Veer, the gentleman from Holland, held no public capacity; his mission was a private one, confined to the expression of his sovereign's warm wishes for the happiness of the American republics. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 186-90.

[XXV-4] Their representatives were: for Colombia, Pedro Gual and Pedro Briceño Mendez; for Central America, Pedro Molina and Antonio Larrazábal; for Peru, Manuel de Vidaurre and Manuel Perez de Tudela; and for Mexico, José Mariano Michelena and José Dominguez. _Santangelo_, _Cong. Pan._, 1-166.

[XXV-5] In proof of the assertion, Colombia was to furnish 15,250 men of the three arms, one line-of-battle ship of 70 to 80 guns, one frigate of 64, and two of 44. These vessels would cost her nearly two and a quarter million dollars, besides the expense to maintain them armed, manned, and otherwise thoroughly equipped. Where was Colombia, already burdened with a considerable annual deficit, to get the means for supporting such an army and navy?

[XXV-6] On the 8th of Aug., 1826, he wrote to Gen. Paez from Lima: 'The congress of Panamá, an admirable institution were it more efficacious, resembles the Greek lunatic that wanted to direct from a rock the sailing of ships. Its power will be but a shadow, and its decrees mere counsels.' _Caicedo_, _Union Lat. Am._, 33-10, 97-110.

[XXV-7] There were doubtless other reasons, such as the agitations menacing Colombia, fear of an invasion by France in the name of the holy alliance; or the bad climate and lack of facilities in Panamá. _Méx._, _El Sol_, no. 1203; _Guat._, _Redaitor Gen._, suppl. to no. 27; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 138-9.

[XXV-8] The enemies of Bolívar accused him of aiming, through an American league, at the control of all Spanish America to make himself its ruler. The following authorities have also treated more or less fully of the Panamá congress: _Mora_, _Revol. Mej._, i. 354-8; _La Palanca_, Sept. 14, Oct. 26, 1826; _Zavala_, _Revol. Mex._, i. 389-90; _Cuevas_, _Porvenir_, 387-497; _Mex._, _Mem. Rel._, 1827, Doc. 2, 11-13; _Bustamante_, _Voz de la Patria_, ii. no. 15, 2-3; _Amigo del Pueblo_, ii. no. 5, 132-3; iii. 395-419; iv. 223-4; _Cor. Fed. Mex._, Nov. 28, 1826; _Rivera_, _Hist. Jalapa_, ii. 395-6; _Tornel_, _Breve Reseña_, 48-50; _Gaz. Mex. Extraord._, 1826, i. no. 5; _Mex._, _Gac. de Gob._, July 4-Sept. 21, 1826, passim; _Tucker's Monroe Doctrine_, 23-36.

[XXV-9] The capital of Spanish Guiana, near the Orinoco and Old Guiana.

[XXV-10] Among the governors of Veragua were, in Jan. 1823, José M. Chiari; in June 1823, Miguel A. Figueredo; in 1824-5, Pedro Guillen; and in 1828, F. Fábrega. Gov. of Panamá, 1826, J. J. Argote. Intendente and comandante general of the departm. of the Isthmus in 1827, Col Man. Muñoz; in June 1828, J. Sardá. _Veraguas_, _Gob._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 29, 34; _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 2, 80, et seq.

[XXV-11] José Vallarino of Panamá was one of its members, and soon after was made vice-president, and a little later councillor of state. A popular man in his section, he was at one time thought of for a senatorship, and at another for the presidency of the republic. In 1816 he had been the royal treasurer, an office conferred on him as a reward of his own past services, as well as of those of his father, Bernardo, and his uncle, Bruno, who had been a member of the council of the Indies. At the separation from the mother country he joined the independent movement, afterward holding several honorable positions. His descendants live on the Isthmus. _Id._, no. 1, 1-8.

[XXV-12] Since 1829 Nueva Granada had been divided into departments with a prefect at the head of each. The prefect of Panamá was J. Sardá. His rule was despotic, involving the abuse of prominent citizens, and levying a forced loan for pretended defence of the Isthmus. _Sardá, J._, _Decreto_, May 25, 1829. He was executed at Bogotá in 1833 under sentence of the law for a plot to murder the president. _Necrología_, in _El Constitucional del Istmo_.

[XXV-13] Their functions were those of the former prefect. _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 62.

[XXV-14] The constitution of 1830, of the old republic, had been in force till now. _Obando, J. M._, _Decreto_, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Miscell. Pap._, no. 14; _El Constitutional del Istmo_, Jan. 14, 28; Apr. 21, May 7, 14, 28, 1832; _Veraguas_, _Recop. Ordenanzas_, 20.

[XXV-15] The following authorities appear in official documents: Province of Panamá, 1832-3, Gov. Juan José Argote; in 1834, acting gov., M. A. Hurtado; in 1836-8, Gov. Pedro Obarrio. Prov. of Veragua, in 1874, Gov. M. J. Guisado; in 1835-7, Gov. Manuel de Ayala. In 1836 Veragua had a provincial legislature. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 25, no. 31, p. 4, 12, 18, 38, 40, 75, 91; nos. 59, 65, 78, 104; _El Constitutional del Istmo_, May 7, 14, 1832; Oct. 30, 1824; Aug. 30, 1836; _Registro Ofic._, _N. Gran._, 8; _Veraguas_, _Esposic._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 76.

[XXV-16] For which he was awarded thanks. _El Constitutional del Istmo_, Dec. 28, 1831.

[XXV-17] Dec. 3, 1831. _Id._, Dec. 21, 1831.

[XXV-18] Lieut Melchor Duran, and Brevet Sub-lieutenant F. Casana of the battalion No. 9. _Id._, March 14, 1832.

[XXV-19] During the past nine years the Isthmus seems to have enjoyed comparative quiet. In Sept. 1833, the provincial legislature chose Agustin Tallaferro deputy to the national congress, and Juan de la Cruz Perez his suplente. _Id._, Sept. 15, 1833.

[XXV-20] He accompanied resolutions of the officials, heads of families, and other citizens of Santiago to remain under the national authority, and lend no aid to any attempt to sever the connection or promote public disturbance. _El Constitucional de Cundinamarca_, March 27, 1842.

[XXV-21] He said: 'Marcharé hasta donde sea necesario para arreglanos con Veraguas definitivamente.' Though hoping that for the common interest, the voice of peace will be heeded, 'la fuerza alcanzará lo que se le ha negado á la fraternidad y á los principios.' _Gaceta del Istmo_, Sept. 15, 1840, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, no. 3; _Herrera_, _Decreto_, in _Pinart_, _Miscell. Pap._, no. 13.

[XXV-22] Costa Rica recognized the independence of the Isthmus, and entered with Obarrio into a convention of amity and trade. The boundary question was left open for future settlement. _Gaceta del Istmo_, Oct. 20, 1841; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 234-6.

[XXV-23] This was acknowledged on the 16th of October, 1841, by F. W. Byrne, acting Brit. consul, in a note to Sec. Arosemena.

[XXV-24] Meantime José Agustin Arango, sec. of war, had been engaged in regulating the national guard. _Id._, Sept. 20, 1841.

[XXV-25] It is understood that the commissioners were not even clothed with sufficient powers; but the chief men surrendered the Isthmus to them. The men of the revolution, José Obaldía, Pedro de Obarrio, Mariano Arosemena, Cárlos de Icaza, José Agustin Arango, and others, now left Herrera to the consequences.

[XXV-26] Gen. Herrera fell in battle, not in the state of Panamá, on the 4th of Dec., 1854, in defence of liberal institutions. The legislature of Pan., Sept. 22, 1855, decreed that several of his portraits should be placed in official halls. In Oct. 1857 it appropriated $3,000 to bring his remains to Panamá; in May 1868 a monument was decreed. A statue of the general was placed in the cathedral plaza of the city of Panamá. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 29, 1855; _Id._, Oct. 15, 1857; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 8, May 12, 1868.

[XXV-27] Gen. Tomás C. Mosquera, commander-in-chief of the forces on the coast, Aug. 1, 1842, at Panamá, granted in the name of his government an amnesty to the revolutionists. Again, March 15, 1845, congress passed a general amnesty law, including all persons who participated in the rebellion from 1839 to 1842. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 31, 183-5; _N. Gran._, _Ley. y Dec._, 1-2; _Seemann's Hist. Isth. Pan._, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 14, 1868. The rulers of the provinces of Panamá and Veragua in the following years are given in continuation: Gov. of Panamá in 1843, Miguel Chiari; in 1844-5, Col Anselmo Pineda; in 1845, Joaquin M. Barriga, with José Agustin Arango as government secretary. Intendente gen. de hacienda in 1848, Mariano Arosemena. Gov. of Veragua in 1840-2, Cárlos Fábrega; acting-gov. in 1843, José Fábrega Barrera; in 1843-5, Antonio del Rio; in 1845-9, Escolástico Romero; in June 1849, Diego García; in Aug. 1849, Ricardo de la Parra; in 1850-2, J. Fábrega Barrera; in 1852, Francisco de Fábrega; in Oct. 1853, Eustasio Fábrega; in 1855, Agustin Lopez; May 15, 1855, Francisco Fábrega. Appointed gov. Aug. 1855, Agustin Lopez. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., nos. 17, 21, 31, 53, 57-8, 68-75, 79, 105; _El Movimiento_, Dec. 29, 1844; _Veraguas_, _Recop. Ordenanzas_, 2-66; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Aug. 28, 1855; _N. Gran._, _Ley. y Dec._, 1-3.

[XXV-28] Aug. 1, 1849, the electoral junta chose one proprietary senator, Antonio Villeros, and his suplente, Nicolás Lopez; one deputy, Domingo Arosemena, and his substitute, Gabriel Diez, to the national congress; seven deputies and an equal number of suplentes, to constitute the provincial legislature. The first local legislature met Sept. 15th, and closed the session on the 24th of Oct. From this time the new province had the following governors, namely: July 24 to Dec. 20, 1849, Pablo Arosemena; Dec. 20, 1849, acting gov. Juan Man. Gallegos; June 1850, P. Arosemena again in office till Aug. 1851, when Rafael Nuñez succeeded ad int.; Sept. 1851 to 1852, Francisco Esquivel; Sept. 1852, Escolástico Romero; 1854, Santiago Agnew; Aug. 1855, Domingo Obaldía, against whom complaints were made of abuses of power. _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., 2-11, 31, 46-8, 83-93; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, House Ex. Doc., vi. 41, p. 59; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Dec. 1, 1855.

[XXV-29] The first official doc. I have found with the name of Fábrega in a decree of the gov. of July 25, 1850. _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 89, p. 59-60.

[XXV-30] Chiriquí's capital, David; Veragua's, Santiago; Azuero's, Villa de los Santos. The first gov. of Azuero, receiving like the rest his appointment from the gen. government, was Juan Arosemena, in 1851. Antonio Baraya became gov. in April 1852. _Gobn. Prov. Azuero_, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43.

[XXV-31] Annexed to Veragua. _Sac. Daily Union_, May 18, 1855; _Veraguas_, _Ord. y Resol._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, no. 6; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 15, 1855.

[XXV-32] Dated June 22, 1850. _Chiriquí_, _Ofic. de la Gobn._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 84; _Chiriquí_, _Decretos_, in _Id._, MS., no. 89; _Chiriquí_, _Inf. Gen. del Canton_, in _Id._, MS., no. 41.

[XXV-33] The local authorities were paid out of the national treasury. Chiriquí could not tax the inhabitants.

[XXV-34] The vice-consul's release; restoration with all respect and publicity to the consulate of its archives and other effects, together with satisfaction to the British government, and a compensation of £1,000 to Russell. _Peña y Peña_, _Práctica Forense_, iii. 375-94; _Scarlett's S. Am._, ii. 257-9; _Mensaje_, _Presid. N. Gran._, 1837.

[XXV-35] British war vessels made a demonstration at Panamá the following year. _S. F. Alta Cal._, Dec. 1, 1856; _S. F. Even. Bulletin_, Jan. 2, May 16, 1857.

[XXV-36] They said it was notorious that no passenger arrived at either end of the route without being abused, robbed, or otherwise maltreated; many had been wounded, and not a few murdered; hardly a party passed without their baggage being plundered; women were insulted, and even outraged. No effort had been made by the authorities to ferret out the perpetrators of such crimes. _Pan._, _La Crónica Ofic._, March 1, 1854.

[XXV-37] The governor did not fail to mention that in several instances his troops had done valuable service in protecting treasure and recovering stolen property, without claiming or receiving pay.

[XXV-38] Runnels acted with characteristic energy. Without scandal or noise, he captured one by one the banditti that infested the roads, and out of sight and without witnesses, other than his own men, had the criminals hanged and buried. Those of this class that did not fall into the hands of the Isthmus guard made haste to leave the country, which soon was cleared of foreign evil-doers. This object being accomplished, the guard was dissolved, its valuable services being fully appreciated. The governor had no authority for his action, but no fault was found with him. The measure had been one of absolute necessity; 'fué redentora.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, 9. Runnels in after years lived in Nicaragua, and died of consumption in Rivas, July 7, 1882, aged 52. _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 22, 1882.

[XXV-39] Jefe Superior Justo Arosemena wrote Consul Ward a courteous letter of explanation on the 29th of Sept. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Oct. 3, 1855.

[XXV-40] Ships and passengers had been paying a moderate sum, and when the official's greed was aroused to levy a burdensome tax, formal objection to it was made.

[XXV-41] It added that the policy of demanding such a tax would be detrimental to the interests of the Isthmus. The whole correspondence appears in _Pan. Crón. Ofic._, March 10, Apr. 10, May 23, 1854; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Nov. 3, 10, 18, 1855; _Id._, Dec. 11, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, Sept. 20, 1856; _Sac. Union._, Sept. 22, 1856; _S. F. Bulletin_, Sept. 30, 1856; Minister Herran to Sec. Marcy, Dec. 8, 1856, in _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, March 28, 1857.

[XXV-42] It must be confessed that the impression caused by the influx of foreigners, parading the streets, many of them armed with bowie-knives and revolvers, often incited by intoxication and gambling to acts of lawlessness, was not a favorable one. They often appeared to the natives as lawless invaders. The laws were not framed for the emergency, and the authorities were powerless to stop the scandals occurring every day in the streets. Robberies and other crimes among the foreigners themselves were common. Gambling-houses, in violation of law, were publicly kept, exhibiting strange signs, such as Card Room, Owls' Club, etc. Once a crowd of Americans fell upon the small guard of the jail, disarmed it, and set free some of their countrymen. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 2, 5-6. A writer relates that he saw ruffians in 1850 throw filth on religious processions. Once an American rode a mule into the cathedral, and tried to make it drink from the baptismal font. Fortunately Theller, an American resident, interfered. 'Often the dirty red-shirted fellows would stride into the chapels and light their cigars at the altar.' _Cal. Chronicle_, May 20, 1856.

[XXV-43] The trouble originated in the act of a drunken man named Jack Oliver, who seized a slice of watermelon from a fruit stall, and refused to pay for it. Simultaneously and without preconcertion, fights occurred between parties of passengers and the colored population in various parts of the town. The city was soon in commotion. Residents retired to their homes and barred themselves in. The fights lasted about three hours, when the foreigners were driven into the depot. The negroes, who had formerly been humble and submissive to the whites, remembered on that day the abusive treatment often received by them at the hands of transient foreigners; but did not confine their expressions of hatred to foreigners only, for they transversed the streets crying, Mueran los blancos! They were now ungovernable. They rushed to the Panamá depot—at a moment when from 250 to 300 passengers of both sexes and all ages, landed at Colon from the steamship _Illinois_, were procuring their tickets for San Francisco—and began firing at the building, hitting one man. The doors were then closed, and some of the passengers armed themselves. It has been stated by eye-witnesses that some of the armed passengers went out and discharged their arms at the black mob before any shot had been fired at the building; but the weight of testimony is against this assertion. U. S. Consul Ward came on horseback, saying that the government at his request would soon send a force to quell the disturbance. The force did come, but instead of affording protection to the passengers huddled in the depot, fired a volley of musketry in their midst, and followed it by others, besides stray shots. The only reasons assigned for this conduct of the force were that it sympathized with the mob, or was awed by it. The latter was the real cause. The active firing from the outside continued about one and a half hours even after it had ceased from the inside. The mob for a time did not succeed in entering the building, but finally broke into the baggage-room, killing and wounding several persons. Fortunately, the rabble was bent more on plunder than slaughter. It is said that even the wounded had their boots pulled from their feet and carried away. Many robberies had also been committed by the negroes in the city, principally in shops and barrooms. _S. F. Bulletin_, May 1-3, 17, Aug. 30, Oct. 14, Dec. 17, 1856; _Cal. Chronicle_, May 20, 1856; _Sac. Union_, May 5, 13, 1856; _S. F. Alta_, May 2, 3, 18, 1856.

[XXV-44] Totten, chief engineer of the railroad, and Ward, in their protests held Fábrega's government responsible, and claimed damages. They also demanded protection for the passengers and treasure then expected from California on the _Golden Gate_. Fábrega, upon the latter point, gave the required assurances, recommending that the railroad officials should also adopt precautionary measures. In his report to the supreme government on the 22d of April, 1856, he denied the charges preferred against him by Totten and Ward, declaring that the whole affair had been sudden and unpremeditated; and he, as well as the gens d'armes had the best intentions to protect the passengers, and the firing upon them had been unauthorized, though resulting from the fact that the passengers had continued shooting. He kept to himself, however, that fear for the lives of himself and the few other white people of the city, which were in great peril from the infuriated blacks, had deterred him from attacking the mob. The latter was calmed and dispersed only through the good offices, called for by Fábrega, of the influential men among the negro population. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Apr. 26, May 3, 10, 27, 1856.

[XXV-45] On their landing at Colon, the other steamship was ready at Panamá to receive them and put off as soon as they were on board. They traversed the Isthmus without scarcely setting foot on the soil. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 11-12.

[XXV-46] _Corwine's Rep. and Coll. of Evidence_, 1-69; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 34, Sess. 1, vol. xi., H. Ex. Doc., no. 103, 154-76.

[XXV-47] It stipulated a board of arbitration composed of commissioners of both governments to award upon claims presented prior to Sept. 1, 1859. The total amount of awards N. Granada would pay in equal semiannual instalments, the first, six months after the termination of the commission; and the whole payment to be completed within eight years; each of the sums bearing interest at 6 per cent per annum. To secure said payments, N. G. govt appropriated one half of the compensation accruing to her from the Panamá railroad company; if such fund should prove insufficient, it was then to provide for the deficit from its other sources of revenue. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, Sen. Miscell., no. 13, 1-7. After the riot the federal government endeavored to have a force on the Isthmus to protect foreign interests, which it should have done before. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 10-11.

[XXV-48] _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 35, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Dec., no. 2, 21, 22, vol. ii. pt i.; _Id._, Id., Sen. Doc., no. 33, x. 1-3.

[XXV-49] Thomas Savage, U. S. acting consul-general at Habana, had sent timely notice of their plans. They were taken with arms, munitions of war, and written proof of their intent.

[XXV-50] Calancha, president of Panamá, pleaded that he had no authority to allow it; the national constitution reserving to the general government of Colombia the control of the foreign relations. _Bidwell's Pan. Isth._, 207-11.

[XXV-51] They were sentenced by court-martial, their chief to death, and the others to imprisonment at hard labor; the sentence of the first was commuted, and all were released at or before the termination of the war. _Hogg et al._ v. _U. S._, 1-22; _S. F. Call_, Nov. 26, 1864; May 25-31, June 6-8, July 6, 16, 1865; _S. F. Bulletin_, Nov. 28, 29, Dec. 7, 1864; May 22, 1865.

[XXV-52] This affair took place about one month prior to that of the prisoners arrested on the _Salvador_. _Bidwell's Pan. Isth._, 206.

[XXV-53] Questions of neutrality with Spain during the Cuban revolution in 1871-2; and in 1880, at the time of the war of Chile against Peru and Bolivia, on the subject of contraband of war passing through for the uses of either belligerent. _Gaceta de Pan._, Sept. 21, 1871; Apr. 12, 1872; July 4, 15, Sept. 2, 16, Nov. 7, 1880.

[XXV-54] _Pan. Star_, March 29, 1850; _Polynesian_, vii. 42, 50; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 83; _S. F. Alta_, Mar. 22, Apr. 3, 1851; _S. F. News_, Apr. 3, 1851. The most serious one was on the 22d and 23d of Oct., 1851, at Chagres, among boatmen and passengers, in which several lives were lost, and the town was much damaged. _Pan. Star_, Oct. 28, 1851; _S. F. Alta_, Nov. 18, 20, 1851; _S. F. Daily Herald_, Nov. 18, 1851. The official report of the jefe político on the 3d of Nov. said there were two or three killed and a number wounded. _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Dec. 3, 1851. The vigilants of the Isthmus had a thief well flogged at Chagres in 1851. _S. F. Courier_, Jan. 21, 1851. Another case of lynch law occurred on the island of Tabogá in 1855. The carpenter of the American steamship company was one morning dragged out of bed and murdered. As there was no police on the island, the employés of the company captured the murderers, one of whom made full confession, and their captors without more ado hanged them. The state authorities took no notice of the matter, other than issuing, some time after, a full pardon to the executioners. _Bidwell's Isth. of Pan._, 216; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 29, 1855.

[XXV-55] This occurred on the Cruces route. The escort was fired upon, two arrieros were mortally wounded. The banditti endeavored to run off one of the laden mules, but were prevented by the escort and passengers. _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 83-4; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 18, 1851; _S. F. Daily Herald_, Oct. 18, 1851.

[XXV-56] A mere alcalde met with no difficulty whatever to have his orders carried out.

[XXV-57] Judges and alcaldes were not only civil officials, but also agents of the ecclesiastical authorities. Their double rôle insured them great influence with a people 'barbarizado por la ignorancia y el fanatismo.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 3.

[XXV-58] Public documents speak in general terms of outrages committed by the revolutionists. They marched from Veragua against Los Santos in Azuero, and were defeated. _Pan. Gobern._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43, 5-9. An amnesty was decreed in favor of the revolutionists Sept. 29, 1856, excepting a few leaders, who were finally pardoned in a later one of Sept. 12, 1857. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 16, 23, 1857. The following authorities appear in pub. docs. July 23, 1852, Gen. Manuel M. Franco, appointed from Bogotá, comandante general, in place of Gen. Antonio Morales, deceased. Aug. 6, 1852, Gov. Manuel M. Diaz summoned the provincial legislature to hold its yearly session. Sept. 1, 1853, Bernardo Arce Mata took possession of the office of gov. Jan. 1, 1854, José María Urrutia Añino, who had been chosen gov. of the prov., assumed his duties. _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Aug. 22, 29, 1852; Sept. 4, 1853; Jan. 4, 1854; _Pan._ _Gobern._, in _Pinart_, _Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 43, 11. This governor seems to have been elected wholly by votes of the interior departments, which greatly displeased the citizens of the capital, who had hitherto controlled affairs. Añino was an honorable and just man, and fairly intelligent; but was made the object of ungenerous hostility and ridicule, and on one occasion, at least, his life was in danger. In 1855, under the pretext of an official visit in the interior, he went to his home and never returned. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 10. The vice-gov., Manuel M. Diaz, took the executive chair on the 19th of May, and occupied it till the 18th of July. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, July 28, 1855.

[XXV-59] This arrangement seems to have been against the wishes of the three last named. The national congress having asked the provinces for their opinion, the legislature of Chiriquí, on the 19th of Oct., 1852, approved a report of Nicolás Lopez to the effect that Veragua, Chiriquí, and Azuero should not be harnessed to the car of Panamá. _Chiriquí_, _Ordenanzas_, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MS., no. 96, p. 64.

[XXV-60] The gen. govt ceded to Panamá the buildings that had been used as custom-houses till 1849 in Portobello and Panamá; also two others in the plazuela de armas and calle de Jirardot in Pan.; and likewise the fortresses of Panamá, Chagres, and Portobello, excepting the esplanades and artillery. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, July 20, 1855.

[XXV-61] The governor's salary was fixed at $400 per month. The new order of things was formally communicated to the foreign consuls, all of whom offered their congratulations, etc. Id., July 28, Aug. 4, 1855; _Veraguas_, _Ordenanzas y Resol._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Docs._, MS., no. 68, p. 68; _Correoso, B._, _Statemt_, MS., 3; _Heraldo de Lima_, Oct. 10, 1855. A decree of the assembly of Sept. 12, 1855, divided the state into seven departments: Colon, Panamá, Coclé, Herrera, Los Santos, Fábrega, and Chiriquí. Their respective chief towns were to be Colon, Panamá, Natá, Pesé, Los Santos, Santiago, and David. Governors were appointed by the executive, to enter upon their duties on the 1st of Aug. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 15, 1855.

[XXV-62] This assembly was the most able and responsible body of men that ever came together in Panamá, excepting only that which proclaimed the independence from Spain. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 12-13. The officers on the day the constitution was signed were: Mariano Arosemena, president; Dionisio Facio, vice-president; Santiago de la Guardia, designado; Manuel Morro, deputy for Panamá, secretary. Among the other signers were Bernardo Arce Mata, José Arosemena, Bartolomé Calvo, Jil Colunje, Fermin Jované, José de Obaldía, Ramon Vallarino, four Fábregas, nearly all of whom have since held high office in the republic and the state. A general amnesty was also decreed on the 6th of Oct., for all political offences to Sept. 30th, whether the persons were sentenced or not. This included some who had in July last disturbed the peace in Azuero. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Estado_, Sept. 20, Oct. 13, 1855.

[XXV-63] It is understood that Fábrega accepted the jefatura superior only on condition that Bartolomé Calvo should assume the government secretaryship, which had been thrown up by Icaza Arosemena. Calvo became the secretary. _Id._, Oct. 3, 10, 27, 1855; _Correoso_, _Statemt_, MS., 3.

[XXV-64] Previous to it the executive had to go with troops to quell a disobedience to the authorities in Los Santos. No opposition being encountered, some prisoners were made, who afterward received a pardon on the 6th of March. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Feb. 2, 25, March 24, 1856.

[XXV-65] Some deputies of the opposition were arrested in the legislative chamber, and despotically exiled.

[XXV-66] This vessel hauled into shore and landed her marines to protect the whites. _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 2, 14, 1856.

[XXV-67] _Pan. Star_, Sept. 16, Oct. 1, 1856; _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Nov. 20, 1856; _Correoso_, _Statemt_, MS., 3-4.

[XXV-68] 'Dejó el puesto sin haber merecido imputacion de que hubiese tomado del tesoro público otra cosa mas que sus sueldos.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 14.

[XXV-69] He had been meantime elected attorney-general of the republic, and his residence had to be in Bogotá. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, May 20, 1858.

[XXV-70] He showed weakness during his short occupancy of the presidential seat at Bogotá, and afterward as governor of Panamá. He was also lazy and negligent.

[XXV-71] Capt Navarro and one soldier were killed, and two others wounded. The governor himself was struck on the head with a stone. An Am. force of marines landed from their ship, but had no occasion to use their arms. No damage was done to property. _Id._, Apr. 24, 1859; _S. F. Alta_, May 8, 1859.

[XXV-72] On the 29th it being feared that there would be another disturbance, the more timid of the citizens sought refuge in the foreign consulates. The intendente general, J. M. Hurtado, then asked the commanders of the _Clio_, and U. S. sloop of war _St Louis_, to land 100 men. It was done, and the trouble was warded off for the time. _S. F. Bulletin_, Oct. 29, Nov. 14, 1860; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, Sen. Doc., 1, p. 15, vol. iii., pt. 1; _Pan Scraps_, 31.

[XXV-73] Member of a respectable family in the interior; he was an honorable man, and much respected by the whites. He was conservative, and became the victim of politics when exerting himself to develop every branch of his country's resources. _Bidwell's Isth. of Pan._, 200-2; _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 15-16.

[XXV-74] The gov. was authorized by the legislature on the 15th of Oct., 1861, to join the state to the new confederacy. The state was therefore thus annexed, and the foreign consuls were formally apprised of it. Justo Arosemena was appointed on the 8th of Jan., 1862, its plenipotentiary to the convention. _Pan._, _Gaceta del Est._, Sept. 27, 1861; Feb. 26, March 8, 1862.

[XXV-75] The Am. government, though willing to interpose its aid for the benefit of all nations in the execution of the neutrality treaty of 1846, feared to become involved in the revolutionary strife going on in Nueva Granada, besides incurring danger of misrepresentation by other powers if it should act without consulting them. The 35th art. of the treaty of December 12, 1846, says: 'And in order to secure to themselves the tranquil and constant enjoyment of these advantages, and as an especial compensation for said advantages, and for the favors they have acquired by the 4th, 5th, and 6th art. of this treaty, the U. S. guarantee positively and efficaciously to N. Granada, by the present stipulation, the perfect neutrality of the before-mentioned Isthmus, with the view that the free transit from the one to the other sea may not be interrupted or embarrassed in any future time while this treaty exists; and in consequence, the U. S. also guarantee in the same manner the rights of sovereignty and property which N. Granada has and possesses over the said territory.' Sec. Seward laid the request of Gen. Herran before the British and French governments to ascertain their views. Earl Russell thought there was no occasion as yet for armed intervention. Should it occur, his government would coöperate with the U. S. Thouvenel, French minister of foreign affairs, said if the railway should be in danger of interruption, he would not deem it improper for the U. S. to interfere. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Foreign Affairs, 1862, pp. 132, 164, 380-1.

[XXV-76] This occurred on the 25th of July, 1862. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 27, 1862; _La Voz de Méj._, Aug. 26, 1862.

[XXV-77] At Paso de las capellanías del Rio Chico, or Matapalo. Towns were shamefully sacked by the victorious liberals, and several families, especially those of Guardia and Fábrega, were ruined. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 16; _Gaceta de Pan._, Aug. 11, 1870. Santiago de Veragua was plundered Aug. 22. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 6, 1862. The constituent assembly of the state, sitting Aug. 9, 1865, passed an act recognizing that Guardia had lost his life in defence of right, and honoring his memory. _Id._, Sept. 11, 1865. Correoso, who served among his opponents, speaks of Guardia in the highest terms of commendation, and bewails the loss Panamá suffered with his death. _Sucesos de Pan._, 3.

[XXV-78] A decree was issued in Sept. for election of deputies; another calling to arms, for the defence of the state, all citizens between the ages of 18 and 60. Panamá was on the 2d of that month declared the provisional capital of the state. On the 20th of Oct. was convoked a constitutional assembly which met on the 28th of Nov., on which date the governor, in a message, made a statement of events. On Oct. 28th was issued an amnesty excepting only such persons as still refused to recognize the provisional government. _Id._, Sept. 6, 19, Oct. 1, 22, Nov. 3, 10, Dec. 11, 1862; _S. F. Bulletin_, Sept. 17, Nov. 26, 1862.

[XXV-79] May 8, 1863. Ratified the same day, by the representatives of Panamá, who were Justo Arosemena, Guillermo Figueroa, G. Neira, J. E. Brandao, Guillermo Lynch, and Buenaventura Correoso. _Colombia_, _Const. Polít._, 1-42; _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., 2-3; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 25, 1863.

[XXVI-1] Its officers were: Pablo E. Icaza, president; Juan Mendoza, vice-president; J. J. Maitin, designado; Quintin Miranda, sec. by appoint. _Id._, May 11, 1863.

[XXVI-2] Dated July 4, 1863, and published the 6th of the same month. It contained 21 titles covering 112 articles, and was a most liberal fundamental law, intending to give, if honestly administered, every possible guaranty of life, liberty, property, and political rights. The death penalty, torture, and other cruel punishments were done away with. Corporal punishment in no case was to exceed ten years. Nearly all the public functionaries, representative, executive, and judicial, were made elective by popular vote. _Id._, July 11, 1863; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 364-88.

[XXVI-3] Goitia took the presidency on the 5th of July, and soon after received the congratulations of several foreign consuls. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 17, 1863.

[XXVI-4] Correspond. with foreign consuls and others. _Id._, Aug. 30, 1863.

[XXVI-5] _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., 4.

[XXVI-6] By the battalion Tiradores, of national troops. Calancha had no popularity in the country. He has been accused of scandalous corruption and connivance at robbery. However, he seems to have confined his peculation to the public revenue, a practice which was not new since Guardia's fall. Some time after, Calancha together with Gabriel Neira invaded the state with a force from Cauca; but while crossing the river Santa María in the hacienda Las Cruces, they were met by the government troops under Col Vicente Olarte, and routed with the loss of many killed, wounded, and prisoners, Neira being one of the latter. Calancha was again defeated at San Francisco near Natá, and delivered by his men to the victors. His brother Francisco was also taken. It is recorded that Mrs Jane White Ball, an American, together with other women, provided a hospital and nursed the wounded of both bands. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 22, June 7, Sept. 18, Oct. 10, 1865; _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 4; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 211.

[XXVI-7] A colored man of good political ability, as he proved in the high official positions filled under the national government. He has been accused, however, of immoral practices. His administration was peaceable, but left evils that were never eradicated. He inaugurated the corrupt system of extorting contributions from political opponents, whereby, as the latter averred, he materially improved his own financial condition, though he had decreed himself only the modest salary of $200 per month. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 1, 1865. Every citizen who had a competency was made to contribute. One day he had all the respectable citizens arrested to extort money, for which he never accounted. The majority of the public employés had to sell their salary warrants for one half or one fourth of their value. The country derived no other fruit from his administration than poverty.

[XXVI-8] The assembly met, and its first act was to confirm all that Colunje had done. A pardon was decreed to political offenders on the 28th of Nov. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 20, 22, July 20, 25, Dec. 6, 1865; _Pan._, _Informe Sec. Est._, 1866, 1-4.

[XXVI-9] An attempted outbreak in March at Panamá, and one in August at David, were quelled. _Pan._, _Mensaje Presid. Est._, 1866, 1-3; _Gaceta Nic._, Apr. 7, 1866; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, 1-11.

[XXVI-10] He belonged to the liberal party; a well-disposed man, and a friend of peace, which he endeavored to foster, by trying to heal dissensions. He made himself popular among the better class of the community by his just proceedings, and efforts to better the condition of the country, though not a native of the Isthmus. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 20. It has been, however, said of him that he appropriated considerable amounts from the public treasury, and placed them in London through the agency of a Jamaican who lived in Colon.

[XXVI-11] 'Ante la imponente autoridad de su sable á la cabeza del batallon Tiradores.' _Id._

[XXVI-12] They plotted an assault on the battalion in its barracks, but were detected by Olarte. The assault was made at midnight, and a fight ensued, in which the negroes lost heavily, including almost all their leaders, and among them Gregorio Sigurvia. _Id._, 20-1.

[XXVI-13] It must be borne in mind that whatever the words liberal and conservador may mean in other Spanish American countries, in Panamá the former has been appropriated by the colored portion of the inhabitants, who have been joined by a few whites for their own political and pecuniary aims. The conservador party was made up mostly of white men and property holders, and they have often been victimized by the gamonales, or leaders of the other party, whenever the latter has been in power.

[XXVI-14] The circumstances connected with the sickness and death of Gen. Olarte and Manuel M. Morro afford presumptive evidence of foul play. After a banquet in San Miguel, on the last day Olarte was to be there, wine prepared with fish poison was served him and his secretary, José M. Bermudez. The latter, by accident, escaped the fate prepared for him, and Morro, being invited by Olarte to join him, partook of the wine. Olarte, having his stomach full of food and wine, immediately threw up all. Morro, on feeling the effects, took two doses of ipecacuanha, and succeeded in vomiting. But neither victim saved himself. Both were taken to Panamá, where Olarte died in five days, and Morro in about eleven. The facts have been strenuously denied. Correoso, _Statem._, MS., 5, asserts that Olarte contracted a fever in his visit to Darien. The first diagnosis of the physicians, it is understood, was that the patients were suffering from yellow fever, or some other malignant disease. Morro was a talented young man belonging to one of the prominent families of the city, and much liked by all.

[XXVI-15] Details on his funeral in _Pan._, _Mercantile Chronicle_, March 4, 1868; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 5, 7, 12, 1868; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 7, 1868.

[XXVI-16] Amador finally declined the office. _Id._, March 7, 1868.

[XXVI-17] He was afterward exiled, and went to California. _S. F. Times_, Aug. 3, 1868; _S. F. Bulletin_, Aug. 1, 1868. The negroes declared Diaz a traitor, but the public never saw any evidence of it. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 23.

[XXVI-18] The acta appears in full in _Boletin Ofic._, July 8, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 25, 1868; _S. F. Times_, July 25, 28, 31, 1868; _S. F. Call_, July 25, 1868; _S. F. Bulletin_, July 25, 27, 1868.

[XXVI-19] Ponce's first act was to declare martial law by a decree of July 6th, countersigned by Dídimo Parra, as secretary of state. The superior court, in view of the situation, on the same date adjourned, to escape participation in the infringement of the constitution, which had been just perpetrated.

[XXVI-20] Even Chiriquí, which had held back, finally recognized the new government. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 30, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 22, 1868.

[XXVI-21] The Panamá assailed the barracks of the other troops, and captured it, Captain U. Meza being killed, and Alejandro Arce and Rafael Aizpuru slightly wounded. Ponce was seized and carried to the barracks, where much enthusiasm for him, it is said, was manifested; but he was not satisfied with the condition of affairs, resigned, and left the state. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Sept. 5, 1868; _Correoso's Statement_, MS., 5; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 19, 1868; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 1, 10, 1868; _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 24.

[XXVI-22] His public life began when he was 18 years old, and he has, in the civil service of the state, held every office from alderman to president or governor, both inclusive. In the judiciary, he has served as district judge and member of the superior court. In the military service he began as a lieut in 1854, and rose to be gen. of division. He was a deputy of the state legislature, and a senator in the national congress, and also for a while vice-president of the republic, besides being a member of several conventions. He represented his country as minister plenipotentiary near the five republics of Central America, and always belonged to the liberal party, and fought for it. _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 1-2.

[XXVI-23] In assuming the executive office, Correoso found no money in the treasury. He at once resorted to the device employed by his predecessor Colunje of arresting the prominent citizens of the capital, whom he kept in confinement till they paid the amounts severally demanded. The same outrage was afterward practised in the interior. The result was an increase of poverty from day to day.

[XXVI-24] The government was left for the transaction of local affairs in charge of Juan Mendoza, governor of the capital. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 9, 1868. During this revolution, the U. S. consul was directed by his government to warn Am. citizens from taking part in the broils of the country. He was also to see that unoffending Americans were not compelled to do military service, or to contribute in the form of forced loans or otherwise. _S. F. Call_, Dec. 4, 1868; _S. F. Times_, Dec. 4, 1868. Nevertheless, the government doubled the commercial tax against the solemn protests of foreign consuls, and much foreign property was seized. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 24, 1868; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 14, 1868.

[XXVI-25] The fighting took place between 9 and 12 o'clock of the 12th of Nov. Both sides behaved well, but Correoso's men, having better arms, were victorious. According to Correoso's account there were in all about 200 killed and wounded, Gen. P. Goitia being among the latter. _Correoso's Statemt_, MS., 6. The negroes with relentless ferocity gave no quarters to the greater part of the prisoners, who were shot. They also plundered to their heart's content. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 25. Arístides Obaldía was slain and his untimely end was much regretted. He was severely wounded early in the action, and his friends took him out of harm's way; but during the route some of Correoso's men discovered and put him to death. His remains were interred with military honors by Correoso's orders. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 19, 1868; _Pan._, _Mercantile Chronicle_, Nov. 17, 1868; _S. F. Times_, Dec. 4, 11, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 28, 1868.

[XXVI-26] Cervera appointed J. M. Lleras his secretary of state, and on the same day called several officers of the militia to active service, the chief, Col. Rafael Aizpuru, being made comandante gen. of the forces of the state. _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 19, 1873.

[XXVI-27] The farce was performed to have Neira chosen president, and Correoso 1st designado; and then it was expected that the former would after a while resign, and enable the latter to again assume the presidency without violating the constitution. The elections took place as desired. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 8, 1873.

[XXVI-28] One hundred men occupied the railway station, and 100 were stationed in the town hall. Capt. Kennedy, of the Brit. war ship _Reindeer_, offered his coöperation if needed.

[XXVI-29] This arrangement was arrived at through commissioners; namely, Gregorio Miró and Francisco Ardila for the Pichincha no. 8; José Agustin Arango and Florentino Dutari, for Cervera. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 10, 13, 1873. Correoso claims that upon hearing in Costa Rica, where he was then accredited as Colombian minister, of the revolution against Neira, he returned in haste to Panamá, and by his influence induced the revolutionists to replace Neira. _Statement_, MS., 6; _S. F. Bulletin_, May 19, 26, June 6, 1873; _S. F. Alta_, May 20, 1873; _S. F. Chronicle_, May 20, 26, June 7, 18, 1873.

[XXVI-30] The latter resigned the command June 23d, _Gaceta de Pan._, June 7, July 5, 1873. Aizpuru, who had been kept a prisoner was afterward released.

[XXVI-31] Senators: Pablo Arosemena, B. Correoso, and Agustin Arias. Representatives: Fernando Casanova, Man. de J. Bermudez, Juan C. Carranza, Marcelino Villalaz, and José de la Rosa Jurado. A corresponding number of suplentes or substitutes was also chosen. _Gaceta de Pan._, July 19, 1873.

[XXVI-32] During its occupation over 500 women and children sought its protection. The whole force retired about the 7th or 8th of October. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 25-30, 1873.

[XXVI-33] The minister reminded the executive of Colombia that though the American government guaranteed by the treaty of 1846 the neutrality of the Isthmus, it did not imply protection to the road against such factions. _Pan._, _Informe Sec. Est._, 1874, 9-10, annex A.

[XXVI-34] 1st, Gregorio Miró; 2d, J. M. Bermudez; 3d, Mateo Iturralde; 4th, Tomás Herrera; 5th, Joaquin Arosemena. All Neira's acts were approved; and thanks were voted to both the national and state troops for their services. _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 2, 1873.

[XXVI-35] The assembly granted the president additional powers to restore peace, among which was that of obtaining $60,000 by means of voluntary or forced loans. Those powers were rescinded on the 14th of Nov. _Id._, Oct. 11, 18, Nov. 1, Dec. 5, 1873; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, 351.

[XXVI-36] Under this constitution the legislative assembly appoints the five substitutes of the president of the state, and also the three justices of the superior court. A council of state is created, to be composed of the president of the state, the last president of the legislative assembly, the president of the superior court, and the attorney-general of the state. For all important affairs, the executive is to consult the council. _Id._, Nov. 15, 1873.

[XXVI-37] He made the pledge required by law before the assembly, the foreign consuls, public functionaries residing in the city, and a large number of citizens. _Id._, Dec. 5, 1873; Jan. 17, 1874; _Mex._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875, 10.

[XXVI-38] _Id._, Aug. 7, 15, 1874; _Pan._, _Informe Sec. Est._, 1874, 30.

[XXVI-39] The persons appointed to fill them were José M. Bermudez, who had been acting as secretary-general for sec. of state, and Dionisio Facio for sec. of the treasury. _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 17, 1875.

[XXVI-40] The president on the 25th of Aug., 1875, delegated his powers to J. M. Bermudez to preserve order in the interior or restore it as the case might be. _Id._, Sept. 4, 1875; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 24, 1875.

[XXVI-41] He had been on the 2d of July declared elected president of the state. At the same time the following persons were declared to have been chosen to represent Panamá in the national congress: Senators, Justo Arosemena, José M. Bermudez, and Marcelino Villalaz; representatives, Juan J. Diaz, Juan J. Miró, Joaquin Arosemena, B. Asprilla, and M. R. de la Torre. These were subsequently annulled by the constituent assembly, Dec. 11th. _Gaceta de Pan._, July 24, Dec. 16, 1875.

[XXVI-42] Particulars of the insurrection and arrest of Arosemena appear in Camargos' despatch, in _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 13, 15, 1875; _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 5, 7, 16, 23, Nov. 13, 17, 23, 1875; _S. F. Call_, Nov. 5, 1875; _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 7.

[XXVI-43] Oct. 18th, he empowered B. Correoso, comandante gen., to use his best endeavors to restore order in the departments of Coclé, Los Santos, Veragua, and Chiriquí. His government was recognized at once by the foreign consuls. _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 16, 23, 1875.

[XXVI-44] The executive is vested in a president, to be elected by popular vote for two years. The legislative assembly elects the justices of the superior court and their suplentes, the five substitutes of the president, the attorney-general, and his suplente; also the administrator-gen. of the treasury, and the contador by absolute majority. No change was made in the council of state. _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 1, 1876; _Pan._, _Constit. Polít. del Est. Sobo._, 1-20.

[XXVI-45] His government was soon after recognized by the national executive. On the 13th of Dec., 1876, the legislative assembly chose Dámaso Cervera, Francisco Ardila, José R. Casorla, Quintin Miranda, and M. Losada Plisé, designados for the presidency, in the order named. _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 8, Feb. 20, Dec. 17, 1876.

[XXVI-46] _Pan. Leyes_, 1876-7, 11.

[XXVI-47] _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Est._, 1876, 1-6. On Sept. 25, 1876, the president assumed personal command of the state troops. _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 15, 1876.

[XXVI-48] The president attempted both recourses; till on the 10th of March the citizens tendered a loan of $30,000. _Id._, March 1, 8, 22, 1877; _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1877.

[XXVI-49] Dec. 30, 1878. _Correoso's Statem._, MS., 9; _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Hacienda_, 1878, i.-xl.; _Gaceta de Pan._, March 10, May 30, July 21, 28, Sept. 26, Oct. 13, Nov. 17, Dec. 8, 19, 1878; _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Docs._, MS., no. 101; _Colombia, Diario Ofic._, Jan. 31, 1879; _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1878.

[XXVI-50] The object was to upset the state government; but it was defeated by the state troops, after a fight that lasted till the 18th, and caused great havoc. Among the killed were the commander of the battalion, Col Carvajal, and his son, Lieut Carvajal, who were trying to check the infuriated soldiery. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1879, 5-6.

[XXVI-51] The government sent troops against the revolutionists, and some fighting ensued without decisive results. At last the contending parties came to an arrangement by which Aizpuru agreed to surrender the person of Casorla, and to recognize the 2d designado as the provisional president. He also agreed to lay down his arms. The government consented to pay Aizpuru's war expenses, and to issue a general amnesty. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1879, 7-12; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 19, 25, 1879.

[XXVI-52] Mateo Iturralde was made secretary of government, and Juan José Miró of the treasury. Several changes took place afterward, and the final secretaries were: of government, Benjamin Ruiz, and of the treasury, Juan B. Amador. José Vives Leon was government secretary in Sept. 1881.

[XXVI-53] The assembly to be formed of one deputy for every 6,000 inhabitants, and every fraction of 3,500 and upwards. _Gaceta de Pan._, June 17, 1881.

[XXVI-54] His candidature had been opposed by Correoso, Icaza Arosemena, Ardila, Ortega, and others, for the sake of union in the liberal party. _Pan. Canal_, June 25, 1881.

[XXVI-55] His election as first designado by the legislature was on the 28th of June, 1881. The other substitutes chosen were the following, in the order named: Miguel Borbúa, Benjamin Ruiz, José M. Vives Leon, and Antonio Casanova. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 1; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, 5, 6.

[XXVI-56] _Pan. Canal_, Nov. 20, Dec. 6, 1882; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 20, 1882; Jan. 29, 1883.

[XXVI-57] _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 3, 1883. Dec. 3, 1882, a deputation composed of Correoso, Iturralde, and Diaz had waited on him to request that he should resign his position of 1st designado and acting president, which he declined. _Pan. Canal_, Dec. 5, 1882.

[XXVI-58] Nuñez had been chosen for a term ending Oct. 31, 1884. On the other hand, the constitution said that the president elect should assume office on the 1st day of Nov. following his election. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 29, 1883.

[XXVI-59] His sec.-gen., Victor Dubarry, countersigned the decree. This measure was intended to rid the government of an incubus, and to effect a yearly saving of about $16,000. _Pan. Canal_, March 19, 1883.

[XXVI-60] At Popayan, Aug. 27, 1883. Joaquin M. Perez was Panamá's commissioner. The convention was ratified Sept. 10th, by Cervera, countersigned by J. M. Casís, sec.-gen. _Pan._, _El País_, Sept. 21, 1883.

[XXVI-61] He adopted for all his confidence precautionary measures to preserve public order. _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 24, 1883.

[XXVI-62] In the first part of 1884 there were about 14,000 men on the canal-works. Still another source of danger was the mongrel population of Santa Ana and Calidonia districts, in the city of Panamá, ever disposed to seize opportunities for plunder, as was made evident in the last fire. J. M. Rodriguez, of Panamá, moved in the national senate that the federal force should be increased to 800 or 1,000 men. _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 1.

[XXVI-63] The representatives were, S. Jurado, J. del C. Pino, Leonidas Flores, Waldino Izasa, and Cárlos Otálora. _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 20, 1883.

[XXVI-64] By Juan P. Jaen, president of the superior court. _Id._ Jan. 2, 1884.

[XXVI-65] Cervera had likewise claimed immunity from prosecution, as a senator elect.

[XXVI-66] Correoso stated in the _Pan. Star and Herald_ of July 12th that Ruiz' government had been upset 'á punta de sable' by Porto, whose authority sprang from the condescension of Ibañez in recognizing as authentic a telegram received that morning by Porto. He repeats the charge in his _Sucesos de Pan._, 7. The fact was that Ibañez' brigade was by the telegram incorporated with the 3d division, and thus came to be under the control of Porto, who was chief of staff of that division. _Pan._, _Cronista_, July 9 to Aug. 2, Aug. 13, 1884.

[XXVI-67] In Coclé, Chiriquí, and Panamá. _Gaceta de Pan._, Oct. 15, 1884; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 2.

[XXVI-68] The _Morro_ was a British boat, which the rebels seized in the night from the 14th to the 15th, and then went on her alongside the _Alajuela_, which was a Costa Rica vessel, seized her, and proceeded to sea, leaving the _Morro_ behind. _S. F. Cronista_, Oct. 18, 1884; _La Estrella de Pan._, Oct. 23, 1884; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 17, 23, Nov. 26, Dec. 30, 1884; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, nos. 3, 9, 10.

[XXVI-69] A Colombian armed steamer was ordered to Panamá; and Gen. Santodomingo Vita was despatched to coöperate with the commander of the federal forces. The decree was issued Oct. 22, 1884. Gen. Benjamin Ruiz was on the 28th dismissed from the Colombian army. _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 30, 1884.

[XXVI-70] The assembly, being notified that the legally constituted authorities were now recognized, passed a vote of thanks to Cervera, his secretaries, Victor Dubarry and J. F. Ucrós, and Gen. C. A. Gónima, for their successful efforts for peace. _La Estrella de Pan._, Nov. 6, 13, 1884; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 6, 1884; _Pan. Cronista_, Nov. 8, 1884.

[XXVI-71] 27,505 votes against 1,550 for Justo Arosemena, and 95 in Colon for B. Ruiz. An attempt had been made by what was called the Alianza Liberal to have Justo Arosemena as its candidate, but he virtually declined it, and his name was retired from the field early in July. _Id._, July 30, Oct. 18, 1884; _La Estrella de Pan._, Sept. 4, 1884.

[XXVI-72] Gónima telegraphed Nuñez at Bogotá, on the 30th of Sept., the day before the assembly met, that it would call a convention, and adds that, thanks to the patriotic efforts of Cervera, 'Lambert no será presidente. Sus indicaciones oidas.' _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 8, 1884; _Bogotá_, _La Luz_, Oct. 8, 1884. Lambert, on the 12th of November, in an address to the Colombian people, protested against the unjustifiable interference of the federal govt in the internal affairs of Panamá, by which he had been prevented from assuming the chief magistracy he had been chosen to by the suffrages of his fellow-citizens. At the same time he made known his intention to cause no disturbance, but to remain peaceably in private life. _La Estrella de Pan._, Oct. 30, Nov. 20, 1884.

[XXVI-73] Details may be found in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 23, 1884; _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 22, 1884.

[XXVI-74] The assembly adjourned sine die on the 13th of Nov.

[XXVI-75] The convocation was not made according to the requirements of the constitution; and moreover, martial law existing in many parts of the state, no free elections could be effected in such localities.

[XXVI-76] Gen. Lorenzo Segundo was made comandante gen., and Col F. Figueroa his second in command. _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 8, 1885.

[XXVI-77] _Pan. Cronista_, Nov. 29, 1884; _La Estrella de Pan._, Dec. 4, 1884.

[XXVI-78] He took possession the next day. _Pan. Cronista_, Jan, 7, 10, 1885; _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 9, 1885; _Pan._, _Actualidad_, Jan. 8, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 15, 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 20; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, 7-8.

[XXVI-79] _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 7, 1885.

[XXVI-80] Isidoro Burges, sec. of gov.; L. C. Herrera, of treasury; José M. Aleman, of fomento. _Gaceta de Pan._, Jan. 9, 1855; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 22.

[XXVI-81] The government had now only a small force in Colon or Panamá, having on the 9th sent away the federal troops to uphold the general government at Barranquilla, against rebels in arms. _Pan. Cronista_, Jan. 21, 24, 1885.

[XXVI-82] It seems that some of its members were implicated in this plot, and orders for their arrest were issued. That body alleged that legislation had been hampered by the government. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 11, 1885; _Pan._, _El Cronista_, Feb. 14, 1885; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, 11.

[XXVI-83] _Id._, Feb. 18, 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 28; _Gaceta de Pan._, Feb. 18, 1885.

[XXVI-84] During that morning the revolutionists compelled merchants having arms in their warehouses to deliver them. They thus provided themselves with upwards of 600 rifles.

[XXVI-85] There had been many killed and wounded on both sides. An outsider, a French citizen, who imprudently put out his head, also lost his life. Much property was stolen, destroyed, or injured. At midday on the 16th the prisoners in the jail effected their escape, and made themselves conspicuous with their cries of Viva la libertad! The government force made several prisoners, and seized a number of arms in the arrabal. A number of young Panameños formed themselves into a guard to protect the city during the night of the 17th. _Pan. Cronista_, March 18, 21, 25, 1885.

[XXVI-86] A mulatto from Cartagena. In 1881, when a member of the legislative assembly from Colon, he was concerned in a personal rencontre with and killed M. Céspedes, and an Englishman. He was tried and acquitted, and his immediate release from prison was demanded by the assembly. _Pan. Canal_, June 7, 1881.

[XXVI-87] Correoso blames Gónima for leaving Colon utterly defenceless. _Sucesos de Pan._, 12.

[XXVI-88] Those who refused to furnish the supplies were imprisoned, and their goods confiscated. _La Estrella de Pan._, March 19, 1885; _El Universal de Pan._, March 20, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 31, 1885.

[XXVI-89] The object of the notifications was to allow time for non-combatants to get out of harm's way. Families accordingly abandoned the city, and business houses were closed. About 8 o'clock Gen. Ibañez visited Aizpuru's camp, and brought back assurance that no assault would be made that night.

[XXVI-90] Gónima despatched Correoso and Jerardo Ortega as commissioners, the former to Aizpuru, and the latter to Prestan. Both missions resulted in nothing satisfactory. Aizpuru proposed the following terms: 1st. Recognition of Gónima as civil chief of the state; 2d. Aizpuru to have the command of the troops, which were to be increased to 1,000 men. Prestan to be the prefect at Colon. After reflecting a moment, Gónima, rejected the proposals. Correoso then resigned the office of secretary-general. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 9, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, March 28, Apr. 4, 1885; _Pan. Cronista_, March 28, 1885; _S. F. Cronista_, Apr. 4, 1885; _Correoso_, _Sucesos de Pan._, 13-16.

[XXVI-91] Prestan demanded the arms on the _Colon_, and being refused, first arrested Connor, then after grossly insulting Mr Burt, the superintendent of the Panamá R. R. Co., took possession of the wharf, placed a guard on the _Colon_, and made a search for the arms, but could not get at them. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 31, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, 1885; _Pan. Cronista_, Apr. 4, 1885.

[XXVI-92] They had been taken to Monkey Hill at 3 A. M. on the 31st, and placed in a dangerous position under guard, but in the mêlée that followed they escaped.

[XXVI-93] At 1:30 A. M. of the 30th 160 men, under cols Ulloa and Brun, were despatched from Panamá to attack Prestan at Colon.

[XXVI-94] Prestan succeeded in joining the rebels against the national government, who were beleaguering Cartagena, and was received into their service, even though their chiefs had been made aware of his conduct at Colon. He was afterward captured, brought to Colon, tried by court-martial, and hanged on the 18th of August. Two of his principal men, captured by the _Galena's_ force, had been also tried by a Colombian court-martial, convicted of incendiarism, and publicly hanged on the 6th of May. They were named Geo. Davis, a West Indian negro, and Antoine Portuzelle or Pautrizelle, a native of Hayti, who left a letter charging Prestan with the infamous act of destroying Colon. Three other accomplices, Grant and Guerrero, and a Cuban named F. G. de Peralta, were subsequently sentenced to imprisonment for a number of years. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 9, 16, Aug. 15, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 19, 22, Dec. 11, 25, 1885.

[XXVI-95] The only buildings that remained standing were those of the railway, Pacific mail, and canal company. Ten thousand persons were left without shelter.

[XXVI-96] _Pan. Star and Herald_, April 10, 1885. Burt and the canal company's officers caused supplies to be brought to Colon. Their houses and offices offered shelter to the destitute inhabitants. Kane and his officers and men labored day and night to relieve suffering, and won themselves the gratitude of the distressed community. _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, 1885. According to later accounts, the losses by the burning of Colon were 18 lives, and about $6,000,000. _Pan. Ev'g Telegram_, Apr. 3, 1886.

[XXVI-97] The number killed probably did not exceed 25. The prisoners were treated with every consideration, and soon after released. Much property was damaged. _Pan. Cronista_, Apr. 11, 1885; _Nueva Era_, of Paso del Norte, Apr. 1, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, Apr. 4, 1885.

[XXVI-98] Sec. of gov., C. A. Mendoza; of war and fomento, Jerónimo Ossa; of treasury, Cárlos Icaza Arosemena. The last two declined the appointments. Commander of the state forces, B. Correoso. _Gaceta de Pan._, Apr. 7, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 9, 1885; _Cent. Am. Miscel._, no. 29, 41-3.

[XXVI-99] Toward the latter part of April, there were about 400 in Panamá city. Total number of marines on the Isthmus 600, their commanding officer being Brevet Lieut-col. Charles Heywood, who commanded at Panamá. McCalla held command in Colon. In case of need, the Am. squadron could place on shore 1,800 men, and 30 pieces of artillery. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 23, 1855; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 2, 1885.

[XXVI-100] Aizpuru expected soon to be attacked by a superior force from Cauca. He despatched B. Correoso and A. Clément as peace commissioners to Buenaventura, but they were arrested there. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 25, 27, May 4, 1885.

[XXVI-101] After which it was to proceed to Cartagena. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 4, 1885.

[XXVI-102] Aizpuru's terms were as follows: 1st. To resign his powers into the hands of Vives Leon, Pablo Arosemena, or any other constitutionally entitled to receive them. 2d. General pardon for all offences of a strictly political character, but the punishment of the guilty of crimes in Panamá, Colon, or elsewhere on the Isthmus. _Id._, Apr. 29, 1885.

[XXVI-103] On the 4th he claimed to have delivered a larger number of arms than his commissioners had bound him to surrender. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 3, 9, 1885.

[XXVI-104] _La Estrella de Occid._, May 16, 1885. Both Aizpuru and Correoso were subsequently deprived of their military rank. The former, being tried by court-martial in Bogotá, was sentenced, Nov. 3, 1885, to 10 years' exile, with loss of offices, income, and political rights during that time, and payment of costs and of damages caused by his rebellion. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 1, Dec. 10, 24, 1885.

[XXVI-105] Upon which they were publicly complimented by Rear-admiral Jouett in general orders.

[XXVI-106] 'No siembran mas que lo que justamente consumen por temor de ser robados en la forma de contribuciones.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polit. Pan._, MS., 25.

[XXVI-107] Witness the proceedings of the troops brought by Santa Coloma, and later, at different times, by the battalions Tiradores, Pichincha, 3d de línea, and others. Upon the subject of undue federal interference with the domestic affairs of the Isthmus, the following charges preferred by M. J. Perez from Panamá in a letter of Oct. 22, 1884, to Aníbal Galindo, are worthy of notice: 1st. Public intervention of the general government in internal affairs of the state; 2d. Barefaced protection by the gen. govt to rebels in arms against the constitutional govt of the state; 3d. Intimate alliance of the federal force with the opposing conservatives and with the radicals to disarm the government, and exercise pressure on the assembly, forcibly hindering its performance of constitutional functions; 4th. Consequences of the foregoing course; acts of piracy on the part of the rebels, violence, bloodshed, international claims, humiliation. _Pan. Cronista_, Oct. 25, 1884. Correoso corroborates all this in his remarks on the conduct of the Guardia Colombiana on the Isthmus, in 1860, 1865, 1868, 1873-5, 1878, and subsequently. _Sucesos de Pan._, 3-8.

[XXVI-108] 'No solo es víctima de sus propios males, sino tambien de los que le vienen de fuera.' _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 26.

[XXVI-109] Discussions in the national Consejo de Delegatarios, in Nov. and Dec. 1885, and law of Dec. 11, 1885, to regulate the gov. of Panamá. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 6-15, 1886.

[XXVI-110] _Id._, March 20, 29, supplem., 1886. The publication of the journal was restored after the term of suspension expired. Vila's course was disapproved by the general government, and he was peremptorily recalled for disobedience of orders. The proprietors of the journal have made a claim for heavy damages. _Buenaventura Correoso_, _Sucesos de Panamá Informe á la Nacion_, Buga, 1886, 4to, 24 pp. The writer, one of the prominent political men of Panamá, in this pamphlet purposes, as he assures us, to point out the source of the almost continuous disturbances that have occurred on the Isthmus since 1860, laying particular stress on the events from 1880 to 1885. It might be expecting too much that he should express an impartial and wholly unwarped judgment on those events, and on his political opponents. It must be acknowledged, however, that his statements appear to be fair enough, and that his assumption of responsibility for some of the acts which he censures is frank. _Simon Maldonado_, _Asuntos Políticos de Panamá_, MS., 42 pp. The author of this review is a native of Panamá, and has filled responsible positions in his country, more especially in the judiciary. His views of affairs there are impartial, and entitled to consideration for their soundness.

[XXVII-1] An official doc. of the U. S. govt gives 174,800; _Am. Cyclop._, of 1873-6, 178,277; Crowe, _Gospel in Cent. Am._, roughly computes it at 200,000. Other authorities widely differ. I refer the reader to the following maps, namely: John Baily's, 1850; Max. Von Sonnenstern's offic. maps of Salv., 1858, and Guat., 1859; Herman Au's, of Guat., 1875; Paul Levy's, of Nic., 1873; Molina's map of Costa R. in his Bosquejo.

[XXVII-2] 'Never so great as during the summer months in England.' _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 258; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 114-17: _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, 15-16.

[XXVII-3] The same may be said, though in a less degree, of the northern and eastern coast of Hond. from Omoa to Gracias á Dios.

[XXVII-4] La Union, San Miguel, Acajutla, Sonsonate, etc., owing to local causes.

[XXVII-5] The average temperature at Tegucigalpa, Comayagua, Juticalpa, and Gracias is about 74°. _Squier's Notes on Cent. Am._, 25-7; _Belly_, _A travers l'Amér. Cent._, i. 53-4.

[XXVII-6] Cold and salubrious on the table-lands in the interior, the thermom. ranging from 65° to 75° Fahr. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 28. The climate of Costa R. varies from 50° to 60° Fahr., according to elevation. _Galindo_, in _Journ. Royal Geog. Soc. of London_, vi. 134; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47-8.

[XXVII-7] This is by far the pleasanter season, the forenoons being usually cloudless, with a clear, elastic, and balmy atmosphere. Owing to local influences in some portions of the eastern coasts it rains more or less the whole year. _Crowe's Gospel_, 1-12.

[XXVII-8] Consisting of three groups; viz, the Costa Rican traversing that republic and Panama, the Honduran and Nicaraguan, and the Guatemalan.

[XXVII-9] Some of the summits are 17,000 ft high. Several spurs from the Sierra Madre—the main ridge—cut the plains at right angles, and sometimes reach the sea-shore.

[XXVII-10] All the volcanoes of Cent. Am. are on the Pacific coast, almost in a line, and running due north-west and south-east, beginning with the Cartago or Irazú, in Costa Rica, which is 11,480 ft high, and has left traces of violent eruptions before the historic period; the only proof of its present activity being a small rill of smoke visible from the foot of the mountain. There are hundreds of other volcanic peaks and extinct craters on the line, the most notable being the Turrialba, which was in active eruption in 1866, the ashy matter from it having been beneficial to the coffee plantations; Chirripó, Blanco, Závalo, Barba, Los Votos 9,840 ft high, also in Costa R. Abogado, Cerro Pelado, Tenorio, Cucuilapa, Miravalles, Rincon de la Vieja, La Hedionda, Orosi, Madera, Ometepec, Zapatera, Guanapepe, Guanacaure, Solentinami, Mombacho, Chiltepe, Masaya or Nindirí; this last said to have been in a state of eruption upwards of 250 years ago, and still continues active; it had a small eruption Nov. 10, 1858; Managua; Momotombo, 6,500 ft high, near the Managua or Leon Lake, about which the Indians had a tradition of a tremendous eruption some 100 years before the coming of the Spaniards, the lava running into the lake and destroying all the fish; the latter part of the story seems to be incorrect, there being evidence that the lava did not reach the lake shore; it partially revived in 1852; Las Pilas, Asososca, Orota, Telica, Santa Clara, El Viejo 6,000 ft high; El Chonco; Cosigüina, whose first eruption was Jan. 20, 1835, believed to have been the most violent ever recorded in history; and Joltepec—all in Nic. El Tigre, Nacaome, and Amapala, or Conchagua, in Hond. In the republic of Salv. are several; namely, the San Salvador, which had not broken out in upwards of three centuries; but in old times it ejected immense masses of lava and scoriæ to a distance of more than 18 miles. It is of great depth, computed by Weems, an American who descended it, at about 5,000 varas; the bottom is occupied by a lake; San Miguel, about 15,000 ft high. In old times it ejected large quantities of cinders and half-melted stones of immense size. The country for 30 miles or more, including the site of San Miguel, one of the oldest towns in Am., being covered with lava and scoriæ; San Vicente; Izalco, which broke out about 100 years ago, is in constant activity, but has not caused any serious damage; Paneon, and Santa Ana. In Guat. are the Pacaya; the Volcan de Agua; the Volcan de Fuego constantly smoking with occasional explosion and shocks, its last eruption being in 1880; Encuentro, Acatenango; Atitlan so remarkable at one time for frequent and violent eruptions, the last ones being in 1828 and 1833, which caused much destruction on the coast of Suchitepequez; Tesamielco, Zapotitlan, Amilpas, Quezaltenango, and Cerro Quemado whose last eruption was in 1785. There are many other nameless ones. Near a number of the active and extinct volcanoes are small and almost circular openings in the ground, through which is ejected smoke or steam. The natives call them ausoles or infiernillos, little hells. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 3, 13-17, 52-5, 91-2, 118-20, 284-90; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 101-19; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 359-61, 492-8. Other authorities speaking of the volcanoes of Cent. Am. are: _Stout's Nic._, 143; _Silliman's Journal_, xxviii. 332; _Levy_, _Nic._, 75-85, 147-53; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 10, 1854; _Diario de Avisos_, Nov. 22, 1856; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 5, Aug. 7, 1869; March 18, 1871; _Salv._, _Diario Oficial_, Oct. 11, Nov. 15, 1878; _Overland Monthly_, xiii. 324; _La Voz de Méj._, March 17, 1866; _Pim and Seemann's Dottings_, 39-40; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 75-8; _Wells' Hond._, 231-2; _Harper's Mag._, xix. 739; and the _Encyclopædias_; _Guat._, _Revista Observatorio Meteor._, i. 21-3.

[XXVII-11] About 300 have been recorded in 3½ centuries, which are probably the hundredth part of the actual number.

[XXVII-12] _Hist. Cent. Am._, ii. 719-21, this series.

[XXVII-13] June 20th, at 3 A. M., was felt a heavy shock in Guat.; no great damage was done. In Comayagua and Tegucigalpa the shocks continued from the 20th to the 25th; the people abandoning their dwellings. Many buildings, both public and private, were much injured. The shocks were also felt in Trujillo.

[XXVII-14] Apr. 23, 1830, Guat. experienced one said to have been the most severe since that of 1773. Feb. and Sept. 1831, a great part of San Salvador was ruined. The authorities and most of the people fled to Cojutepeque. This was the sixth time the city had been more or less damaged by earthquakes. Sept. 2, 1841, Cartago, in Costa R., was nearly levelled to the ground; of 3,000 houses previously existing, not 100 remained entire; of the 8 churches, the smallest and ugliest was the only one escaping uninjured. May 1844, the city of Granada was nearly ruined; the town of Nicaragua was greatly damaged, the lake of this name rising and falling several times, as if having a tide. Amatitlan, Petapa, Palin, and other places near the volcano of Pacaya, hardly had a house left standing in the end of March and in beginning of April 1845. In the repub. of Guat. shocks have been repeatedly experienced, those of 1884 and 1885 causing devastation in Amatitlan. San Salvador experienced heavy ones in 1575, 1593, 1625, 1656, and 1798, and was completely ruined in 1839, 1854, and 1873, and several other towns in the republic fared almost as badly in the latter year. Oct. 2, 1878, there was loss of life. Dec. 27-29, 1879, Ilopango, Candelaria, and other places were demolished. In Costa R. the destruction of Puntarenita occurred Aug. 4, 1854; and in 1882 the towns of Alajuela, San Ramon, Grecia, and Heredia were damaged, with heavy loss of life. In Dec. 1867, a tidal wave swallowed the island of Zapotilla, in Golfo Dulce, drowning all the inhabitants. The earthquake shocks seem to be of two kinds, namely, the perpendicular, which are felt only in the vicinity of volcanoes, and the horizontal, reaching great distances from the places where they originate, being very unequal in their progress, in some parts rocking the ground violently, and in others, in their direct line, nearer their source, being but slightly felt. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 290-3; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 298, 304-7, 465; _Squier's Travels_, ii. 85, 120-6; _Ponton's Earthquakes_, 69, 76-7; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 83-4; _Nouv. Annales Voy._, clxv. 360-1; lxxxv. 264; lciii. 121; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 608-9; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, Pref. viii.; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, vii. 101-3; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 10, 1853; July 15, Aug. 5, 26, Sept. 2, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 31, Dec. 23, 1854; _Niles' Reg._, lxi. 257; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 26; _Mission Scient. au Mex. Geol._, 13-16, 511-12; _Wells' Hond._, 233; _Salv._, _El Siglo_, May 28, June 3, 1851, Sept. 3, 1852; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 5-27, 1878; Jan. 13, 14, 1880; _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 20, 1854; _Id._, _El Rol_, Oct. 13, 20, Nov. 10, 17, Dec. 1, 1854; Feb. 9, 1855; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 21, 1853; May 5, 1854; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 26, 1864; Feb. 10, 1866; Jan. 18, May 9, Oct. 31, 1868; Jan. 8, June 18, Aug. 20, 1870; _La Union de Nic._, Jan. 12, 1861; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 15, 1871; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. pt 1, 796, 808, 814; _Id._, Cong. 44, Sess. 1, i. pt 1, 129; _Uriarte_, _Terremotos de Cent. Am._, in _Mex. Soc. Geog._, _Boletin_, ii. 189-95; _Mex._, _Eco Mercantil_, Apr. 24, 1882; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 5, 7, 11, 1886. Very full information from 1469 to 1882 in _Guat._, _Revista Observatorio Meteor._, i. 24-39.

[XXVII-15] Worthy of mention were the shocks of July 11, 1854, felt throughout the Isthmus, Sept. 11th, the same year, felt in Chiriquí; 1857, 1858, 1868, and Sept. 7, 1882; this last was a heavy one, damaging public and private buildings; also delaying the transmission of passengers and merchandise over the railway. _Salv._, _El Rol_, Dec. 1, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 21, 1854; _S. F. Alta_, Oct. 2, 1857; _Sac. Union_, Aug. 2, 1858; _S. F. Call_, June 23, 1868; Sept. 8, 9, 25, 1882; _S. F. Chronicle_, Sept. 9, 1882; _La Estrella de Pan._, Sept. 14, 1882; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 14, 1882.

[XXVII-16] The most important ones are the Usumasinta, known also under the names of Lacandon, Pasion, etc., in Guat., of about the size of the Garonne or Elbe in Europe, or the Hudson in the U. S., which drains nearly half of the state, and pours its waters through several mouths into the bay of Campeche and the laguna de Términos. The Dulce unites the bay of Hond. with the Dulce Gulf. The Hondo; the Belize, or Old River, famous for the fine mahogany its banks have yielded; the Motagua and the Polochic; the Black or Tinto in the Poyais country; the San Juan del Norte, Coco, also named Telpaneca and Wanks, Grande or Chocoyos, and the Mico or Blewfields; the Tipitapa, uniting lakes Nicaragua and Managua; the Paz, separating Guat. and Salv.; and the deep and rapid Lempa, the largest on the western shore, at its lowest ebb exceeds 140 yards in breadth.

[XXVII-17] The following are the notable ones: Atitlan, in Guat., covering upwards of 250 square miles; declared to be unfathomable, a line of 300 fathoms not reaching the bottom. Though receiving the waters of many rivers, no outlet has been found for its dark and benumbing waters; still, it is probable that a subterraneous outlet exists, as in the lakes of Guijar and Metapa in Salv., which are united by a subterraneous communication. Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, of about 50 miles in circuit, subject to violent agitations, and forming the port of Izabal on the Atlantic coast of Guat. The small Amatitlan, about 20 miles from the city of Guat., which, notwithstanding its hot springs and brackish waters, abounds in a delicate fish called mojarra, in other small fish, and in wild fowl. In Hond. is the Yojos. In Nic., the lake of the same name, whose surplus waters run to the Atlantic by the San Juan del Norte River; an inland sea, 96 miles long, and 40 miles in its greatest breadth, forming an ellipse with its main axis due N. W. to S. E. Its depth in some parts is of 45 fathoms, and its area must be at least 2,000 square miles. It contains a small archipelago. Lake Managua is 38 or 35 miles in length, and 16 in its greatest breadth. It has little depth, and several sand banks render navigation difficult. The laguna de Masaya, 340 ft lower than the city of the same name, which is 750 ft above the sea level. Its area is of about 10 square miles. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 86, 95-8.

[XXVII-18] From 8° to 11° 16´ N. lat., and 81° 40´ to 85° 40´ long. W. of Greenwich. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 25. Between 8° and 17° 30´ N. lat., and 11° 50´ to 22° 32´ W. of Santiago de Chile, which is situate in meridian 70° 38´ 6´´ west of Greenwich. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 2. _Am. Cyclopædia_, v. 393, gives it betw. 8° 11´ and 11° 8´ N. lat., and long. 82° 28´ to 85° 45´ W. of Greenwich. Between about 8° and 11° N. lat., and 82° to 86° W. long. _Encyclopædia Britannica_, vi. 397.

[XXVII-19] By the law of March 27, 1835, the country was divided into three departments; namely, Cartago, Alajuela, and Guanacaste, with a jefe político at the head of each. Repealed by executive decree of April 28, 1843, after having had several amendments. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iv. 180-3.

[XXVII-20] San José has 9 regidores, Cartago and Heredia 7. Each municipality chooses a president and vice-president from among its own members, and a secretary. At each cantonal head town there are alcaldes, and in each barrio a juez de paz. _Costa R._, _Id._, iii. 226-40; x. 465-92; xi. 89-138; xvii. 161-98; xix. 168-74; _Costa R._, _Mem. Instruc. Púb._, 1884, annexes 12-17; _Id._, _Mem. Gobern._, 1852-84; _El Costaricense_, Nov. 24, 1849; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 9, 16, March 2, 1850.

[XXVII-21] San José, the national capital, was founded a little more than 100 years ago, owing its existence to the earthquakes which nearly destroyed Cartago, the old capital. San José is situated on an elevation of about 4,500 ft., upon the table-land formed between the mountains of Dota or Herradura on the south, and those of Barba on the north. On one side flows the river Torres, and on the other the María Aguilar. Its streets are paved, straight, and forming right angles. The dwellings are mostly of a single story, with spacious courts; there are, however, a good many buildings of two stories. The majority are made of adobe, plastered over; but the national palace is of stone, and a fine building. An aqueduct supplies the city with water from the Torres, though a large portion of the fluid consumed is drawn from the wells existing in almost every house. Besides, the government palace, the university, Mora theatre, some of the churches, and a few other buildings, do honor to the city. The electric light was introduced in 1884. Cartago, the oldest town in the state, though it has lost its political importance, and has been shattered by earthquakes, retains some traces of its former magnificence. It is gradually improving. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 51; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 50; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 463-4; _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, ii. 217; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 364-5; _Costa R._, _Informe Gobern._, 1874, 2-3; _El Cronista_, S. F., Oct. 18, 1884.

[XXVII-22] It is situated between lat. 10° 45´ and 14° 55´, and between long. 83° 15´ and 87° 38´. _Am. Cyc._, xii. 420. Between 10° 30´ and 15° lat., and from 83° 11´ to 87° long. _Encyclop. Brit._, xvii. 490. Between 9° 45´ and 15° lat. N., and between 83° 20´ and 87° 30´ long. W. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 348. Between 10° 50´ and 15° N. lat., and between 83° 13´ and 87° 37´ long. W. of Greenwich. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 18, 1868.

[XXVII-23] That is the civilized region. There is, besides, a wild portion comprising about 24,000 geographical miles. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 372.

[XXVII-24] In the absence of the prefecto the first alcalde of the head town acts in his place ad int., with the full pay of the office. _Nic._, _Acuerdos y Dec._, 1857-8, 70-8, 203-5; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 58-77, 145-8, 195-6; ii. 5-20; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856; Feb. 8 to Nov. 15, passim, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 5, 1864; _Id._, _Informe Gobern._, 1863-83.

[XXVII-25] The corporations are formed, according to the importance of the locality, with one or two alcaldes, and their respective suplentes, regidores, one secretary, one síndico, and the agricultural judge, all serving without pay. The prefecto controls the municipal affairs of his whole department, and especially those of the chief town. He presides ex-officio over all the municipalities, and in case of a tie has a casting vote. He cannot be accused except before the senate, and is consequently a petty president in his department. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 331-5.

[XXVII-26] It was made a city in 1846, and special ordinances were provided for it from time to time. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 148; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 58; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 342; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1863, 2, 46, 118-19; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos de la Junta_, 12-13, 145-8.

[XXVII-27] It has been greatly damaged by military operations, but never burned down, like Granada.

[XXVII-28] Leon was connected in 1881 with Corinto by rail; and the line has been afterward extended to Leon Viejo, on Lake Managua, and thence to Granada. Notable places in the department of Leon are Telica, birthplace of Miguel Larreyuaga, an oidor of the last Spanish audiencia, or superior court of judicature, who drew up the declaration of independence; El Sáuce, Santa Rosa, El Jicaral or San Buenaventura, and San Nicolas.

[XXVII-29] Granada has a good commercial position on the N. W. end of Lake Nicaragua, and at the foot of the Mombacho volcano. It was burned by pirates in 1665, nearly ruined by the freebooters in 1670, the raiders having come on both occasions by the San Juan River and the lake; and a third time destroyed by fire in 1685, the work of pirates who landed at Escalante on the Pacific. In 1844 it was greatly damaged by earthquakes. In 1856 it was burned by William Walker, the filibuster. But it has risen from its ashes, and become prosperous. The city is irregular in its construction, the streets not being straight or rectangular. They are mostly unpaved, and generally in a bad condition. The city obtains water for consumption from the lake, distant about a mile, brought by men on their shoulders; and its food supplies, not from the surrounding fields, but from numerous Indian pueblos on the S. E. Masaya was an Indian town, but raised to the rank of a city in 1839. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 148. It is supplied with water from the deep lagoon south of and near the city. There were women who for 80 cents monthly supplied two large jars of water every day. A steam-pump was put up in 1872 to raise the water of the lake to the plaza. There is no building worthy of mention in the place. Other notable towns in the department of Granada are Nandaimé, Jinotepe, San Rafael de la Costa, Diriomo, Tipitapa, Nindirí, and Zapatera Island. The towns of San Cárlos and El Castillo, on the San Juan, belong to the same department, though governed in a special manner. San Juan del Norte, alias Greytown, has little importance now; its houses are of wood and palm-thatched. Rivas bore the name of Nicaragua till the early part of the present century. The city has suffered greatly from earthquakes, particularly in 1844. It was partially destroyed during the Walker war. A real curiosity in the department of Rivas is the island of Ometepe in the lake, having two towns, the Pueblo Grande, or villa de Altagracia, and the Moyogalpa, united by a good wagon road. Chinandega is one of the most beautiful spots in Nic. It is a perfect garden. In the wild or uncivilized portion of the territory lies the Mosquito region, whose chief town is Blewfields, having two wooden buildings; the rest being mere huts. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 373-90; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 73-6; _Saravia_, _Bosq. Polít. Estadist._, 10-11; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 153-4; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 19, 29-47, 62-75, 92-104; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, i. 250-80, 311-17, 350-4; _Squier's Trav._, i. 138-40, 146-50, 211-15, 258-67, 339, 353-6, 365; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 346-7, 356-9, 366-76; _Squier's Nic._, 646; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 196-9, 212, 225-9, 249; _Stillman's Golden Fleece_, 206-8; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 6-8; _Stout's Nic._, 27-9, 41-5, 98-100, 156-64; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 117-18; _Bates' Cent. Am._, 131-2; _Marr_, _Cent. Am._, i. 158-9, 165-71, 228-30; _Boyle's Ride_, i. 13, 83-91; ii. 8; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 6-18, 20-7, 59, 62-3, 71-2, 81-9, 105-6, 129-31, 134, 155-9, 165-9, 231; _Wells' Hond._, 39, 42, 72-4.

[XXVII-30] Hond. is therefore betw. 13° 10' and 16° lat. N., and within 83° 20' and 89° 30' long. W. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 68; _Encyclop. Brit._, xii. 133. Between 13° 10' and 16° 5' N. lat., and within 83° 12' and 89° 47' W. long. _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 787.

[XXVII-31] The towns have their municipal corporations, whose members are required by law to be able to read and write.

[XXVII-32] Before 1827 it was a prosperous city; but the serviles burnt it that year. Since then it has suffered several times, especially in 1872 and 1873.

[XXVII-33] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 129-30; this authority also gives a cut of the cathedral on p. 261; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 310-11; _Huston's Journey_, 24-7.

[XXVII-34] The town stands on the right bank of the Choluteca River in an amphitheatre among the hills. It has a fine stone bridge of ten arches spanning the river. _Wells' Hond._, 186-8; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 95-6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 155.

[XXVII-35] Omoa is situated about a quarter of a mile from the beach on level ground, but the back country rises rapidly into a chain of high mountains, beginning abruptly at Puerto Caballos, now called Puerto Cortés. Owing to its position, Omoa is generally cool and healthy, has seldom been visited by epidemics. The place is defended by the San Fernando castle. Trujillo lies close by the sea at the foot of a lofty mountain covered with vegetation, and reaching to the very edge of the water. The town was at one time of considerable importance, both in a commercial and military point of view; but now it has an antique, dilapidated, and abandoned appearance. Amapala, on the island of Tigre, was in old times a favorite resort of pirates; it was here that Drake had his depot during his operations in the Pacific. Owing to the visits of those marauders, the Indian population of Tigre and Zacate Grande retired to the mainland, and the islands remained almost entirely deserted till 1838, when Amapala was made a free port, since which time it has become a very important place. It has a salubrious climate. Further details on the towns of Honduras may be found in _Montgomery's Narr. of a Journey to Guat., etc., in 1838_, 31; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 98-129, 142-161; _Squier's Hond. R. R._, 74-84, 99-102; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 164-8; _Young's Resid. Mosq. Shore_, 138-40; _Wells' Hond._, 324-5, 574-9; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 89-90, 93-5; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 311-19; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 177-83; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 28-9.

[XXVII-36] It is comprised within lat. 13° and 14° 30' N., and long. 87° 30' and 90° 20' W. _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. 610. Between 13° and 14° 10' N. lat., and between 87° and 90° W. long. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 279; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 111.

[XXVII-37] By decree of President Gonzalez, July 14, 1875, the department of San Miguel was cut up, and that of Gotera created with the districts of Gotera and Osicala. San Miguel was compensated with Chinameca, detached from Usulutan. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, July 20, 1875.

[XXVII-38] It is made a part of the governor's duty to keep the gen. govt apprised of every important occurrence within his department or its vicinity; in addition to which he must furnish annually a gen. report on every branch of the public service, with suggestions for the further improvement and progress of the communities under his charge. His subordinates in districts and towns report to him. A number of governors' reports may be seen in _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 3 to Dec. 24, 1876; Jan. 2 to Dec. 18, 1877; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, May 17 to Dec. 3, 1879; Jan. 15, 1880, etc.

[XXVII-39] Towns of from 200 to 2,000 inhabitants two regidores, of upwards of 2,000 to 10,000 four, and those exceeding the latter number six. Each corporation elects a competent clerk to authenticate its acts and those of the alcalde.

[XXVII-40] _Id._, May 1-16, 1875; March 5-22, 1879.

[XXVII-41] Like other Spanish towns, it covers a large area in proportion to the population. The houses are built low, of a single story, and adapted to resist the constant shakes of the earth. Each house has an inner court, frequently containing a fountain and garden. The dwellers run out to the court on feeling a temblor of some force. When the shocks are heavy and continuous, they seek safety in the plazas and open fields, where they erect tents.

[XXVII-42] It is situated between N. lat. 13° 50' and 18° 15', and within W. long. 88° 14' and 93° 12'. _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 288. Between 13° 42' and 18° lat. N., and between 88° and 93° 5' W. long. _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 211.

[XXVII-43] The chief towns have the same names as the departments to which they belong, excepting those of Sacatepéquez, Quiché, Peten, Baja Verapaz, Alta Verapaz, and Santa Rosa, whose respective names are Antigua, Santa Cruz del Quiché, Flores, Salamá, Coban, and Cuajiniquilapa. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 6, 1877; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1884, 4-5, annex 4; _El Guatemalteco_, May 10, 1884.

[XXVII-44] Under the old system the department was under a corregidor who was not only civil governor, but also military chief, judge, revenue collector, and postmaster. _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian Rept_, 1867, 424.

[XXVII-45] Under art. 34 of this organic law the jefes were required to send the supreme gov. for approbation police regulations, under the instructions furnished them for the sake of uniformity. They did not fail to comply. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880, 1-2.

[XXVII-46] The law determined with precision the manner of organizing the municipalities, and the functions of the councilmen, increasing at the same time the number of committees; at that time they had committees of finance, supplies, water, police, health, ornamentation, schools, vaccination, roads, and statistics. Further information on internal administration, police, and gen. condition of the departments may be found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 492-512, 527-75; _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, 1876; _Salv. Diario Ofic._, May 13 to 16, 1875; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1884; _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 23; _Conkling's Guide_, 341.

[XXVII-47] With only three exceptions every department had a surplus. The three excepted had deficits amounting together to $3,578.

[XXVII-48] I will name a few of the authorities: _Dillon_, _Beautés de l'hist._, 218-38; _Thompson's Guat._, 465-9; _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 192-4; _Nuevo Viajero Univ._, iii. 602-7; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 49-54; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 291-6; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 54; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 86-90; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 114-16; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 259-60; _Dicc. Univ. Hist. Geog._, iii. 724-7; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 76-86; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 497-50; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 444-5; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 78-9; _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 290-2; _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 214.

[XXVII-49] There are two fortresses, the Matamoros and San José. Among the open places are the plaza mayor, and the recently laid out plaza de la Concordia, now the favorite resort of the inhabitants. There is another plaza containing a fine theatre.

[XXVII-50] San Francisco, La Recoleccion, La Merced, and Santo Domingo are among the notable ones.

[XXVII-51] The govt in late years has provided for an increase of the water supply to meet the future requirements of a town whose population is rapidly growing. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 43-4; 1885, 49-51, 56-8.

[XXVII-52] With government aid, a jockey club was also established in 1882. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 47-50, 75.

[XXVII-53] Antigua, or Old Guat., presents its majestic ruins, much the same as they were left by the earthquakes of 1773. Many of the buildings appear like fortresses. Among the best preserved are the old government palace and the university. The place was much damaged by an earthquake in 1874. Thompson in his _Cent. Am._ has a description of the ruins as they were in 1825, 245-9; others have described them at later dates. _Stephens' Trav._, i. 266-71, 278-80; ii. 204; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 53-5; _Macgregor's Prog. of Am._, i. 791-2; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 376-8, 390; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 456, 504-10; _Batres' Sketch_, 27-9, 40. Quezaltenango is 8,130 feet above the sea. It is every day growing in importance and wealth. Living is cheap there; the climate is cool and healthy. Most of the streets are narrow, but they are well paved and have flagstone sidewalks. The houses are of good appearance, some of them of two stories. Among the public buildings are the penitentiary, on the plan of that in Philadelphia, the Indian cabildo of two stories, the hospital, national institute, and other educational establishments, some fine churches, etc. _Boddam Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 66-7; _Conkling's Guide_, 334, 337, 343. The city of Flores, head town of the department of Peten, is worthy of mention for its picturesque position on one of the islands of Lake Itzal, and its charming view from a distance. The place is hot, however, and uncleanly.

[XXVII-54] Occupying the Isthmus which connects North and South America, between lat. N. 6° 45´ and 9° 40´, and within long. W. 77° and 83°. The area is of about 31,921 square miles. In its general form it is an arc curving from east to west, with the convex side toward the north. In the widest part from sea, to sea it is about 120 miles, in the narrowest from the gulf of San Blas to the mouth of the Bayano River about 30, and along the line of the railway 47½ miles. _Am. Cyclop._, xiii. 31.

[XXVII-55] In addition to these are Taboguilla, Urabá, Naos, Perico, Culebra, San José, Tórtola, Tortolita, Iguana, Washington, Napoleon, Stanley, and many smaller ones. _Tavares_, _Gulf and Isthmus of Darien_, March 31, 1761, MS., 52-65; _Imray's Sail. Directions_, 6-12; _Humboldt_, _Tableau_, 710.

[XXVII-56] The largest being the Tuira, 160 miles long, navigable about 102 for barges, empties into the gulf of San Miguel; the Chagres, navigable for bungos about 30 miles, runs into the Caribbean Sea; the Chepo flows into the bay of Panamá.

[XXVII-57] The principal town of Coclé is Penonomé; of Chiriquí, David; and of Veragua, Santiago. The rest bear the same names as their respective departments.

[XXVII-58] The governor and prefectos report yearly to the chief of the Isthmus the state of their respective departments. _Pan._, _Mem. Soc. Jeneral_, 1877, etc.

[XXVII-59] Just prior to the influx of the foreign element, upon the discovery of the gold placers in California, the town had a gloomy and ruinous aspect. There was nothing to be seen all around but ruin and poverty; whole blocks and streets of old, dilapidated buildings, propped-up houses with people living in them, and luxuriant vegetation in the plazas, walls, etc. With the coming of foreigners a great change took place within the short space of three or four years. Nearly all the old dwellings underwent repairs, and new ones were built. In lieu of the old sad appearance and silence, all was now bustle and movement. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 7.

[XXVII-60] The cathedral has nothing to recommend it except its two fine towers. It is in a ruinous condition, and though repaired a few years ago and reduced to a single nave, further repairs are loudly called for. This building as well as the cabildo face the main plaza.

[XXVII-61] Efforts have been made in late years by the state government for the construction of an aqueduct; but without success. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, May 16, 1874; Apr. 9, 30, 1876; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 19, 1874; Feb. 14, Apr. 13, 1876.

[XXVII-62] The following are among the authorities giving more or less detailed descriptions of the city of Panamá: _Cash's Sketch_, 54-61, 29-71; _Bidwell's Pan._, 1-9, 75-7, 119-35, 341-8; _Beechy's Voy._, i. 11-17, 23-4; _Scarlett's South Am._, ii. 189-211, 221-9, 254-69; _Seemann's Narr._, 84-8, 275-95, 289-94; _Wilson's Trav. in Cal._, 9-10, 17-19; _Wortley's Trav._, 320-2; _Scherzer_, _Narr._, ii. 424-5; _Pim's Gate_, 209-20.

[XXVII-63] _Gisborne's Darien_, 160-70, 205-9; _Otis' Isth. Pan._, 70-127; _Harper's Mag._, xvii. 19-28, 32-9; _Tomes' Pan._, 40-66. The following contain descriptions of other places as well as of the transit between the two seas: _London Geog. Soc. Jour._, i. 69-101; xxiii., 184; _Niles' Reg._, xxxviii. 141; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 201-2; _Willey's Person. Mem._, 37-8; _Masset's Exper. of a '49er_, MS., 1; _Lachapelle's Raousset-Boulbon_, 43-7; _Champagnac_, _Voyageur_, 175-6; _Froebel_, _Aus Amerika_, 211-31; _Nic._, _Cor. Ist._, May 30, 1850; _Marryatt's Mountains_, 1-17; _Holinski_, _La Californie_, 45-61; _Rouhaud_, _Reg. Nouvelles_, 167; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, cxxiii. 220-2, 226-7; cxlv. 17-22; cxlvii. 15-17; _Polynesian_, v. 29; vi. 121; _Thornton's Or. and Cal._, ii. 348-54; _Oswald Cal. und Seine_, 87-92; _Kelley's Canal Mantimera_, 27-8; _Auger_, _Voy. en Cal._, 35-92; _Saint-Amant_, 25-62, 80-97; _Griswold's Pan._, 41-7; _Rossi_, _Souvenirs_, 47-50; _Esguerra_, _Dicc. Geog. Colombia_, 2-275; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 23, 1881.

[XXVII-64] Department of Pan., including 18,378 in the city, 43,462; Coclé, 33,134; Colon, including 4,000 in that port, 1,057 in Chagres, and 1,319 in Portobello, 8,276; Los Santos, 37,670; Veragua, 36,210; Bocas del Toro, 5,250; Darien, 1,036. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 43-6. The population at the time the Isthmus seceded from Spain was variously estimated at from 80,000 to 111,550; 1843, 129,697; the census of 1863 yielded 180,000; but it is believed the population was made to appear larger than it really was, so as to gain one more representative in the national congress. The best informed citizens computed it at only 150,000. In 1868, 220,542, authorities keeping the same figures till 1879, excepting one estimate for 1874 reducing it to 174,000. _Humboldt_, _Pers. Narr._, vi., pt i. 142; _Seemann's Voy._, i. 296; _Imray's Sail. Dir._, 14; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 178-80; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 18, 1868; _Mex. Soc. Geog. Boletin_, 3d ép. i. 728; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 6, 1872; Aug. 4, 1874; March 1, 1876; _Esguerra_, _Dicc. Geog. Colomb._, 171.

[XXVII-65] _Veraguas_, _Decr. de la Cám._; _Id._, _Notas Ofic._; _Id._, _Ordenanzas_, 1853; _Chiriquí_, _Corresp. Gob. Nac._, 1851; _Id._, _Ofic. del Gob._; _Id._, _Comp. de Fomento_, 1855; all in _Pinart_, _Pan. Coll. Doc._, MSS., nos. 63, 65, 69, p. 25-7, no. 39, 4-9, no. 88, p. 22, no. 40, 1-4; besides other doc. in the same Coll., no. 31, p. 40-1, nos. 49, 50, 52, 103; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. 41, Cong. 36, Sess. 2, vi. 55; _El Noticioso del Istmo Am._, in the _Californian_, S. F., ii., June 12, 1847.

[XXVII-66] For their dwelling-places I refer to _Native Races of the Pac. States_, i. 795-7, this series.

[XXVII-67] In 1835. _Veraguas_, _Dec. de la Cám._, in _Pin._, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 57, 17-22; _Id._, _Informe_, in _Id._, MS., no. 78.

[XXVII-68] Their chief at times visited the British consul at Panamá, but never agreed to his returning the visit at their homes. _Seemann's Voy._, i. 321. Neither would they accept presents from any white person. One of their chiefs who accepted a present was degraded by his tribe, and the present was sent back. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 36.

[XXVII-69] Many persons were killed by the Bayanos in Oct. 1870; and their hostilities were repeated in 1874. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 10, 1870; Dec. 23, 1873; Apr. 14, 1874; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, Feb. 17, March 12, 1874; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Est._, 1874, 18-19.

[XXVII-70] The lower classes are improvident and fond of dress and finery.

[XXVII-71] Low dresses without sleeves, and with lace trimmings on the bust.

[XXVII-72] There are many of them given to gossiping and propagating scandalous reports even about their friends. Politics and the bottle have in late years debauched many a fine young man, the vice of drunkenness of late gaining ground.

[XXVII-73] There are associations of various kinds, including secret ones, like the masonic, of which there are several lodges, with many native Panamanians among their members. The natives still observe the custom of long mournings as of old. In a community where families are more or less connected by ties of blood or marriage, the result is that mourning often seems to be the common dress.

[XXVII-74] Details in _Constitucional del Istmo_, Nov. 21, 1832; _Colegio de Pan._, _Decreto_, 1-2; _El Movimiento_, Dec. 1, 1844; _N. Granada_, _Gaceta_, Feb. 22, 1846; _Bogotá_, _Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1848; _Chiriquí_, _Decretos_, MS., 1849; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Nov. 9, 1849, to March 1, 1854, passim; _Chiriquí_, _Inf. del Gob._, MSS., 1851-2; _Pan._, _Gaceta Extraord._, Dec. 23, 1857; March 30, 1858.

[XXVII-75] In 1869 there were no public primary schools in the state. Parents with means had teachers at home, or sent their children to the few private schools then existing, to Bogotá, the national capital, or abroad. Children of poor parents had to grow in utter ignorance.

[XXVII-76] In 1874 there were in the state 17 primary schools with 1,065 pupils. The numbers steadily increased till 1882, when the schools were 59 and the pupils 2,167. There were appropriated for supporting the schools in 1873 $14,191, and every year after there was an increase; the amount allowed in 1882 being $33,310, and in 1883 $63,962, the govt now becoming alive to the fact that the funds formerly supplied were insufficient, as appeared in the report of the educational bureau on Nov. 15, 1881. _Pan._, _El Elector_, May 1, 1883; _Pan._, _Inf. Sec. Est._, 1866; _Id._, _Mensaje_, 1872; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Est._, 1876; _Id._, _Informe Direct. Gen. Instruc. Púb._, 1877-80; _Id._, _Leyes_, 1876-7, 26-32; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gob._, 1877; _Id._, _Min. Sec. Gob._, 1879; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, May 28, 1863, to Sept. 8, 1869, passim; _Id._, _Gaceta_, July 28, 1870, to Feb. 20, 1881, passim; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 18, Aug. 14, 1874; Jan. 27, March 2, 1876.

[XXVII-77] It began its existence as the _Panamá Star_, a very small sheet, in 1849; now it has eight large pages. _S. F. Times_, March 13, 1869; _S. F. Alta_, March 13, 1869; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 11, 1886.

[XXVII-78] I have had occasion to quote both publications repeatedly on narrating events on the Isthmus and in Central America.

[XXVII-79] The bull is led by a rope into the most public streets. A number of men challenge the brute, which occasionally rushes at its tormentors; but as the rope holds it, only by a rare chance is any one hurt. The bull is thus worried by the men-brutes till it is ready to drop.

[XXVII-80] Games of chance and night orgies having become prevalent, in 1878 a heavy tax was levied on gambling-houses, and a severe decree issued to check orgies and brawls. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 31, Aug. 15, 1878.

[XXVII-81] The following authorities have spoken of the manners and customs of the Isthmus, and character of its people at different periods from 1845 to late years: _Macgregor's Progress of Am._, i. 820-34; _Seemann's Narr._, i. 140-1, 299-310, passim; _Oliveira_, in _Nouv. Ann. Voy._, cxxiii., 216-27; _McCollum's Cal._, 16-26; _Worthy's Trav._, 335-6; _Johnson's Sights_, 11-87; _Foote's Recoll._, 135-47; _Merrill's Statem._, MS., i.; _Fremont's Am. Trav._, 57-65, 166-7; _Griswold's Isth._, 130-68, 179-80; _Gisborne's Darien_, 170-216, pass.; _Delano's Chips_, 80-92; _Helper's Land of Gold_, 209-23; _Mollhausen's Diary_, ii. 374-9; _Harper's Mag._, xix. 433, 437-54; _Trollope's W. Ind._, 240, 248-50; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 210-14; _Gazlay's Pac. Monthly_, i. 17-30; _Baxley's What I Saw_, 30-45; _China Route_, _Sketch of New_, 54-74; _Gordon's Guide_, 14-15; _Eardley-Wilmot's Our Jour._, 66-71; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 7, 1875.

[XXVII-82] In 1840 small-pox prevailed in Chagres among the natives; foreigners, being mostly vaccinated, escaped unscathed. It visited the Isthmus again as an epidemic in 1863, 1880, and 1881, with great ravages each time, owing to neglect of the common rules of hygiene, or aversion of the lower classes to vaccination. _Niles' Reg._, lix. 17; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 222-3; _Cash's Sketch_, 62-3; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, March 14, Aug. 1, Oct. 17, 1880; Sept. 22, 1881; _El Coclesano_, Aug. 5, 20, 1881; _S. F. Bulletin_, July 16, 1881.

[XXVII-83] The Isthmus seems to have been spared on its first visit to Am. in 1832-4. _Pan._, _Doc. Ofic._, in _Pinart_, _Col. Doc._, MS., no. 31, 41-4.

[XXVII-84] The havoc, however, was greater among transient foreigners and the native colored population. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 7-8. It was most virulent from Jan. to July 1849. There were cases nearly to the end of 1850. _Williams' Statem._, MS., 2; _Willey's Pers. Mem._, MS., 48-53; _Roach's Statem._, MS., 1; _Cannon's Statem._, MS., 1; _S. F. News_, Nov. 8, 1850. Chiriquí escaped the infliction by the timely establishment of a rigorous quarantine against Pan. _Chiriquí_, _Dec. Gobern._, in _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., 89, 2-5, 25; _Veraguas_, Dec., in _Id._, MS., nos. 70-2.

[XXVII-85] If we except Colon, Chagres, and Portobello, the climate is healthy. Men abstaining from the abuse of alcoholic drinks, and observing the common rules of hygiene, need not be apprehensive of the climate.

[XXVII-86] The symptoms were cramps, severe pain in the spine, vomiting, and fever, followed by loss of consciousness. The attack generally lasted several days.

[XXVII-87] _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 11, 1877; Apr. 29, 1880.

[XXVII-88] There was, however, a private hospital, mainly supported by the French and Italians, where sick foreigners found good attendance. Many a life has been saved in it.

[XXVII-89] Four disastrous conflagrations visited the present city of Panamá prior to 1825; namely, in 1737, 1756, 1781, and 1821, the first being the work of incendiaries from Guat. _Seemann's Voy._, 288. Chagres was nearly all burned down Dec. 9, 1847. _Polynesian_, in _S. F. Californian_, iii. no. 4, Aug. 14, 1848. Gorgona was ruined in 1851. Panamá had property destroyed in 1856 valued at half a million dollars. Colon was afflicted in 1863 and 1868, and finally ruined by the incendiaries Prestan and others in 1885. Panamá had three great conflagrations; viz., June 5, 1870, Feb. 19, 1874, and March 6, 1878. The loss of property in the three probably exceeded four million dollars. _Pan._, _Merc. Chronicle_, March 29, 1868; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 7, 1863; Apr. 25, 1868; June, 1870; _Id._, _Boletin_ _Ofic._, June 18, Dec. 25, 1870; _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 3; _S. F. Chronicle_, June 21, 30, 1870; March 10, 1878; _S. F. Alta_, July 1, 1870; Feb. 28, March 9, 1874; _S. F. Call_, June 9, 1870; March 9, 1874; Apr. 2, 1878; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 21, 24, 1874; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, July 10, 1874; March 17 to July 1, Dec. 15, 1878; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, May 30, 1874, p. 1749; _S. F. Post_, Feb. 28, 1874; March 8, 1878.

[XXVIII-1] Being an estimated increase since 1877 of 245,847. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Dec. 4, 1877. The population was computed in 1810 at different figures, none reliable. The one deemed most accurate was as follows: 646,666 Indians, 313,334 mulattoes and some negroes, 40,000 whites, making a total of 1,000,000, probably including 100,000 for Chiapas. _Guat._, _Apuntam._, 105, 110; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, July 2, 1879; _Lastarría_, in _La América_, 445; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 28, 32; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, iv. 1820, 36; _Ocios de Esp. Emig._, v. 2. In 1823 the whole was set down at 1,600,000. _Humboldt's Pers. Narr._, vi. pt 1, 127, 131. Marure computed it in 1824, giving Costa R. 70,000, Nic. 207,269, Salv. 212,573, Hond. 137,069, and Guat. 660,580; total, 1,287,491. _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 148, and app. no. 6. G. A. Thompson, Brit. commissioner to Cent. Am., in 1823 estimated 2,000,000 in the following proportions: one fifth of whites, two fifths of mixed classes, and two fifths of Indians. _Narr. Official Visit_, 451. Galindo, an intelligent officer of the Cent. Am. govt, about 1837 set the population at 685,000 Ind., 740,000 ladinos or mestizos, and 475,000 whites; total, 1,900,000. He evidently overestimated the number of whites. Crowe, _Gospel_, 40, referring specifically to Guat., estimated the number of pure whites at not over 5,000, which seems to be short of the truth. The proportions he gave were: Indians, three fifths; ladinos or mestizos, one fourth; whites, one fortieth; mulattoes, one eighty-third; negroes, one fiftieth; zambos, one hundredth. It is unnecessary to burden this note with figures for each year after 1837. I will merely append those for 1866, given by a writer who must have got his data from reliable sources: Costa R., 150,000, mostly white, and including from 5,000 to 10,000 Talamanca Indians. According to a Costa Rica census, there were in the republic in 1864 112 persons of 90 years and upwards; of whom 14 were of 100, 4 of 102, one of 103, one of 104, one of 111, one of 117, one of 118, and one of 122. The majority of cases of great longevity were of women. _Costa R._, _Censo_, 100-3. Nic., 380,000, of whom 80,000 pure Indians, 30,000 whites, 30,000 negroes, and the rest of mixed breeds, the mestizos of white and Indian predominating on the Pac. coast, and the zambos, or mixture of negro and Indian, on the Atlantic; there were probably 30,000 in Mosquitia; Salv., 750,000; Hond., 300,000; Guat., 1,219,500. _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 47, 71, 93, 189, 251; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 37, 75. Other publications treating of the subject from time to time: _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 9, March 30, 1854; _Id._, _Gaceta_, July 15, 1854; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Interior_, 1860 and 1861; _Id._, _Informe Gobern._, 1868 and 1874; _Id._, _Censo_, 1864; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxxii. 250-2; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 21, 45-57, 279, 348, 449, 465, 648-9; _Id._, _Travels_, i. 32-3; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 28-9; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 138-42, 249-54; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 185-6; _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 270, 312, 316, 382; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March to Aug. 1862, pass.; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 1863 to Apr. 11, 1874, pass.; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 234 et seq.; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 26 to Nov. 18, 1850; Feb. 3, March 3, 1854; Apr. 1, 1876; May 28 to Nov. 28, 1878; May 18 to Nov. 29, 1879; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 93; _Wells' Hond._, 554-7; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 473; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-5, with tables; and numerous others.

[XXVIII-2] The departments of Guat. having the largest numbers were Totomicapam, 144,312; Guat., 130,581; Huehuetenango, 121,123; Alta Verapaz, 93,407. The rest range from 76,103 in Lalolá and 75,553 in Quiché, to 31,637 in Jalapa. Peten is put down with 8,297, Izabal with 3,761, and Livingston with 1,471. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 11, Aug. 13, 1885; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 40, annex 6; 1885, 43-4, annex 12; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 1 to Dec. 5, 1884, pass.; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 9, 1884; Sept. 30, 1885.

[XXVIII-3] The proportions in 1880 were, white and mixed, men, 183,536, females, 196,292; pure Indians, men, 421,518, females, 423,256. Grand total, 1,224,602. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885, annex 12, table 16.

[XXVIII-4] The first law to promote colonization was issued Jan. 22, 1824, by the national constituent assembly of Cent. Am. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 133, app. xviii.-xxvii.; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 815-20; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 22, 1835; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Aug. 8, 1850; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, March 20, 1854; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 42-3, 53; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 43-5.

[XXVIII-5] Containing upwards of 14,000,000 acres of virgin soil, and affording every climate. _Brief Statem. of the Important Grants Conceded to ... by the State of Guat._, Lond., 1839; _Guat. Charte de Concession du territ. de Vera Paz_, Bruxelles, 1840, 8vo, 1-34; _Guat._, _Mem. Concession_, 17-130; _Marure_, _Efem._, 38; _Squier's Travels_, i. 422-4; _Id._, _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 77-9.

[XXVIII-6] It was first formed out of, or at least originated from, the débris of the Poyais bubble, of which I spoke elsewhere in connection with Mosquitia.

[XXVIII-7] They talked of their ability to spread Brit. influence in the country. They even threatened to sell their charter to some other government.

[XXVIII-8] Details on the subject will be found in _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 160, 190-1; _Niles' Reg._, li. 36; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 39, 238; _Guat._, _Memoria_, 1837, 17-19; _Id._, _Comm. and Agric. Co._, 1-132; _Anderson's Cent. Am._, 5-93, 97-138.

[XXVIII-9] It stipulated a conditional sale of the lands lying between the left bank of the river Motagua and the right bank of the river Cahabon to where it runs into the Polochic, including all the coast and neighboring islands within these limits; and inland as far as Gualan, and the interior limits of the province of Santo Tomás. The company was to pay for the computed 8,000 caballerías at the rate of $20 for each caballería, in ten yearly instalments of $16,000. It was also to present the Guat. govt 2,000 muskets, similar to those used by the Belgian army, and four large guns; likewise pay one fifth the expense of erecting a city at Santo Tomás, make a cart road to the river Motagua, and introduce steamers for navigating the river. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 824-38; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 239-43; _Belly_, _Nic._, ii. 36-7; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 303-6; _Crowe's Gospel_, 169-70; _Amerique Cent. Cie. Belge_, pt i. 5-64, pt ii. 110-13; _Valois_, _Mexique_, 438-42; _Claquet_, _Rapport S. Tomás_, 7-9; _Cuelebrouk, Blondeel van_, _Colonie de Santo Tomas_, 1-240 pp., with maps and plans; _Laferrière_, _De Paris á Guatém._, 250-1; _Brouez_, _Colonie Belge_, 103-29.

[XXVIII-10] With a few exceptions, however, they were to be governed by their own laws, and were, besides, to enjoy a number of exemptions. The custom-house of Izabal was to be removed to Santo Tomás.

[XXVIII-11] The grants were repealed in April 1854. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 838-9; _Belize_, _Packet Intelligencer_, June 17, 1854; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 512-13; _Payne's Hist. Europ. Colonies_, 327; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 98.

[XXVIII-12] See laws and decrees of Feb. 29, 1868, Oct. 2, 1873, Aug. 19, 1878, June 27, 1884, and a decree of Presid. Barillas in 1885; also official correspond with the U. S. govt. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 841-5; _Id._, _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 197-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 18, 1868; _S. F. Times_, May 9, 1868; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 18, 1878; _Manero_, _Doc. Interes._, 105-6; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Cong. 42, Sess. 2, H. Ex. Doc. 1 (For. Rel.), 542-3; _El Guatemalteco_, June 30, 1884; _S. F. Bulletin_, June 15, 1885.

[XXVIII-13] Cultivating one half, and becoming a citizen, provided he had not been imprisoned meanwhile for crime. The concession involved several other facilities, and privileges. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 7-8; _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 23, 1883.

[XXVIII-14] On the ground that a large number of English-speaking negroes thus introduced could never become assimilated with their already mixed population, and would soon create a balance of power in their hands, as against the remainder of the population. The rulers saw in the plan danger to their institutions and customs. _U. S. Govt Docs._, Cong. 35, Sess. 2, Sen. Miscel. Doc., 26; _Foreign Affairs_, 1862, 881-4, 897-910; _Crosby's Statem. of Events in Cal._, MS., 95-100; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 138-46.

[XXVIII-15] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 275-6; _Squier's Hond._, 267-78; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 21, 1867; Jan. 4, 25, Nov. 14, 1868; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 17, Dec. 4, 1885.

[XXVIII-16] The government granting 500,000 square varas of land to each family, and specifying the number of families to be settled. It was to guard against improper persons being introduced, that is to say, only those of good moral character and industrious habits, professing the catholic religion, and willing to sever their connection with and throw off the protection of their former nationalities, were to be received. Upon complying with the required conditions, they would be granted the rights of citizenship. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 167-8. A number of Prussians, among whom were several families, arrived in September 1846 on the brig _Frisch_ at San Juan del Norte, desiring to settle in the country. The government tendered them facilities to settle in the interior, provided they would first relinquish their allegiance to Prussia. Only six men remained; the rest went away. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, 345-6, 367. In 1851 it was contemplated to establish, under liberal grants, a French colony in Nic.; but it was not carried out. _Dupuy_, _Nic._, 8-27.

[XXVIII-17] Congress on Feb. 13, 1862, declared the former null and void, and refused to sanction the latter. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 187; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 1, 1862.

[XXVIII-18] The deed of full ownership was to be executed six months after the immigrant's arrival. He was also exempted from import dues on everything he brought to enable him to settle. Fabens, Walker's friend, was named director of colonization. _Perez_, _Mem._, 7; _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. 5, 1856; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 106-11; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 16, 1856.

[XXVIII-19] The govt declared it null in 1866. _La Union de Nic._, May 18, 1861; _Nic._, _Decretos_, 1865-6, 74-5.

[XXVIII-20] The govt has not ceased to promote immigration. In 1873 concessions were made to the colony in Gottel Valley, and in 1878 efforts were made to bring colonists from Alsace-Loraine. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 11, 1865; Apr. 6, Aug. 24, 1867; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 13, Aug. 3, 1873; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Dec. 12, 1878.

[XXVIII-21] It has refrained from introducing the African element, though men of that race can alone be advantageously employed in her low-lying hot region. The immigration of Chinese has been prohibited as injurious. _Bates' Cent. Am._, 140; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1875, 7-8.

[XXVIII-22] With the same civil and political rights enjoyed by natives. Those desiring to retain their nationality are equally protected, and are exempted from military service and extraordinary taxation. They may freely dispose of their property, which at their death goes to their legal heir, whether by will or ab intestato. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, v. 114-16; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 44.

[XXVIII-23] They were exempted from imposts for 15 years.

[XXVIII-24] The settlement was effected where there were no ready means to procure supplies, or to dispose of products without great trouble and expense. Besides, the settlers were unfamiliar with tropical agriculture.

[XXVIII-25] Nineteen died at San José. One was killed by a tiger on the way there, and his remains, with those of his wife and child, were buried under the evergreens of San Miguel; the rest went up the Sesapiqui River, where 9 were soon after put under the sod; 9 died at Miravalles, and 4 at Alajuela.

[XXVIII-26] Concession to Sir Henry Bulwer. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 20, 1854.

[XXVIII-27] The grant covered 54 square miles in the Reventazon Valley, between Cartago and the Atlantic Ocean; the company were to settle 7,000 adult colonists within 20 years. An additional absolute concession of 32 acres for each colonist was also made. But the principal grant was to be forfeited if the main condition was not fulfilled. _Bülow_, _Nic._, 124-39; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 9, 1854; _Calvo_, _Memoria_, 8; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1851, 7-8; 1854, 8; _Id._, _Informe Gobern. y Rel._, 1853, 13-14; _Id._, _Doc. Soc. Itin._, 1-102; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 181-3, 332-5; _Marr_, _Cent. Am._, ii. 172-3, 179-81, 218-19, 228-9.

[XXVIII-28] Each family was to have 10 acres, a temporary dwelling, provisions for six months, the use of a cow and ox for one year, all for $80, reimbursable in equal annual instalments during 10 years. _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 250-6, 473-93.

[XXVIII-29] Further details on the subject may be found in _Squier's Cent. Am._, 462, 473-80; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 355-6; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 245-8, 290-6, ix.-xiv.; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 126; _Id._, _Coup d'œil Costa R._, 30-3; _Id._, _Der Freistaat Costa R._, 67-83.

[XXVIII-30] That same year the colonization of Golfo Dulce was contemplated. _El Nicaragüense_, July 19, 1856; _Lafond_, _Golfo Dulce_.

[XXVIII-31] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xv. 176-9.

[XXVIII-32] In 1878 with Barreto to introduce Canary Islanders, and in 1881 with Perera. _Voz de Méj._, Aug. 30, 1878; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 2, 1878; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, 1881, 94-8.

[XXVIII-33] Mestizo is the offspring of white and Indian; mulatto of white and black; quadroon of white and mulatto; octoroon of white and quadroon; zambo is an offspring of Indian and negro, more extended intermixtures are given elsewhere.

[XXVIII-34] For examples, in Nic., Gen. Corral, Walker's victim, Gregorio Juarez and Rosalío Cortez, ministers of state, were mulattoes. Anselmo Rivas, also a minister, resembled an Abyssinian; Fruto Chamorro, the conservative president, showed evidences of many mixtures. _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 255.

[XXVIII-35] The whites in their social intercourse maintain a certain exclusion, but in other respects equality prevails. Knowing their numerical inferiority, they have followed the policy of concession. _Squier's Travels_, i. 268.

[XXVIII-36] According to Trollope, pure Spanish blood is an exception. He thinks there must be a great admixture of Indian blood with it. The gen. color is that of a white man, but of a very swarthy one. _W. Ind. and the Sp. Main._, 275.

[XXVIII-37] _Belly_, _Nic._, ii. 132. Trollope, _West Ind._, 275-6, speaks disparagingly of Costa Rican women's personal appearance. Another Englishman treats them with more gallantry: 'Blonde hair, gray eyes, and red cheeks are rare in no class; and many a pretty face may be seen on market-day, scarcely darker or more Spanish-looking than a west-country girl's. _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, 225.

[XXVIII-38] Being a compact population, and constantly thrown into the company of one another through family or business relations, a certain fraternity became established, and the practice obtained of calling each other hermano and hermanitico at every meeting. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 52-3. Owing to that practice, the Costa Ricans have been nicknamed hermaniticos.

[XXVIII-39] That is to say, they are not given to stealing or barefaced cheating; but at a bargain they will take all the advantage they can; and if a lie will help, their conscience is elastic enough to use it. In this they are neither better nor worse than other nations claiming a high standard of honesty. Their sense of morality, in sex relations, is not what it should be. Divorces and separations are common, and concubinage quite prevalent. The superintendent of the census for 1864 recorded '1,200 separados de hecho, quienes sin equivocarme puedo decir que viven en concubinato, sin contar la frecuencia de este entre solteros y solteras.' _Costa R._, _Censo_, 1864, xxv.

[XXVIII-40] They dislike wasting their resources in wars or war material, preferring the arts of peace, and to welcome those bringing them wealth from other countries. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_, 45-6, 57.

[XXVIII-41] A large number of houses in Cent. Am. are made with tapial, which is common earth put moist into boxes of the dimensions of the walls, and beaten with mallets. Another sort of building is made by driving a number of poles into the ground at a yard or two from each other, to which long canes are tied, the space between the canes being filled up with mud, or with mud and stones. When dry, the outside is plastered over with mortar. The houses are protected by projecting roofs. There are likewise many houses built with thick adobe walls, covered with concave tiles.

[XXVIII-42] Dirty and slovenly. _Trollope's W. Ind._, 260, 268. The only articles of furniture in them are a hammock, a table, a bedstead without mattress, and two or three of the commonest wooden chairs.

[XXVIII-43] _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 367-8.

[XXVIII-44] Hence the constant use of emetics, castor oil, soda purgante or refrescante, rhubarb, quinine, sarsaparilla, and florida water, which are looked upon as universal panaceas. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 57. The large revenue derived by the government from the monopoly of the sale of spirituous liquors shows how great must be the consumption. _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, ii. 225.

[XXVIII-45] The Indians are never found in the cities. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 42-4.

[XXVIII-46] Belly speaks of the great variety and abundance of commodities exhibited in the market on such days. Cacao nibs were used as small change. The sales of one Saturday that he visited the market exceeded $100,000. _Nic._, i. 392.

[XXVIII-47] Some of these rebozos are of silk, made in San Salvador, and sold in Costa Rica at $18 or $20 apiece.

[XXVIII-48] All classes seem to be given to the vice. At the club a minister of state or some other high functionary presides over the faro-bank. _Boyle's Ride_, 226.

[XXVIII-49] There is a good deal of heresy and infidelity exhibited by the higher class; but the poor people are very devout.

[XXVIII-50] A favorite amusement of all Cent. Am. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 56-7; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 123-5. In connection with the manners and customs of Costa Ricans, see also _Frisch_, _Staaten von Mex._, 88; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 170-8, 189-92, 194.

[XXVIII-51] The native women when carrying a jar of water on their heads present the sculptural profiles of caryatides. _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 198. Beautifully moulded and unobtrusive in their manners; kind and hospitable to strangers. _Squier's Travels_, i. 284, 294.

[XXVIII-52] The women are not well educated; but they are simple and unaffected, quick of apprehension, and ready at good-natured repartee. _Id._, 269.

[XXVIII-53] Cemeteries being generally in bad condition. Squier has it that the priests have perpetuated the practice, because they derive a considerable fee from each burial. _Travels_, i. 383-4.

[XXVIII-54] 'The aristocracy keeps the shops, and there it dozes;... the lower orders keep the plaza, and there they doze.' _Boyle's Ride Across a Continent_, 102.

[XXVIII-55] Belly, _Nic._, 217, speaking of those of mixed blood, says they are the victims of traditional indolence, and of the absence of moral light rather than of actual depravity. The nearer to the pure Indian type, the more reliable and faithful they are. Stout, _Nic._, 118, says that the Nicaraguans are possessed of many virtues.

[XXVIII-56] Such offences which in other countries would be indelible blots, throwing their authors out of the company of honorable people, are after a while overlooked, and the perpetrators reinstated in society. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 275.

[XXVIII-57] The waistcoat and cravat are often dispensed with. Gloves are rarely worn. Loud colors, with large chains and trinkets are too often displayed.

[XXVIII-58] The ordinary saddle or albarda is a cheap affair and uncomfortable. There are horses of an easy amble, which are quite rapid and yet gentle. _Squier's Travels_, i. 157; ii. 91.

[XXVIII-59] _Lévy_, _Nic._, 272; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 198; _Wells' Explor._, 74-5. The people generally are clean in their persons except when travelling, or when ill, and in the latter case the touch of water is prohibited. _Squier's Travels_, 59, 153-4, 269, 271, 289.

[XXVIII-60] For a hot climate the adobe, warm in winter and cool in summer, is not to be surpassed as a dwelling. In the courts are shade trees, making the corridors upon which all the rooms open exceedingly pleasant. _Id._, i. 33-4; _Id._, _Cent. Am._, 365; _Id._, _Nic._, 649; _Stout's Nic._, 38, 62-4, 66. Doors and windows are wide. The windows have no glass, being enclosed on the outside with an iron railing constructed sometimes like a balcony. The floors are of soft brick. The roof, sloping considerably, is of concave tiles. The yard often has a flower garden, or is used for raising poultry, or maybe pigs.

[XXVIII-61] Kitchen, laundry, stables, etc., are at the end of the yard, or when possible, in a separate yard.

[XXVIII-62] In late years some foreign furniture has been imported. Most parlors are furnished as follows: Chairs with leather seats, easy chairs of the same, mostly rockers. In houses of the wealthy is a round or oval centre-table, and other tables fitting into the corners, and possibly a piano, a hanging lamp, and small mirrors, together with framed lithographs or paintings hanging on the walls. The bedrooms have similar chairs, a hammock, and a bed of rawhide extended and nailed to a wooden frame, supported by four legs. At each end rises a pillar to sustain a sort of awning which covers the whole bed, and answers also for a mosquito net. The appurtenances of the bed are a mat, sheets, and pillows. No mattresses are ever used. Some persons prefer a common cot. _Levy_, _Nic._, 262-7; _Belly_, _Nic._, 197.

[XXVIII-63] In some places coyol oil or lard in tin lamps are used, with or without a glass chimney. In Segovia the people often have no other light than that emitted by a burning piece of resinous pine.

[XXVIII-64] Quite simple. _Squier's Travels_, 120, 272-5. Breakfast invariably comprises eggs, roast meat, beans, and cheese, to which other dishes may be added or not; finishing with chocolate or coffee, the former mixed with roasted corn, and the latter with milk. The dinner consists of soup, boiled meat and greens, followed by a stew of beef, pork, fish, or fowl, with some vegetables, and dessert in the form of a variety of dulces. Rice is as necessary at dinner as beans at breakfast. Between breakfast and dinner, fruits or some cooling beverage are partaken of. Supper is a frugal meal, accompanied with chocolate, or tiste, which is the national beverage of Nic.—a mixture of cacao, and ground roasted corn, beaten in cold water with sugar. Wheaten bread is made of imported flour; but it is too expensive for general use, and is generally sweetened. The tortilla of Nic. is larger, thicker, and of coarser dough than in other parts. In many places it is considered 'artículo de lujo,' and instead of it, boiled or roasted green plantains are used. Wine is rarely brought into requisition. The only fermented liquor in common use is the aguardiente distilled from molasses, which only the lower classes drink, and not to excess. The poorer classes are very irregular in their eating, for they eat at all hours; living mostly on plantains, beans, cheese, and chicharrones and other fat portions of pork. Fruit in superabundance is eaten. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 267-72; _Stout's Nic._, 130-2; _Squier's Travels_, i. 271.

[XXVIII-65] The govt has at the capital a fine military band, which gives public concerts in the open air twice a week. The marimba and old Spanish guitar are much used. Occasionally a Spanish dramatic or zarzuela company, or a troupe of acrobats or other artists, visit the country.

[XXVIII-66] In Leon some of the élite do not frequent the place, but they, not excepting the priests, practise it in their corridors. Little parties are got up of afternoons to have chicken-fights, and at times large sums change hands.

[XXVIII-67] Govt has from time to time passed laws to prohibit gaming. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 81-3; _La Union de Nic._, March 9, 1861; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 15, 1870; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 20, 1886.

[XXVIII-68] Occasionally those who take part in the dangerous amusement receive fatal injuries. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 288-94; _Squier's Travels_, i. 331-3. The following authorities also treat of the character, and manners, and customs of the Nicaraguans. _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 80-1, 88-90, 102-25; _Heine_, _Wanderbilder_, 96-107, 187-204, passim; _De Bow's Rev._, xiii. 236-58; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 44-79, 84-5, 106-7, 241-2, 422.

[XXVIII-69] 'Whatever may be the future history of Cent. Am., its most important part, in all that requires intelligence, activity, concentration, and force, will be performed by San Salvador.' _Squier's Cent. Am._, 315.

[XXVIII-70] Aboriginal names of places have been generally preserved; and there are a few towns, exclusively inhabited by Indians, who use their own language among themselves. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 318-23.

[XXVIII-71] About 50 miles in length, and 20 to 25 miles in breadth, lying between La Libertad and Acajutla.

[XXVIII-72] Nevertheless, in business transactions he is indisposed to trust others.

[XXVIII-73] This garment is elaborately but rudely embroidered about the neck and shoulders with colored thread. It is often laid aside in the country towns. _Montgomery's Narr._, 98-9; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 321.

[XXVIII-74] _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 211-21.

[XXVIII-75] Upon the death of an infant, all rejoice, dance, and carouse, the parents also taking part, presumably on the belief that it has joined the choir of angels in heaven. If the child is a male one, they paint whiskers and a mustache on its face to make it resemble that of Jesus, and call it a jesusito.

[XXIX-1] A large number of the priests are blacks, and they regard with ill-concealed jealousy the advance of Americans in Cent. Am. Every measure of the liberals to promote foreign immigration meets with opposition on the part of the black priests.

[XXIX-2] Lying between the Rio Roman and Cape or Segovia River, an area of some 15,000 square miles.

[XXIX-3] Their ancestors had favored the French in the squabbles with England, and in 1796 were, by order of the British government, transported en masse, to the number of about 5,000, and at heavy expense, to the then deserted island of Roatan, in the bay of Honduras. They were subsequently invited by the Spanish authorities to the mainland; and aided to found settlements near the port of Trujillo. Since then they have rapidly increased, extending themselves both to the eastward and westward of that port. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 232.

[XXIX-4] The black Caribs are represented as tall and stout, and more mercurial and vehement than the pure Caribs; the latter are shorter, but powerfully built.

[XXIX-5] Leaving out the dignified and courteous members of the old and wealthy families, the people show a strange mixture of politeness, simplicity, shrewdness, and effrontery, and above all, an indescribably passive indifference of countenance. _Wells' Hond._, 202-3.

[XXIX-6] It has been said of the Cent. Am. woman, 'she nursed, made tortillas, and died.' _Id._, 215.

[XXIX-7] The women of this class lead a degraded life. If the man has large means, his mistress has menials under her; if not, she is maid of all work. _Bates' Cent. Am._, 115.

[XXIX-8] Notwithstanding this lack of education, Cent. Am. women never fail to interest the traveller by the peculiar gentleness and dignity of their demeanor. _Wells' Hond._, 227-8.

[XXIX-9] 'Sitting at the window in the afternoon and evening to recover from the fatigue of it.' _Id._, 195.

[XXIX-10] Breakfast bill of fare: boiled rice and beans, salads, bread, butter, cheese, tortillas, coffee and milk, fruit. Dinner: soup, beef, salad, a variety of vegetables. There are other dishes, such as ollas fried with garlic, piccadillo of half-cooked lights, oil, rice, and plantains, baked slices of liver, salchichas or blood puddings with plenty of garlic, catamales filled with bits of fat meat and cheese, boiled meat, broth, etc.; the repast concludes with sweetmeats and coffee. Wines and liquors are generally of poor quality. The rum of the country is the most harmless. Cooking is generally done on an adobe fogon, or range, in a small building behind the dwelling-house. _Id._, 192-4.

[XXIX-11] The couriers, wearing leathern caites, travel that distance every day, at a gait between a fast walk and a run.

[XXIX-12] Gloves fringed around the cuffs with silver, and a small riding-whip, complete the attire. To ride and dance well are parts of the Central American's education. _Id._, 201, 227.

[XXIX-13] Religious feasts are common, and the people seem to be close observants of the ceremonies, and yet cannot be said to be as much priest-ridden as other Central Americans.

[XXIX-14] Even manacled prisoners are permitted, under guard, to beg for money to relieve their condition.

[XXIX-15] Good colored servants brought in from abroad soon fall into the indolent habits of the blacks surrounding them. The stranger then finds that his man 'Bob Long has become Don Roberto Longorio.'

[XXIX-16] An official document sets the whole population on the 1st of Jan., 1886, at 1,322,544 souls. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1886, annex no. 1.

[XXIX-17] Among those traders are a number of European Spaniards, who are every year joined by some of their relations from the old country.

[XXIX-18] Of mild disposition, good natural talents, aptitude for learning, and lively imagination. Hospitality is one of their virtues. _Montgomery's Narr._, 157-60.

[XXIX-19] Belly, who wrote before the upsetting of the old conservative régime, says: 'Un population que son beau climat sollicite à l'inertie, et qui sort a peine de la plus abominable éducation religieuse et morale que jamais un peuple ait subie.' _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 153-4. Laferrière visited the country some years later, and fully confirms the above. _De Paris à Guatém._, 263.

[XXIX-20] 'Those of the better class will compare well with any people for good morals, discreet conduct, and admirable behavior.' _Min. Hudson's Rept_, in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 446.

[XXIX-21] Most of the women smoke, the elder ones cigars, and the young cigarettes. They do it, however, in a pretty and refined manner. _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 256.

[XXIX-22] 'A natural roving appetite inclines them to favor and to freely indulge such intercourse.' _Min. Hudson's Rept_, in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, i. 445.

[XXIX-23] Every Ind. village has its own authorities, most of whom are chosen from among the inhabitants.

[XXIX-24] The old system attempted to improve their condition by enacting laws believed to be conducive to that end. Witness clauses of a decree of the constituent assembly of Nov. 8, 1851, giving force to certain laws of 1839, and reviving others of the old Spanish Recop. de Indios, which were intended to prevent the maltreatment of Indians. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 246, 512-15, 846-53. On the 6th of Sept., 1879, a decree was passed, acknowledging the lamentable condition of ignorance and abjectedness the Indian had been kept in, and providing that at least a portion of them should attend the pub. schools already established in nearly all the departments. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 20, 1879.

[XXIX-25] The German writers Scherzer and Von Tempski, and the American Stephens, have occupied themselves with those people. According to them the inhabitants live isolated, and render no service to Guat. They practise a religion which is a mixture of catholic and heathen rites. The only ladinos allowed to live with them are the priest and his attendants.

[XXIX-26] The towns conquered by the Spaniards did not contain all the Lacandones. According to Pinelo, the Lacandones and Manchés were computed, in 1637, at 100,000. This was subsequent to the invasion of their territory by Quiñones. Squier, _Cent. Am._, 568-72, gives much information on the subject.

[XXIX-27] Now and then a few of them visit the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, and Campeche to procure tobacco and other things, and suddenly disappear by unknown paths, and never allow strangers to visit them.

[XXIX-28] The eastern Lacandones are tillers of the soil, hunters, and fishermen. Though occasionally baptized by catholic missionaries, and fond of saying prayers, they still adhere to their old heathen worship, and indulge in polygamy. They visit the whites and settled Indians to sell their produce. _Berendt's Explor. in Cent. Am._, in _Smithsonian Rept_, 1867, 425.

[XXIX-29] Fine and costly tortoise-shell combs were at one time much used. Women wear hats only when riding on horseback. The Guat. female is fond of embroidered articles, costly fans, rich jewelry, and every other finery. There are other women in the world like them.

[XXIX-30] It being starched into stiff folds, it supplied in some measure the place of a jacket.

[XXIX-31] Wealthy women objected to their female servants wearing other than naguas, and would have none that wore shoes.

[XXIX-32] Such places are convenient, though not agreeable, owing to the variety and abundance of fleas, jiggers, etc. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 267; _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 163-81.

[XXIX-33] In bull-fights they merely worry and torture the animal, but never kill it in presence of the public.

[XXIX-34] The vice is not prevalent among the Indians who live apart in their villages. During the bathing season in Amatitlan, for instance, the time is spent in gambling, and intrigues between the sexes, and among the visitors are always a number of veritable sharpers. The native generally bears his losses with hardly a sign of impatience. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 152-3; _Stephens' Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 261, 298-301; _Boddam Whetham_, _Across Cent. Am._, 136-8.

[XXIX-35] _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, 1876, 55-6; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880, 35-6; 1883, 59-60; 1884, 40-1; 1885, 44-6.

[XXIX-36] _Bates' Cent. Am., etc._, 110.

[XXIX-37] The fevers of the country are the intermittent, resembling the worst form of fever and ague in the western U. S.; the calentura, which is a type of the same. It is not common in the interior, and yields usually to strong cathartics, followed by quinine, which physicians are wont to administer in heavy doses. _Wells' Hond._, 547-8. Yellow fever breaks out with more or less virulence some years at the ports, particularly on the Atlantic side; it has occasionally spread to the interior. _Diario de Méx._, 539-40, 569-71; _Amér. Cent. Cie Belge_, ii. 48-52; _Disturnell's Infl. of Clim._, 252; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Gobern._, 1869, 15; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, May 9 to Aug. 8, 1868; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 47-8, and table 444 B. Measles and scarlet fever have also made their appearance epidemically, destroying many lives. _Salv._, _El Siglo_, May 28 to Aug. 14, 1851; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, July 31, 1875; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Guerra_, etc., 1867, doc. D, 31.

[XXIX-38] Nic. adopted timely precautions to escape it, by having the people vaccinated. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Aug. 2, 1862.

[XXIX-39] _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 165; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1852-3; _Id._, 1884, annex A.

[XXIX-40] Elephantiasis is not common, but occasionally found in the upland regions. Only one leg is stricken; the swelling often reaches above the knee. It is considered incurable and fatal. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Interior_, 1864, 9-10; _Nic._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1871, 7; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 21; _Wells' Hond._, 548.

[XXIX-41] _Journ. of a Voy._, in _Am. Register_, iii. 147; _Soc. Mex. Geog._, _Bol._, viii. 507; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxiii. 259-63; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1884, 99-100.

[XXIX-42] But few cases appeared in Hond. down to 1856. _Wells' Hond._, 549. A malady presenting some of the symptoms of cholera did considerable havoc in Costa R. in 1845, and it was apprehended that it might degenerate into the Asiatic type, but it fortunately did not. In the same state the government, to ward off an expected invasion of the disease on the 9th of Feb., 1849, established a strict quarantine, which was raised on the 9th of April. _Nic._, _Registro Ofic._, 107; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xi. 14-15, 20.

[XXIX-43] We have seen how previous to and during the Walker war cholera destroyed a conservative army in Managua, and later one from Costa Rica, and how for a long time it hindered military operations. _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 140; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1856, 9-11; _S. F. Herald_, Sept. 5, 1855; _Id._, _Bulletin_, June 6, 1856; _Id._, _Alta_, Oct. 2, 1857; _El Tiempo_, Aug. 14, Sept. 15, 1857; _El Estandarte Nac._, Sept. 15, 1857; _El Eco Nac._, Oct. 1, 1857.

[XXIX-44] Costa R. by timely precautions escaped the infliction. _Nic._, _Gac._, Dec. 22, 1866; March 9 to Nov. 9, 1867, passim; Jan. 25, 1868; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1867, 50; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1869, 7; _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Guerra_, etc., 1867, 8, doc. A, 23, D, 31; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 18, 1872.

[XXX-1] Thus were established in Salv. the Colegio Seminario, which subsequently assumed the name of Colegio y Universidad del Salvador, in Nic., the Universidad de Leon, and in Guatemala was founded the Academia de Estudios, with which became incorporated the old university of San Cárlos, the Colegio de Abogados, and the Protomedicato, which had existed several years of the colonial period. _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, ii. 390-1; _Squier_, _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 36-7; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 22; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 181; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 333; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 798-806; iii. 11-214. The Colegio de Abogados y Junta Académica de Jurisprudencia had been installed June 5, 1810. _Diario de Méx._, Sept. 22, 1810; _Juarros_, _Guat._, ii., p. vii.

[XXX-2] See laws, official reports, and statements of travellers. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iii. 223-6; xi. 158-215; xii. 156; _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, iii. 562-4, 640-1; Ministerial annual reports, 1848-54; _El Costaricense_, Nov. 10, 17, 1849; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 46-7; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 468-9; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 186-8, 219-29; _Costa R._, _Bol. Ofic._, Jan. 10, 1856.

[XXX-3] There was a normal school for training teachers, at San José, and institutes for secondary instruction in several cities.

[XXX-4] It was created May 3, 1843, made pontificial in 1853 by Pius IX. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, viii. 25-8, 121-82; xi. 9-12; xii. 268-75; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 412-14, 419; _El Costaricense_, Dec. 1, 1849; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 220-3.

[XXX-5] The percentage of each dept given in _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 11, 1885, suppl. See also _Annual Repts of Min. of Pub. Instruc._, 1858-83; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 359-60.

[XXX-6] Early in 1872 the university of Leon, the former Colegio Tridentino, had but three chairs and 66 alumni, and four classes of secondary instruction attended by 102 pupils; that of Granada had only a chair of law, and seven classes of secondary instruction attended by 160 pupils. In primary instruction, there were at that time only 92 schools for boys and 9 for girls, a number of them private, and one missionary in Cuapa, attended by 3,871 boys and 532 girls, out of a population of 205,500, or say 20 children out of 1,000 inhabitants; only 532 girls out of 18,000 of school age, and 4,000 boys out of 12,000, were receiving instruction. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 360-3. Teachers of pub. schools are paid $12 a month and a little extra in larger towns. That state of things was due mainly to the neglect of parents. The funds appropriated for education were constantly tampered with and defrauded; this was acknowledged by the minister of instruction. There were no schools for adults, no professional institutes. As a rule, wealthy families sent their sons to be educated abroad, or at least in Guat. There was in 1873 no scientific course provided with the requisite materials, no laboratories, no museum, no public or private collections, no observatory, nothing; not even a small library. The conclusion to be drawn from the above is that the general intellectual level could not be high.

[XXX-7] 'Fuera de la multitud de causas dependientes del carácter, y del estado social de nuestros pueblos ... no tenemos nuestros idóneos suficientes.' _Mensaje_, in _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 4, 1885.

[XXX-8] The newspapers often contain fine poetical compositions by native writers.

[XXX-9] The following authorities contain further details: The official reports of ministers from 1850 to the present time; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, from 1851 down; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 14, 1848; March 31, 1849; and for years 1862 to 1874 passim, and others.

[XXX-10] Even in the dark days, when her affairs were in the hands of despotic rulers, education was not neglected as much as might have been expected.

[XXX-11] _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 52-3, 270.

[XXX-12] The Am. min., Jan. 8, 1872, says: 'Primary instruction is expanding yearly in its numbers and area.' Min. Biddle's Desp., in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 511-12.

[XXX-13] At San Salvador, Santa Ana, and San Miguel.

[XXX-14] In 1875 there were 333 primary schools for boys, 50 for girls, 23 mixed, 29 high schools, one normal for males and one for females, one telegraphic, one lithographic, and one academy of fine arts. The appropriations for teachers in 1874 were nearly $69,000. It must be also remarked that many are teaching without compensation to benefit their country. Secondary and higher instruction are free. The primary is uniform, gratuitous, and obligatory. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 202, 206, 282.

[XXX-15] The press, though not fully developed, has, nevertheless, given at times evidences of ability, when not hampered by restrictions on the part of would-be despotic rulers. _Salv._, _Gac._, Dec. 21, 1849; Dec. 5, 1877; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 2, 1875, to Oct. 23, 1879, passim; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 4, May 10, 1875; Sept. 18, 1882; Sept. 9 and 18, 1885.

[XXX-16] Montúfar gives the causes, speaking on the subject for 1838. _Resúmen Hist._, iii. 278-9.

[XXX-17] In chemistry, engineering, the higher mathematics, they are deficient, and cannot compete with the universities of Nic., Salv., or Guat. They are, in fact, but little in advance of the common schools in the U. S. Still, they give promise of greater usefulness and advancement in the future. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 267-8.

[XXX-18] Hond. has furnished more than her quota of the distinguished men of Cent. Am.; among them soldiers, statesmen, and orators. _Wells' Hond._, 549.

[XXX-19] Such as exist with only a feeble life are generally engaged in acrimonious political wranglings.

[XXX-20] President Soto in his message of 1877 enumerates the improvements made, but confesses that they do not satisfy his aspirations. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, June 19, 20, 1877.

[XXX-21] In 1881 about $64,000, and in 1882 nearly $74,000, were expended for public instruction. A number of teachers arrived early in 1883 from Europe, as also a complete outfit for a scientific college. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883.

[XXX-22] At the end of 1882 there were 811 primary schools; namely, 528 elementary for boys and 226 for girls, 5 complementary for boys, 3 for girls; one Sunday school for working-women, and 48 night schools for artisans, etc. This was an increase of 26 over 1881. The attendance was of 26,773 boys and 10,696 girls, an increase of 2,166 of both sexes over 1881. Early in 1884, the primary schools were 844, including 47 night schools for men, one for women, one Sunday school for women, and 16 mixed schools. The attendance had also greatly increased. The buildings confiscated from the church in 1872 were applied to education. There were likewise several private and municipal schools. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876, 33-8; _B. Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 39; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 44, Sess. I, i. pt i. 137-8, 148, 175; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 81-192, passim; _Belly_, _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 131-4; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 18, Oct. 7, Nov. 8, 1876; Feb. 11 to Nov. 27, 1877, passim; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 15, 1878; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Instruc. Púb._, 1880-4; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 57, 227; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 10, 1884; _Batres_, _Sketch of Guat._, 19-20, 40-72, passim; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 26, Feb. 2, Dec. 24, 1884; _Conkling's Guide_, 337, 341.

[XXX-23] _Pan. Ev'g Telegram_, May 26, 1886.

[XXX-24] The academy has pupils who pay their own expenses, and are not obliged to join the military service; and others placed therein by the govt, and intended to be commissioned as officers of the army. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 11, 1877; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Guerra_, 1882-4; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 692-700; _Id._, _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 141-54; ii. 125-8; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 19, 1877; July 5, 1878.

[XXX-25] Besides having a school of drawing, painting, and modelling, and a night-school for artisans, it is provided with a cabinet of physics, with the view of establishing a school of chemistry applicable to industry. The museum installed in 1866 is every day enriched with new acquisitions.

[XXX-26] 1872-4, paid by municipalities, $16,051; by national govt, $112,048; 1879-83, paid by municipalities, to whom had been ceded the urban tax, $36,242; by the national treasury, $1,773,899. It seems that the total amount paid for pub. instruction from 1860 to 1870 had not much exceeded $60,000. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885, annex 12, table 16.

[XXX-27] Under the former régime books objectionable to the church, for sustaining liberal ideas on social or religious topics, were placed, by a decree of the national assembly of Oct. 16, 1841, in the list of the forbidden; and the church was authorized to proceed against them. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 286-7.

[XXX-28] This was made evident in several acts. The clergy were daily abused; the liberal leaders constantly inveighing against their fanaticism and intolerance, and ridiculing many things which the populace looked upon as sacred. Friars were held up in a multitude of anecdotes, and otherwise, as so many destructive insects. _El Liberal_, nos. 28-30, 41, 45, 49. The arts and objects of priestcraft were exposed to ridicule, contempt, and reprobation. A play called 'La Inquisicion por dentro' had a great run, and brought that institution into effectual and lasting odium. _Squier's Travels Cent. Am._, i. 372. The inquisition of Mex. had had jurisdiction over Cent. Am. After its final abolishment, the king of Spain decreed, March 9, 1820, that all cases pending before its courts should be referred to the ordinaries for determination. The inquisitors failed to obey, and removed from the archives of Guat. all the cases pending there, alleging complicity on the part of the archbishop. The matter was laid before the córtes by Deputy Mendez of Salv. May 14, 1821. _Dispos. Var._, iii. 152; _Fernando VII._, _Decretos_, 285-6; _Córtes_, _Diario_, xviii. 1821, May 14, 6.

[XXX-29] One on pastorals; another required the archbishop's appointments of parish priests to be previously submitted for confirmation to the chief of the state. _La Tertulia Patriótica_, no. 4. By law of Nov. 8, 1824, the clergy were deprived of their privilege to import goods free of duties; another of June 9, 1826, reduced the tithes to one half. _El Liberal_, no. 36. Others of May 3, and June 9, 1826, gave natural children the right to inherit either extestamento or abintestato, and those of ordained priests and professed nuns were placed in the same category; one forbidding, Sept. 1, 1826, the prelates of religious orders to recognize obedience to or hold relations with their respective generals in Spain; and finally, the famous decrees of June 10 and July 20, 1826, forbidding the admission into convents or nunneries of persons under 23 years, or to profession any under 25. _Marure_, _Bosq. Rev. Cent. Am._, i. 244-6; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1856; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 265-7.

[XXX-30] Such writings appeared in _El Indicador_, nos. 90, 94, 95, 149, 152.

[XXX-31] This was almost unanimously sanctioned by the people, and at once carried into effect. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 373; ii. 373-80; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 273; _Id._, _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, i. 156-8; _Squier_, _Compend. Hist. Cent. Am._, 61; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 370-1; ii. 390-4; _Thompson's Guat._, 145-50; _Stout's Nic._, 149-51; _Crowe's Gospel_, 123-32, 135; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 39; _Cal. Overland Monthly_, xiv. 160-1; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 178, 181, 186; _Nic._, _El Porvenir_, Oct. 22, 1871; Feb. 16, 1873.

[XXX-32] Under this law Fred. Crowe, an English protestant missionary, and the author of the _Gospel in Central America_, resided several years in Guat., till he was driven away by the serviles.

[XXX-33] Pursuant to which Father Delgado was chosen and acted as bishop of San Salvador, though without confirmation by the pope, for about four years. He was never confirmed, but retained as vicar-general, under the archb. of Guat. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 13-17; _Marure_, _Bosq Hist. Rev. Cent. Am._, 196-9, and Docs, xviii.-xix., xxx.-xxxii.; _Id._, _Efem._, 14; _Mem., Hist. Rev. Cent. Am._, 32-7; _Cabildo_, _Ecles. Informe_, 54-5; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 370-1; _Niles' Reg._, xxix. 39.

[XXX-34] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, iii. 273, 294-324; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 522-4; iv. 146, 205-7, 552; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 91, 105-7, 110-11; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 515-16; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 162-3.

[XXX-35] Infidelity spread extensively among the mestizos, and the white people also, so that the requirements of the church became constantly neglected. Obnoxious books were in the hands of all classes. Some of the more candid priests avowed deistical and atheistical notions. _Crowe's Gospel_, 256-7.

[XXX-36] A large number were charged with libidinous practices; even unnatural crimes were among the number. Excesses in eating and drinking, gambling, rioting, and bad language were quite common with them. Exorbitant fees, and extorting personal services, and grinding the poor were of daily occurrence. And yet the offenders were not punished, nor even suspended.

[XXX-37] At Habana, Cuba, whose diocese he had charge of for many years, never resigning the see of Guatemala, though he repeatedly refused to return thereto. His remains were taken there, however, by the Spanish war schooner _Polka_, and interred in Santa Teresa church, June 1846, with the utmost pomp of church and state. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 12-13, 19-25.

[XXX-38] The Marquis José de Aycinena, who had expected the appointment, was balked in his ambition, but was made bishop of Trajanapolis in part. infid.; he died Feb. 17, 1865. A few months earlier, Aug. 23, 1864, occurred the death of another prelate, a native of Guat., named José M. Barrutia y Cróquer, bishop of Camaco in part. infid. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 24, 1864; March 18, 1865. Antonio Larrazábal, who had also been made a bishop in part. infid., had died Dec. 2, 1853. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 7, 1854; _Belly_, _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 136-7.

[XXX-39] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 16, 1867; _Pan. Mercantile Chronicle_, Feb. 17, 1867.

[XXX-40] Piñol died at Habana, June 24, 1881; Urruela's demise was on June 8, 1873, at Leon. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, June 14, 1873; _Voz de Méj._, July 28, 1881.

[XXX-41] In 1872 the Capuchin friars of La Antigua, who were natives of Spain, were sent out of the country; all convents of friars were closed, and the property of the several orders was confiscated. In 1873 the consolidation of mortmain property, proceeding from pious endowments, capellanías, and legacies to the church and benevolent establishments, was decreed. In 1874 nunneries were closed, and the confiscation of their estates went on. The government agreed to allow pensions to the nuns and native friars for their support. At the same time all communities of religions of either sex under any form whatever were forbidden forever. The fuero eclesiástico was abolished, and the most unlimited freedom of religion proclaimed. Civil marriage was declared legal, and where the parties desired a religious ceremony the former must precede it. Ecclesiastics were forbidden to appear with frocks or other official insignia in public out of the church. Cemeteries were secularized. _Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ._, i. 159-61, 192-6; ii. 13-14, 23-7, 58, 64-5, 205; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Apr. 20, 27, 1873; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 2, i. 99-101, 106, 147; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 23, 1873; _Salv._, _Diario_, Dec. 21, 1878; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880, 2-5; 1882, 11-12.

[XXX-42] In 1883 a protestant chapel was established in the capital, in charge of Rev. Mr Hill. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883.

[XXX-43] There had been before him, from 1539 to 1810, twenty bishops, the immediate predecessor of Barranco being Manuel Julian Rodriguez, who ruled till 1810. Bernardo Pavon was appointed but died before his consecration. _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. 181; _Mex._, _Compend. Concilio III. en Mex._, 418-21; _Morelli_, _Fast. Nov. Orb._, 107.

[XXX-44] _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Dec. 1, 1849; _Guat._, _Gac._, Nov. 30, 1849.

[XXX-45] Formerly there were convents of Franciscan, Merced, and Carmelite orders.

[XXX-46] The church has no property whatever; the priests are generally poor, and entirely dependent on fees, and on contributions of the devout for festivals, etc.

[XXX-47] _Wells' Hond._, 551-2, 555; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 305.

[XXX-48] The papal bull to erect the diocese of San Salvador is dated 4th day of the Kalends of Oct., 1842. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 171-85.

[XXX-49] He was a strong, finely formed, and pretentious individual; a count palatine, and attendant on the pontifical throne, one who had a right to be preceded by a tintinnabulum. He was not like the poor, meek man who was born in a stable at Bethlehem.

[XXX-50] _Id._, _Reseña Hist._, v. 649, 661-2; _Salv._, _Gac._, July 29, 1853; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, Nov. 4, 1875; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, May 23, 1851.

[XXX-51] _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 8, 13, 1875.

[XXX-52] The most noted were: Friar Benito de Baldonado, 1620-9, who founded two hospitals; he died in Leon; Diego Morsillo Rubio de Auñon, 1704-9, who being afterward transferred to La Paz, was twice viceroy and captain-general of Peru; Isidro Marin de Bullon y Figueroa, 1746-8, who began the construction of the cathedral of Leon, and died in Guatemala; Estévan Lorenzo de Tristan, 1775-83; in 1780 he finished and inaugurated the cathedral, and it is added that through his exertions Cent. Am. obtained the privilege of free trade; José Antonio de la Huerta Casso, 1795-1804, notable for his efforts in developing education. Montúfar makes severe comments on some of the prelates. _Reseña Hist._, iv. 136-9. Nicolás García Jerez, a Dominican, became bishop in 1810, and figured prominently in the revolutionary period. He had to emigrate in 1824 to Guatemala, where he died in 1825. Vicar Cuadra was guardian till 1851, when under a reconstruction of the diocese, Costa R. having been detached, Jorge Viteri y Ungo was transferred to it from Salvador. He died July 25, 1853. The see had no bishop till the appointment of Bernardo Piñol y Aycinena. It took place in Nov. 1855, and the papal bulls reached Granada in 1856, where, owing to Walker's war, they were kept in the parish church, and finally destroyed with the city. Piñol was consecrated in Guat. July 17, 1859, and performed his functions till Sept. 14, 1868, when he departed for Guat. as archb. During his rule Manuel Ulloa was made bishop of Lemira, in part. infid., and coadjutor; he was made bishop of Nic. in 1871, and resigned the office in 1883. _El Costaricense_, Nov. 10, 1849; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, March 8, 1850; Aug. 12, 1853; _Pio IX._, _Carta_; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, i. 391; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Feb. 6, March 7, June 20, Dec. 12, 1850; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 13, Sept. 3, 1853, Dec. 16, 1865; Jan. 6, Apr. 21, 1866; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 10, 1872; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Apr. 12, 1862; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 162; 1863, 215; 1865, 136; _El Rol_, March 15, 1855; _Decreto sobre la bula de S. S._; _Perez_, _Mem. Rev. Nic._, i. 8-9; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Feb. 25, 1872; _Levy_, _Nic._, 62-6; _Pan. Star and Herald_, July 2, 1883.

[XXX-53] In 1871 a number of jesuits expelled from Guat. managed to get into the country, and were allowed to remain several years, but were finally sent away. Details have been given in a former chapter. In 1872 several friars expelled from other parts tried to enter the country, but were not permitted to stay. _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 1, 1871, to Feb. 16, 1873, passim; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, June 18, 1872; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1875, 23-4; 1883, 25-6, annex B, 27-8, F, 1-4.

[XXX-54] For the seminary $2,000; the bishop $3,000; the chapter and other ecclesiastics $4,158; music $1,000; other expenses about $4,000. The chapter consists of dean, archdeacon, chancellor, three canons, and six or seven other officials. The church gets the first-fruits from farmers. Tithes have been abolished since 1862. 300 or 400 priests without parishes depend entirely on fees. The cathedral has no valuables, having been sacked several times. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 6, 1856; March 1, 1862; _Union_, _Nic._, March 2, 1861; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, 261-5; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 6, 1870; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 383-4.

[XXX-55] See treaty with France of Apr. 11, 1859.

[XXX-56] Appointments of parish priests, and publications of papal bulls or briefs, and decrees of ecclesiastical councils must first obtain an exequatur from the president of the republic. Parish priests before assuming their offices must take the oath to support the constitution, and to do no act against the nation's independence or the public peace. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1869, 13-16; 1871, 9-10; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1871, 7-10, 25-8; _Id._, _Gaceta_, May 30, 1868; Oct. 29, Nov. 5, 1870.

[XXX-57] Anselmo Llorente y Lafuente was the first called to fill the position of bishop of San José de Costa Rica, April 10, 1851. He had not been long in office when he tried to collect tithes on coffee, but failed, and his course greatly displeased the people and lowered their regard for the church. The matter was finally settled by a concordat entered into at Rome, Oct. 2, 1852, and tithes were declared abolished. He died in 1872; and the government soon after proposed a successor, who was not approved of by the Roman curia. Finally, Oct. 11, 1879, the government nominated Bernard August Thiel, a native of Germany, and professor of the university of Costa Rica, for the office, and he was confirmed by the pope Feb. 27, 1880. During the vacancy the see was under the guardianship of the bishop of Abydos, in part. infid. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, v. 155-60; _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Rev. Cent. Am._, 208; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 247-9; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1851, 1-2, 10-12; 1854, 11-12; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1872, 19-20; 1873, 19; 1874, 12; 1880, 19-20; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 63, 111-12; _El Siglo_, July 18, 1851.

[XXX-58] For the bishop $3,000, the ecclesiastical chapter $3,000, and the Colegio Tridentino $3,000. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 207; _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1859, 11; _Id._, _Gac. Gob._, July 16, 23, 30, 1853; _Hond._, _Gac. Ofic._, Jan. 24, 1853, suppl.; _Salv._, _Gac._, Aug. 12, 1853; _Guat._, _Gac._, Sept. 16, Oct. 14, 1853; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 49-50.

[XXX-59] _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, 31.

[XXX-60] The clergy have, indeed, lost much of their influence. The mode of life of the majority of them cannot inspire respect. Letter from Costa R. by a British consul, quoted in _Squier's Cent. Am._, 468-9; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 360. Laferrière, writing for 1873, gives a discreditable picture of the church, its priests and feasts. _De Paris à Guatém._, 56.

[XXX-61] There is a protestant church and cemetery in San José. The government cordially upholds the liberal laws on the subject of religion. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, 32.

[XXX-62] His salary was also suspended. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1885, 17.

[XXX-63] Of whom 39 received their offices during the colonial period, the last one being Friar Higinio Duran, of the order of Mercy and a native of Lima. He took possession in 1818, and died in Chepo on the 22d of Oct., 1823. This bishop was one of the signers of the declaration of independ. of the Isthmus in 1821. His successors were Manuel Vasquez, Juan J. Cabarcas Gonzalez, Juan F. del R. Manfiedo y Ballestas, Friar Eduardo Vasquez, who died in Rome, Jan. 2, 1870, Ignacio Antonio Parra, who took possession June 3, 1871. _Hernaez_, _Extracto del Libro de la Comp. de Jesus_, in _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít de Pan._, MS., 34-5; _Pan._, _Col. Docs._, MS., nos. 125-6; _Pan. Docs._; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iv. 344; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 1, 1862; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 4, 1869; _Id._, _Gaceta_, June 6, 1871. Parra held the office only a few years, and was succeeded by Telésforo Paúl, who occupied it till Dec. 1884, when he repaired to Bogotá, his native city, to fill that archepiscopal see. The assembly of the state on the 22d of Dec., 1884, adopted a resolution recognizing his efforts to promote harmony, and appointed a committee to escort him as far as Barranquilla. _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 1, 1885; _El Cronista_ (Pan.), Jan. 3, 1885.

[XXX-64] _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 242. The congress of Nueva Granada in 1837 fixed the bishop's salary at $4,000. _N. Granada_, _Registro Ofic._, 21.

[XXX-65] Originally there were 11 churches, 4 convents of friars, one nunnery, a cathedral, and one ecclesiastical college established by the government of Old Colombia under a rector, vice-rector, and assistant, with a sufficient revenue. A law of New Granada provided for the sale at auction of all property that had formerly belonged to the jesuits not required for national use. _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, Aug. 5, 1852. Stories are related of buried treasures having been disinterred in after years by jesuit agents, from the ground of their old house, and from the orchard of T. M. Feuillet. These stories bear some semblance of truth. See Memoranda, in _Maldonado_, _Apuntes_, MS., 36 et seq.

[XXX-66] The bishops in the exercise of their functions, and administration of church property, had the assistance of the civil authorities, who carried out their orders without questioning them.

[XXX-67] Every New Granadan or Colombian assigned, to the prejudice of his heirs, a certain amount to the church for masses and other supposed benefits it could do to his soul. Successive descendants followed the example. The priests often threatened the dying with the penalties of hell if they did not purchase their salvation. Clerical intolerance knew no limits.

[XXX-68] Excepting only cathedrals, the chief church of each parish, and the sacred vessels and ornaments. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 3-5, 15, 17.

[XXX-69] The bishop of Panamá left, and his priests followed his example one by one. Panamá was thus left without a priest; the dead had to be buried without the offices of a minister; for more than a year the churches had no bell-tolling or officiating minister. An English catholic missionary, passing to San Francisco, ventured to say mass and baptize in private. He was arrested, though finally allowed to embark. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 238-43.

[XXX-70] The laws were modified in May 1864. The govt reserved the right of inspection, but made the oath of submission obligatory on the chief of the church having authority as such. Bulls or orders emanating from any one residing in a foreign country could not be published or enforced without first obtaining permission from the national executive. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Jan. 16, 1868.

[XXX-71] Under Mosquera's decrees when he was dictator, the few nuns—four aged and one young—occupying the convent of La Concepcion in Panamá were made to abandon it in Sept. 1862. _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Oct. 4, 1862. These women would not forsake the cloister, but sought an asylum in Lima. With tearful eyes they exiled themselves from their home, and from friends, many of whom had received their education from them. Their departure caused no little feeling in the pub. heart. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 18.

[XXX-72] Dec. 15, 1868, a charter was granted by the state govt to a protestant church association. _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 18, 1869.

[XXXI-1] Some of the alcaldes mayores had in 1810 only $300 allowed them yearly, others $500, and the highest paid received $1,200. The system did not recommend itself. _Guat._, _Apunt._, 65-71. There was also a consulado or tribunal of commerce established in Guat. April 30, 1794. _Juarros' Stat. and Comm. Hist. Guat._, 142-3.

[XXXI-2] Royal decree of July 25, 1814. _Fernando VII._, Dec., 12.

[XXXI-3] The king ratified it June 4, 1820. The Indians were benefited thereby, for even priests were strictly forbidden to flog them. _Id._, 301-2.

[XXXI-4] Those desirous of studying the judiciary of Guat. as it existed down to 1872 may find information in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 241-2, 603-4; ii. 21-45, 51-69; iii. 215-29, 365-6; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 242-3; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 336-41; _Guat._, _Boletin Ofic._, 132-7.

[XXXI-5] The first complete reorganization was by the law of May 22, 1872. The creation of the superior court at Quezaltenango was by law of July 29, 1872. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ._, i. 88-9, 114-15. On the 15th of Oct., 1876, a supreme court, composed of a president and four magistrados, was established, because the organization of the superior courts hindered the prompt administration of justice. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 13, 14, 1876. Subsequently, there was an increase in the number of justices, the court was divided into five sections or chambers, of which the fifth was suppressed March 29, 1882.

[XXXI-6] Trial by jury had been decreed, on the promulgation of the Livingston code in Jan. 1837, under the law of Aug. 27, 1836. It was suspended by decree of March 13, 1838, on the ground of its impracticability in a country so unprepared for it as Guat. then was. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, ii. 289-343; iii. 63-84; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 14, 1875; _Pineda de Mont_, _Nota_, in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 464; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 192; _Squier's Trav. Cent. Am._, ii. 419, 426.

[XXXI-7] In consequence 350 reformatory articles were adopted in connection with the civil code, and the reforms to the code of procedure in civil cases were almost as extensive; a few were also made to the commercial; and a considerable number to the penal code, and to that of procedure in criminal causes. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern., etc._, 1880-3.

[XXXI-8] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880, 38-9, 65-6, 1885, 53, and annex 13.

[XXXI-9] During 1881 the supreme court, issued 1,995 sentences in criminal cases, only two of them were capital, one of which was commuted; in 1882, 1,467; 1883, 1,726; 1884, 2,489 offences were classified as crimes, and 10,130 as mere misdemeanors; of the former 1,321, and of the latter 1,460, were acquitted; 1,168 of the former and 8,670 of the latter were sentenced, none to death, and only two to extraordinary imprisonment.

[XXXI-10] It was notorious that escaped criminals freely moved, menacing the lives of those who had had any agency in their arrest. The facility for evading the action of the law was such that criminals did not fear it. _Hond._, _Mem. Ministro Gen._, 1852, 9-10.

[XXXI-11] A robber and murderer named Umansor, who effected his escape from the fort at Omoa, survived under 400 blows on two occasions; but 200 blows on the bare back generally ended the sufferings of the culprit when applied with that design. _Wells' Hond._, 229-30.

[XXXI-12] _Presid. Soto_, _Mensaje_, May 27, 1877.

[XXXI-13] _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1875; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, March 17, 1875.

[XXXI-14] Trial by jury in criminal cases was first established in Aug. 1832, but being found impracticable, owing to the ignorance of the masses, it was abolished. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 186. The system was restored by the constitution of 1872. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 17, 1875.

[XXXI-15] The supreme court is composed of eleven magistrados, one of whom is the president. In San Salv. there are two chambers of 2d resort with two justices in each, and one of 3d resort composed of the president and the two senior justices. A majority of the magistrados constitutes the full supreme court. There is also a chamber of 2d instance in San Miguel, and another in Santa Ana. Seven suplentes or substitutes fill temporary absences of the incumbents, three for the capital, and two for each of the others. No magistrado, or judge of a court of first resort, can hold office in the executive or legislative departments of the government. The supreme court-martial was abolished by law of Aug. 31, 1875. Military courts of first instance existing in the depts were suppressed, excepting that in the capital, and their functions devolved on the comandantes. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Sept. 3d-8th; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Sept. 13, 1876.

[XXXI-16] _Presid. Zaldívar_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 14, 1878.

[XXXI-17] The 1st chamber of 2d instance in the capital, 1,736; the 2d, 1,889; that of Santa Ana, 2,323; and the one at San Miguel, 1,370. _Salv._, _Mem. Sec. Rel. Just., etc._, 1879; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, June 26, 28, July 4, 13, 1878.

[XXXI-18] The Livingston code of Louisiana with trial by jury was established in 1836, but suspended in 1845. _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 192; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 22. The organic law of the courts is dated July 4, 1857, and underwent modifications Sept. 3, 1858. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 167-98; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1859, ii. 27-8; _Informe_, _Min. Gobern._, 1859.

[XXXI-19] The former has jurisdiction over the depts of Leon, Chinandega, and Segovia; and the latter over those of Granada, Rivas, Chontales, and Matagalpa. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 344.

[XXXI-20] There is in each department or district a court for civil and criminal affairs; but in largely populated departments there is also a court of criminal jurisdiction. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 217, 244-316. There should also be a juez de agricultura, and a juez de la mesta, under existing laws. Cases involving only $100 are acted upon verbally; all others in writing.

[XXXI-21] _Nic._, _Informe Min. Fomento_, 1869; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1871, 123-33; _Id._, _Gaceta_, March 18, Apr. 1, 22, June 3, 1871; _El Porvenir de Nic._, Oct. 22, 1871; Feb. 25, 1872; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1872; _Id._, _Informe Min. Gobern._, 1875.

[XXXI-22] 'Los pleitos, por decirlo así, se eternizan, y es muy raro ver uno que llegue á concluirse.' _Mensaje del Presid._, Marzo 1871.

[XXXI-23] _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Oct. 16, 1873.

[XXXI-24] _Marure_, _Efem._, 49. It has been asserted that as a rule offenders are not vigorously prosecuted, and for various reasons often go unpunished.

[XXXI-25] _Ley de presidios_, Aug. 18, 1858; _Ley de Palos_, Sept. 1, 1858. Prisoners sentenced to hard labor serve out their terms on the works in forts San Juan and San Cárlos, by president's order of Oct. 6, 1880. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1883, 22-3, and annex B, 27.

[XXXI-26] Of which 578 resulted in conviction; 244 were dismissed; and 1,087 were pending. _Id._, annex G, no. vi.

[XXXI-27] _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iii.-xxii., passim; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Gobern._, 1857 and 1859; _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, v. 344, 348.

[XXXI-28] The yearly salaries are: chief president, $2,160; the other presidents, $2,040 each; justices, $1,800 each; secretary, $1,200. The yearly appropriation for the supreme court is nearly $43,000. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1884, annex D.

[XXXI-29] Suits for sums not exceeding $100 and trivial offences are attended to by alcaldes and jueces de paz. There is also a special court of hacienda to adjudicate upon claims of the treasury against private parties, and for the trial of offences against the revenue, including also the counterfeiting of coin. The expense of this court is nearly $700 per month. In Limon there is an alcalde who acts as judge. The civil and criminal judges of San José receive $105 a month each; the other judges, $125; the alcalde at Limon, $50. The yearly expenditure of the judiciary, including the supreme court, fiscal agencies, casa de reclusion $720; presidio de San Lúcas $11,560; and contingents for the year 1884 was a little over $90,100. In former years, when the ecclesiastic and military fueros were recognized, each had its own courts, the system being an inheritance from the old Spanish rule. It has been abolished.

[XXXI-30] _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Int._, 1860 and 1865.

[XXXI-31] This was recognized by the min. of justice in his report of May 15, 1884. _Costa R._, _Mem. Soc. Just. y Gracia_, 1884, 29.

[XXXI-32] The commissions began their labors at once, but had not completed them in July 1885. _Costa R._, _Mem. Just. y Gracia_, 1872-85.

[XXXI-33] A law of July 10, 1873, introduced the jury system in criminal causes. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 52-69; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Just._, 1873, 23-4; 1876, 19-20.

[XXXI-34] The prison on Coco was first decreed July 3, 1874, but the law not having been carried out, it was reiterated Jan. 21, 1878. The regulation of Feb. 25, 1874, for San Lúcas placed it under the control of the governor of the comarca of Puntarenas. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xxii. 35-48, 89-90; _Id._, _Inf. Sec. Gobern._, 1874, 28; 1879, 16-18; _Id._, _Col. Dispos. Leg._, 1878, 92-3.

[XXXI-35] Composed of three justices, whose terms of office are of four years. There are substitutes to fill temporary vacancies.

[XXXI-36] The alcaldes and regidores have charge of the preservation of order in their respective districts, and initiate proceedings for offences against the laws, and after the investigation has been completed, pass the papers to the proper court. These officials also have jurisdiction over civil causes not exceeding $200 in value. When the claim does not exceed $25, the court's decision is final. If it does, the court hears the parties, receives the testimony of witnesses, and renders a decision, which may be appealed from to the superior court. Judges and alcaldes in former years were greatly respected by the people, and their decrees obeyed without demur. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít. Pan._, MS., 2, 5.

[XXXI-37] Other penalties: imprisonment, banishment, deprivation or suspension of political rights, surveillance of the authorities, fines, etc. Credits are allowed prisoners for good behavior. Trial by jury in criminal cases exists. A jury of seven meet at the chief town, hear the evidence, and by an absolute majority convict, qualifying the offence, or acquit. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 30, to Sept. 24, 1863; Feb. 19, 1880; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 18, 1865.

[XXXI-38] The civil, penal, procedure, military, and commercial codes. _Id._, Sept. 5, 1868; _Id._, _Inf. Mem. Sec. Est._, 1872, 13; 1877, 33.

[XXXI-39] He drew the conclusion that the jury system, in the state of ignorance so general among the masses, instead of being a safeguard for society served to afford impunity to criminals. _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Jen. Est._, 1876, 19-22; 1879, 102-3.

[XXXI-40] _Pan._, _Ley._, 1879-80, 52-5.

[XXXI-41] _Pan._, _Informe Gobernador_, 17-19.

[XXXI-42] A decree of Dec. 23, 1879, fixed the force at 140 with the officers; a second of March 1, 1880, ordered the organization of the battalion Ancon no. 1 with 95 to 125; another of Feb. 22, 1881, reduced it to 75. The pay of the rank and file was fixed in 1880 as follows: 1st sergt, $27; 2d sergt, $24; 1st corporal, $21; 2d corp., $18; private, $15. No rations allowed. _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 8, March 21, May 9, June 24, 27, 1880; Sept. 15, 25, 1881. The force was greatly augmented during the disturbances of 1885. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 22, 1885.

[XXXI-43] A law of 1881 established the ranks of gen.-in-chief, gen. of division, gen. of brigade, colonel, lieut-col, major, capt., lieut, and sub-lieut. On the 1st of Dec., 1877, there were 8 generals, 43 colonels, lieut-col, and majors, and 254 from captains down. The appropriations for 1877 and 1878 were $64,000 each, of which $45,000 was for pay. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Jen. Est._, 1878, p. xxvii.-xxxii.; _Id._, _Id._, _Hacienda_, 1878, annex X.

[XXXI-44] Laferrière, writing for 1873, says that the regulars did not count for much as to numbers, though the country had been of late years under a military gov. _De Paris à Guatém._, 55-6.

[XXXI-45] _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883 and 1884.

[XXXI-46] There were garrisons in Managua, Granada, Leon, Corinto, San Cárlos, Castillo Viejo, and Matagalpa, aggregating with the officers 506 men. The revenue guards and police number about 460. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883. The battalions stationed at Managua, the capital, bears the name of guardia de los supremos poderes, being the guard of honor of congress or the executive. The officers and soldiers are well dressed. The other troops merely get a pair of pants and a shirt. The bright trimmings distinguish them from civilians. As to pay, the general of division in active service receives $5 per day; the private only 30 cts per day and no rations. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 343-4.

[XXXI-47] In 1882 the monthly appropriation for pensions was $1,188. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Guer._, 1883.

[XXXI-48] The army might be raised to 30,000 or 40,000 men. _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 2, 1886. The practice has been to send out press-gangs, to seize men and force them into the ranks, thus forming as motley a set as can well be imagined; some have shirts, some jackets, and others neither. Most of them probably have breeches, but exceedingly short at the legs. _Wells' Hond._, 238-40; Laferrière, _De Paris à Guatém._, 100-1; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 183-4.

[XXXI-49] The eastern, furnished by the departments of San Miguel, Usulutan, La Union, and Gotera; the central, by San Vicente, Cabañas, Cuscatlan, and Chalatenango; the western, by Santa Ana, Sonsonat, and Ahuachapan; and the reserve, by San Salvador, La Paz, and La Libertad. Each division was formed with four brigades, and another of artillery; each brigade to have 1,000 men in two battalions; five companies of 100 men to form a battalion. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 6, May 16, July 9, 10, 1879.

[XXXI-50] Divisions to be commanded by generals of division, brigades by generals of brigade; battalions to have colonels and lieut-colonels; and each company a capt., 1st lieut, 2d lieut, and 2 sub-lieuts, 5 sergeants, and 8 corporals. Brevets were recognized in all grades of commissioned officers, under an executive decree of 1875. _Id._, Aug. 13, 1875.

[XXXI-51] The pay of a gen. of div. was $150 per month, of a gen. of brig. $125, col $100, lieut-col $90, capt. $57, lieut $45, sub-lieut $37.50, serg. $15, corporals, $13⅛, and private $11.25. The new organization given the army at that time was said to secure a saving of $200,000 a year. _Salv._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 7, 11, 1876.

[XXXI-52] The scale was fixed in March 1877, from $50 for a general of division down to $10 for a sub-lieut, sergeants $7 and $6, corporals $5, and privates $4. The same scale standing for widows and orphans to whom pensions might be allowed. _Id._, Feb. 16, March 6, 1877.

[XXXI-53] It went into effect on the 15th of that month and year. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Jan. 2-14, 1880.

[XXXI-54] A few paid for their exemption till 1892. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883, 24, and annex 19.

[XXXI-55] The ranks of captain-general and lieutenant-gen., created for Miguel García Granados and J. Rufino Barrios respectively, soon after the overthrow of the oligarchs, were suppressed by the latter in his decree of Feb. 9, 1873, together with the grade of mariscal de campo formerly existing. He likewise annulled the grade of sargento mayor, creating in lieu thereof those of segundo comandante and primer comandante. _Guat._, _Recop. Ley. Gob. Democ._, ii. 12-13, 25.

[XXXI-56] The pay of a private is three reales per day, out of which he supports and clothes himself.

[XXXI-57] The secretary of war said of it: 'Este establecimiento promete mucho para el porvenir.' And indeed, a number of its graduates were already engaged in engineering work on the northern railroad, in running the boundary line with Mexico, and in instructing the several battalions. Some had been also assigned to the artillery department. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Guer._, 1884, 6, annex no. 1.

[XXXI-58] Officers in active service cannot marry without leave from the sec. of war, which is not granted if their marriage may prove detrimental to the service. _Id._, 1882, 5, 13-14.

[XXXI-59] It has been properly kept, with beneficial results. _Id._, 1882, 15; 1883, 6-7, annex 3; 1884, 9-10, doc. 3.

[XXXI-60] _Id._, 1884, annex no. 1. Other authorities containing information on military affairs of Guat. from 1822 to 1873: _Thompson's Guat._, 496-504; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 168-9; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 639-759, passim; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 6, 103-5, 132-7; _Id._, _Decretos_, nos. 11, 23, 36-7; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Guer._, 1837, 24-6, table 6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 516-17; _Boddam Whetham's Across Cent. Am._, 205-8.

[XXXII-1] Humboldt estimated the production at the value of $4,500,000. _Essai Polit._, ii. 446; _Guat._, _Apunt._, 17-20; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, vi. 70-1, 293-337, passim.

[XXXII-2] The yearly products of Cent. Am. were estimated in 1826 at $52,529,450. _Ocios Esp. Emigr._, v. 3-11.

[XXXII-3] _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 658-89, 744-60.

[XXXII-4] Though land was free to all, agriculture was so low that even on the richest soil staples were scarcely produced in sufficient quantities for the consumption. _Berendt_, in _Smithsonian Rept_, 1867, 424.

[XXXII-5] The annual export was estimated at nearly $1,100,000, but chemical substances having been discovered to take its place for coloring, the decadence of the industry soon followed. Cochineal could not fetch over 2 to 3 francs per kilogr. in France. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 247.

[XXXII-6] It had young trees planted in every department, and for the further increase of the staple, exempts the product from interior taxation and export dues. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 29, 1886.

[XXXII-7] _Presid. Barrios_, _Mensaje_, Sept. 11, 1876.

[XXXII-8] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. y Just._, 1880; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-2; _Id._, _Sec. Hac._, 1882-3; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 2, May 29, 1886.

[XXXII-9] Cochineal, reduced from 67,709 qls in 1860-4 to 2,845 in 1879-83. Coffee, 1860-4, none; crop of 1883-4 was 495,385 qls; next year's estimated 520,000, valued at $5,291,074. Sugar, 1860-4, 115,486 qls; the production of 1883 of sugar, panela, muscovado, and molasses valued at $976,902; 1884, $1,058,551; 1885, $915,789. Rubber, 1879-83, 9,074 qls. Sundries, 1879-83, 115,999 qls. Flour, 1884, probable production 931,144 qls. Tobacco cult. progressing. Live-stock, 1884, horses, 107,187; mules and asses, 41,386; neat cattle, 441,307; sheep, 417,577; goats, 27,618; swine, 177,118. Total value, $15,112,233. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885-5; _El Guatemalteco_, Jan. 1, Sept. 15, 1884; _Pan. Ev'g Telegram_, May 26, 1886.

[XXXII-10] As early as 1800 there were 9,600 trees of China cotton. _Quinta Junta Púb._, 14-15; _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. 38-46.

[XXXII-11] _Viag. Univ._, xxvii. 172-4. The Sp. gov. had all the vines destroyed for fear of injury to the wine industry of the mother country. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 273; _W. Ind._, _Descr. Sp. Settlers_, 45.

[XXXII-12] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 192-204; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 97.

[XXXII-13] They do not yield a high income, however, the consumption at home being comparatively small, and the demand of the neighboring states limited. _Id._, 209-11, 272. Gov. is endeavoring to improve the breed.

[XXXII-14] Comparative values: Indigo—as early as 1630 the yield was 10,000 quintals a year; the production from 1791 to 1800 was 8,752,562 ℔s. at $2 a ℔.; 1864, $1,129,105; 1877, $2,146,423. Coffee—1864, about $80,000; 1877, $2,115,669. Maize—1877, $2,786,433. Sugar and muscovado—1877, $334,361. Rice—1877, $154,728. Hides and deer-skins—1876, $444,805. Cattle—1876, $672,948. Aggregate values for 1876-7—including rum made from molasses, and set down at $925,457—were $15,448,794. These figures are from official sources, but may not be altogether reliable. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 21, 1875; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 7, 24, 1877; Feb. 19, 1878.

[XXXII-15] The cotton is of superior quality, and grown in considerable quantities; the cacao is second only to Soconusco; the sugar-cane is indigenous, and yields beautiful sugar; the indigo has a high reputation; the coffee is fully as good as Costa Rica's, and flourishes well in the higher grounds. The same may be said of tobacco. Maize and rice grow in perfection and abundance. _Stout's Nic._, 73-85, 345-53; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 265-7; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 120-4; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 363-4, 377-8, 663; _Id._, _Trav._, i. 34-9, 158-63; _Id._, _Nic._, 620-2; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 458-81; _Wells' Hond._, 141-3; _Id._, _Walker's Exped._, 116; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 77-80; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 75, 210-12, 216, vol. x. Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 13, 1886.

[XXXII-16] Exempting them from taxation and otherwise. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 191-4, 206-11; ii. 106-11; _Nic._, _Reg. Ofic._, 328-9; _Id._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, vol. for 1851-61, passim; _Ley de Agric._, Feb. 18, 1862; _Nic._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 15, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, years 1865-74, passim.

[XXXII-17] Mahogany abounds, especially on the margins of the branches of the large rivers. The cutters are mostly Mosquitos and Caribs, who hire themselves for the season at $10 to $15 a month and fed. In 1862-9 the govt adopted the plan of farming out the privilege of cutting mahogany. The caoutchouc trees were by law declared in 1860 govt property. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1862; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 1, 1865; _El Nacional_, Nov. 10, 1860.

[XXXII-18] Nutritious grasses and water are scarce in the summer. On the other hand, an immense quantity of vermin constantly torment the animals, and disease takes hold of them, killing many. Cows yield only a small quantity of milk. A dairy possessing 150 to 200 milch cows is said to do well if they yield 50 lbs. of cheese per day. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 478.

[XXXII-19] Said to be as good as that of Soconusco; but the country is generally too high and cold for cacao culture; nor is the climate favorable for cochineal, cotton, or grape, owing to excessive rains. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 30-1; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 37. Spec. laws have been passed for the promotion of cacao and indigo culture. _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xi. 299-301; xii. 216-17; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1866, 161-2; _Id._, xix. 184-6.

[XXXII-20] As late as 1829 her sole article of export was Brazil wood. The miserable condition of the country made its name ridiculous. But in a few years the situation became changed. An act was passed Sept. 7, 1831, to promote coffee culture, and in 1835 the first export of the article took place. Another decree for the same purpose was issued in 1843. _Id._, iii. 94-6; _El Nicaragüense_, Jan. 9, 1856. In 1845 no less than 45,000 quintals were produced; in 1848 double that quantity; and in 1850, 140,000 qls; from 1854 to 1856 there was no increase, owing to cholera, locusts, and the Walker war in Nic. However, the crop of 1856 was about 55,200 qls. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 26, 1850; July 1 to Sept. 23, 1854; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, June 29, 1854; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1856, 10-12; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 7, 1853; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 41, 307-21; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 454-72; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 48-9; _Belly_, _A trav. l'Amér. Cent._, i. 397-400.

[XXXII-21] In 1862 there was a fair crop: 1873, 333,843 qls; 1874, about 300,000 valued in Puntarenas port at $15.50 per quintal of 100 lbs.; 1876, a scanty crop; 1877, 186,000; 1877, 180,652; 1879, excessive rains caused heavy loss; 1884, about 375,000 quintals; but 1885 only yielded 125,000 or 130,000. _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Interior_, 1862, 10-11; _Id._, _Sec. Agric._, 1874, 28; 1876, 20-1; 1878, 14; 1879, 22; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 34; _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 18; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 9, 23, 1885.

[XXXII-22] The manufacture of rum from sugar-cane is a government monopoly. The cultivation of tobacco has been for many years under the strictest regulations; its manufacture and sale was exclusively in the hands of govt agents. In 1850 it was declared free from Jan. 1, 1852, but the law was repealed June 23, 1851. In 1869 the monopoly was abolished, but restored again by law of Feb. 4, 1884. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 30; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, x. 132-40; xi. 331-3; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1869, 15-17, 219-20; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1852-3; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern. Hac., etc._, 1884, 25-6.

[XXXII-23] The U. S. govt evinced in 1863 a disposition to promote its cultiv. See correspond. of agric. dept. with U. S. consul in Pan. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 268-70.

[XXXII-24] Exempting from taxation, and by other privileges. _Pan. Ley._, 1876-7, 7; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 7, 1877; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 264-72; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc. 113, vol. vi. 1-2, 35-7, Cong. 41, Sess. 2.

[XXXII-25] Tobacco, 2,770 quintals; grain, 197,320 qls; cacao, 261 qls; sugar, 155 qls; panela, 29,445 qls; molasses, 4,694 jugs; coffee, 2,853 qls; rubber, 80 qls; sundries, 354,285 qls; medicinal roots, 390 qls. Total value, $518,662. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, annex L.

[XXXII-26] No sheep are raised, and the goats, sometimes killed, are a poor substitute. The pork is excellent. Live-stock said to exist on the Isthmus in 1882: neat cattle, 114,157; mules and asses, 470; horses, 9,942; goats, 24,732; hogs, 203,209. Total value, $1,270,945. _Id._

[XXXII-27] It would take too much space to enumerate them; but a list may be found in the report on the physical and polit. geog. of the state of Pan., drawn up by a commission despatched thither for that purpose, by the govt of New Granada, in 1859. See also report of Martin, New Granada minister in London, May 1858, in _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 322-40.

[XXXII-28] Silver ores are the most abundant, and chiefly located on the Pac. group of mountains, whereas the gold washings, if not the gold mines proper, are most numerous on the Atlantic side. The mineral districts in the departments of Tegucigalpa, Choluteca, and Gracias are very rich in silver in various combinations. The upper or old mine of Coloal yielded 58 per ct. of copper, and 78 to 84 ounces of silver to the ton; the ores of the new mines of Coloal, a combination of chloride of silver, a little sulphuret of silver, oxide of iron, and antimony, mixed with earthy matter, yielded 8,470 ounces per ton of 2,000 lbs. Gold mines abound in Hond., but only a few have been worked. The chief supplies have been drawn from the washings of Olancho. The rivers of Guayape and Jalan, as well as the streams running into them, are decidedly the richest in auriferous sands. The finest gold is from the Guayape, Jalan, and Mangualil, and from the Sulaco, Caimito, and Pacaya, in the dept of Yoro. The southern districts bordering on Nic. have rich placers. Hond. has also mines of copper, iron, platina, cinnabar, zinc, and coal. Very productive opal mines are worked to some extent in Gracias. Amethysts are said to be found in Campuca. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 145-51, 178-89; _Id._, _Hond. R. R._, 85-94; _Montgomery's Narr._, 1134; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 100-2; _Hond. Gac. Ofic._, Feb. 20, March 10, 1853; _Wells' Hond._, 233-539, passim.

[XXXII-29] Foreigners are allowed to work and own mines, under the federal law of June 27, 1825. The ordenanzas of New Spain regarding mines were declared to be in force June 17, 1825. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 209; _Guat._, _Recop. Leyes_, i. 238.

[XXXII-30] The absence of roads and difficulty of travel make mining unprofitable as yet. _Presid. Soto_, _Mensaje_, Feb. 19, 1883; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883; Feb. 23, 1886; _H. S. Davys' Gold Fields along the Guayape, etc._, in _Cincinnati Enquirer_.

[XXXII-31] Combined with lead and copper, and also as a sulphide of silver. Materials convenient for working them were at hand. The Central Am. Mining Co. operating on the locality sold between 1858 and 1865 ore and bar silver to the amount of 621,000 ounces, worth over $700,000. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 40, Sess. 2, pt 1, 212-14; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 526; _U. S. Land Off. Rep._, 1867, 116-17, 131-2, 188-90; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Apr. 28, 1866.

[XXXII-32] Early in the present century nuggets of 22 carats were found near Chol. In some mines the ore treated with quicksilver yielded one ounce of gold to the 100 ℔s., or $320 to the ton of 2,000 ℔s. _Blazquez_, _Opinion_, in _Doc. Orig. Chiapas_, 5.

[XXXII-33] Gold placers in the dept. of Izabal were being worked on a large scale. Several silver mines promise large yields when they become exploited. The Indians of Zunil repeatedly offer for sale in Quezaltenango quicksilver obtained from a mine which they keep strictly secret. In the departments of Quiché, Alta, Vera Paz, and Huehuetenango are salt springs and deposits; in Chimaltenango peat and lignite; between Guastoya and Izabal, marble; and in several places on the Atlantic slope, coal. The government had a mineralogical survey of the country made. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1882, 28; 1883, 34, 72-4; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1884, 42; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 36; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 17, 1883.

[XXXII-34] Among them must be mentioned zinc, iron, copper, lead, tin, antimony. The mines of lead, iron, and copper are believed to be inexhaustible. They are situated in a fertile, cool, healthy, and picturesque region, affording every other facility for working them. The whole northern frontier abounds in silver, a little of it being obtained by primitive processes. Quicksilver mines, though not rich, are common. The gold veins of Nic. come from Hond., running along the cordillera to the San Juan River, where they become somewhat ramified before crossing it, and reappear in Costa R. The chief one crosses the Machuca River. The gold is almost pure when washed from river-beds, and more or less mixed with silver when dug out of the earth. In the districts of Juigalpa and Libertad hundreds of mines have been entered. The Jícaro mines near Trinidad, and those of Santa Rosa, Achuapa, San Francisco, etc., have been famous. The Potosí and Corpus in colonial times yielded large quantities of gold. The whole upper region of the Coco River is rich. It may be asserted that the mines of Nic. are excellent, but the miners are generally incompetent. They use the crowbar, avoiding gunpowder as too expensive. Men are easily procured, who work steadily though slowly and by primitive methods, earning $8 to $10 per month, and their rations. The mills are mostly poor. Sixteen carat gold is worth at the mine $12 an ounce, but the average price paid by factors was $8 or $9. Considerable quantities of gold are taken by the Indians from river sands and bed, and washed in pans. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 160-6, 482-6; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 364, 392-400; _Id._, _Nic._, 653-6; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1871; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Rel._, 1875; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 212-13, vol. x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 340-6; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 11, 1865; May 26, 1866, suppl.; Sept. 7, 1867; Jan. 11, July 18, Aug. 8, 1868.

[XXXII-35] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 1, 1873; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 163-72; _Nic._, _Correo Ist._, Aug. 29, 1850.

[XXXII-36] It is said their yield was 47 to 2,537 oz. of silver to the ton. Dunlop has it that they yielded at one time $1,000,000 annually, though worked rudely and without machinery, and the chief one of them once produced $200,000 annually. _Trav. in Cent. Am._, 277. A French company undertook to work the Tabanco and Encuentros, invested a large capital, and sustained losses. The Loma Larga and Divisaderos, though represented as richer, probably fared not much better. _Dunn's Guat._, 225-6; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 92-3; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 291-4; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Dec. 1, 2, 1875; Jan. 23, 1876; Jan. 28, 1879; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Oct. 24, 1875; Jan. 30, Aug. 15, Nov. 11, 1877.

[XXXII-37] _Squier's Coal-mines of Riv. Lempa_, 3-13.

[XXXII-38] It is believed that the Tisingal, which gave the country its name, lies near the Colombian frontier on the Atlantic. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 33.

[XXXII-39] _Squier's Cent. Am._, 457; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, vi. 128; _Thompson's Guat._, 214-15; _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 42; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, July 15, 1854; _Id._, _Inf. Sec. Hac._, 1872; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 36; _Wheelright's Isth. Pan._, 7.

[XXXII-40] Information for the years preceding 1800 may be gleaned from _Juarros_, _Guat._, 16-79, passim; _Id._, _Stat. and Com. Hist. Guat._, 21-105, passim; _Montanus_, _Die Nieuwe Weereld_, 275-7; _Arevalo_, _Compend._, 175; _Russell's Hist. Am._, 191, 391-2; _Churchill's Coll._, viii. 764-5; _Dunn's Guat._, 222-5; _Squier's Trav._, i. 39-40; _Id._, _Guat._, 586-7. To the end of the Spanish rule most of the precious metals from Hond. were smuggled out through Belize and Mosquito, probably one third only reaching the mint at Guat. The coinage in 1817-18, was $983,225; 1820-4, $1,319,106. _Thompson's Guat._, 217, 520. The superintend. of the old Guat. mint calculated the coinage in gold and silver for the 15 years anterior to 1810 at $2,193,832, and for the 15 years posterior at $3,810,382, adding that much of the production had been exported in its native state or manufactured. He estimated the actual products of the mines in those 30 years at ten times the amount coined; his estimate could probably bear some deduction. _De Bow's Review_, Jan. 1855, 77-8.

[XXXII-41] The Guat. mint has coined in the years 1879-83 $974,957, all in silver pieces from one dollar down to 3⅛ cents. _Guat. Mem._, _Sec. Hac._, 1880-4, in tables 6, 11, 14, 20, 18, respectively. The coinage of the Costa Rican mint from 1829 to 1880, both inclusive, was as follows: gold, $2,351,808; silver, $568,648; copper, $1,682; total, $2,922,138. _Costa R._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, table 11.

[XXXII-42] 'Hay oro en mucha cantidad; están descubiertos veinte rios, y treinta que tienen oro salen de una sierra que está fasta dos leguas de esta villa.' _Carta_, _Eno 20, 1513_, in _Navarrete_, _Col. Viages_, iii. 363.

[XXXII-43] They were several times plundered by buccaneers. Harris in 1684 took away 120 lbs. of gold. Dampier speaks glowingly of them in that year; 'the richest gold mines ever yet found in America.' _New Voy. round the World_, i. 158-9. Another exped. in 1702 carried off 50 lbs.

[XXXII-44] An extensive and able report by the governor, many years after, gives much information on the whole Darien region, especially on its mineral wealth, making particular mention of the Cuque gold mine, and of a silver one in the country of the Curias Indians, who allowed no whites to visit it. _Ariza_, _Comentos de la rica y fertilísima Prov. del Darien_, Apr. 5, 1774, MS., 2, 12, 19-21, 32-7; _Id._, in _Anales Instruc. Púb. Colombia_, May 1883, 369, 380, 687-9, 397-401.

[XXXII-45] _Gisborne's Isth. Darien_, 173; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, July 4, Aug. 1, 1867.

[XXXII-46] _Restrepo_, _Minas de Oro y Plata de Colombia_, in _Anales Instruc. Púb. Colombia_, Mar. 1884, 230-45. Many rivers are represented to contain abundance of gold, namely, Marea and Balsas in Darien, Coclé, Belen, Indios, and their tributaries. Their are mines in Las Tablas, etc. Gold has also been taken from Indian graves. _Seemann's Narr._, i. 242-3; _Pan._, _Crón. Ofic._, March 6, 1853; _Id._, _Gaceta del Est._, Dec. 15, 1855; June 14, 1856; June 22, 1857; Sept. 23, Oct. 22, 1859; May 4, 1860; _Id._, _Gac._, Sept. 6, 1873; Feb. 20, 1876, to May 8, 1881, passim; _U. S. Govt Doc._, 54, 169-72, vol. ix., Cong. 40, Sess. 3.

[XXXII-47] Six hundred and four millions in gold and auriferous silver, and 26 millions in silver. _Restrepo, Vicente_, _Industria Minera_, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 2, 1884.

[XXXII-48] _Bogotá_, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 6, 1848; _Pan._, _Gac. Estado_, Aug. 4, 1855; Jan. 5, 1856; May 10, 1862; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 22, 1874; Feb. 27, 1875; Jan. 12, 1876; Nov. 7, 1880; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, Dec. 7, 1867; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, Feb. 28, 1876; _Wheelright's Isth. Pan._, 8; _Pan. Rept on Coal Bocas del Toro_, in _Costa R. Bound_, 3-19; _Selfridge's Explor._, 177-80; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 41, 45-53, vol. vi. Cong. 36, Sess. 2; _S. F. Bulletin_, July 26, 1873.

[XXXII-49] They were known, however, from the earliest times, and the needs of the inhabitants in cotton and woollen goods, pottery, etc., were mostly supplied at home. The decline of cotton manufactures began in 1773, after the destruction of old Guat. city, and was completed when permission was given a little previous to 1799, for the importation of foreign manufactured goods. _Diario_, _Méx._, March 29, 1806; _Juarros_, _Guat._, i. 16-82, passim; _Saravia_, _Bosq. Polít. Est._, 12; _Guat._, _Apuntam._, 12, 138-9.

[XXXII-50] Exempting from taxation, establishing schools of mechanic arts, introducing skilful mechanics, granting subsidies, etc. _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, i. 321; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-4; _Batres_, _Sketch_, 53, 60.

[XXXII-51] Guat. has been creditably represented at several international exhibitions; she has also entered into conventions with several foreign powers to secure patents for inventions. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, annex 8; _El Guatemalteco_, Sept. 24, Oct. 12, Nov. 1, 1884; _Voz de Méj._, Sept. 14, 1878; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1885, 36-8.

[XXXII-52] A cotton rebozo may be had for $4 or $5, and a silk one for $12, the finest selling at from $16 to $20. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 209-10.

[XXXII-53] Some machinery for refining sugar, ginning cotton, distilling liquors, cleaning coffee, sawing lumber, and extracting fibres have been introduced. _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, 1871, 3.

[XXXII-54] Mats, baskets, palm-leaf and maguey hats, and cordage. The hammocks of Masaya and Sutiaba are much esteemed. Cotton fabrics are coarse but strong, and dyed with permanent colors, and of original design. They also make good rebozos, but the silk in some of them is imported. Hides enter into the manufacture of several common articles. Rum is made and sold by the govt. The miller's art is in its infancy. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 486-91; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 373; _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, i. 188-90; _Nic._, _Reg. Ofic._, 328-9; _Sandoval_, _Rev. Polít._, 58.

[XXXII-55] Aside from some furniture, arms, etc., their hammocks, nets, cotton goods, and pottery, are all made in a very primitive manner. There is no skill whatever. _Fernandez_, _Col. Doc._, iii. 366-8; _Costa R._, _Censo_, 1864, p. xxv. Beer and rum are also made, the latter said to be a good imitation of Jamaica; distilling rum is a govt monopoly. _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 53; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, v. 122-45; xi. 331-46.

[XXXII-56] Subsidies granted in 1885 for silk culture and manufacturing paper, rebozos, cotton goods, and sacks. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 2, 5, 12, 13, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 9, 1885.

[XXXII-57] An official report for 1882 gave the following as about the extent of such industry in that year: 1,600 rush hats and 1,600 of jipijapa, 200 M tiles, 7 M jars, 525 M bricks. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, annex L. It is said that a factory for making carriages was opened in 1885. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 5, 1886.

[XXXIII-1] Two or three vessels at most came every year to Acajutla from Peru with wines, olive oil, and other articles for the table, and 200,000 or 300,000 pesos in specie for the purchase of indigo. From Cuba came eight or ten vessels with petty cargoes of rum, onions, etc., the average worth being $5,000 or $6,000. They each took back, besides indigo, 30,000 or 40,000 pesos in coin and in gold and silver bullion. _Mex._, _Gaceta_, 1804-5, xii. 178-80; _Cancelada_, _Ruina N. Esp._, 48-9; _Córtes_, _Col. Doc._, ii. 341; _Henderson's British Hond._, 30-1, 35; _Guat._, _Apuntam._, 136-41; _Nic. y Hond._, _Docs._, 11-12; _Arrillaga_, _Informe_, in _Cedulario_, iv. 60-1; _Urrutia_, _Modelo_, 2-3; _Guat._, _Gaz._, vii. 293-320, passim; iii. 70, 464, 504.

[XXXIII-2] This hybrid commerce was effected through Belize and Curaçoa; and also by foreign whalers at Realejo and Acajutla, where they were wont to enter with the pretext of procuring water and fresh stores, and while in port sold English goods, receiving in return copper, wool, sugar, cacao, etc. _Humboldt_, _Essai Polít._, ii. 467-73.

[XXXIII-3] _Bustamante_, _Voz de la Patria_, iv. no. 18, 4-8; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 745-7; ii. 301; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 75, 215-16, x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Squier's Trav._, i. 44-5.

[XXXIII-4] In 1853 the several governments entered into contracts with the Central Am. Steam Navigation Co., an American concern, to run a line of steamers once a month between Iztapam in Guatemala and Panamá, touching at Acajutla, La Libertad, La Union, Amapala, Realejo, San Juan del Sur, and Puntarenas, for the conveyance of passengers, merchandise, and mails at fixed rates, each government paying a subsidy, and allowing exemptions from port dues and other privileges. The service began early in 1854, and continued with repeated trips in each month, first by the Panamá Railway Company's steamers, and subsequently by those of the U. S. Pac. Mail Steamship Company. _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, Feb. 16, 1854; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xii. 256-7; _Salv._, _Gac._, Jan. 20, 1854; _Id._, _El Rol_, Dec. 1, 1854; _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, 44; _Hunt's Merchants' Mag._, xxiii. 113.

[XXXIII-5] Guatemala: chief articles of export, cochineal, coffee, cotton, wool, sugar, India-rubber, hides, and indigo; also rice, mules, cacao, pork, horns, timber, sarsaparilla, vanilla, tobacco, etc. Cochineal at one time was a great staple, the export being nearly 68,000 centals in 1860-4, and about 59,000 centals in 1870-4; reduced to about 2,845 in 1879-83. The principal importations were comestibles, wines and liquors, cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, clothing, hats, fancy goods, furniture, arms, articles for agric., arts, and sciences. Arms, lead, and gunpowder might not be imported without special permission of the govt. Some articles were exempt from duty, such as material for ship-building, instruments for medicine, surgery, science, schools, arts, implements of agric., machinery, and tools for manuf., steam-engines, money, gold, silver, guano, mineral, coal, etc. Articles of luxury paid an import duty; foreign manufactures entered with a high duty. Small amounts should be paid at the time of entry in cash; and larger sums, part at the adjustment of the duties, and the rest in instalments of from one to three months. The republic has several ports open to foreign commerce on both oceans; namely, Santo Tomás, Livingston, and Golfo Dulce, which is navigable only for vessels of light draught, on the Atlantic, and San José, San Luis, Champerico, and Ocós on the Pacific. Iztapam or Independencia was closed in 1853, and the custom-house removed to the roadstead of San José, which is sheltered by a bold breakwater. Actual value of foreign trade: imports, 1851-7, $7,672,682; 1860-4, $6,268,227; 1871-5, $12,304,289; 1876-80, $15,054,152. The average of importations in the five years 1880-4 was $2,700,000. The largest importations in 1883 were from G. Britain, including Belize, $884,205; U. S., $529,458; France, $149,687; Germany, $128,296; Switzerland, $76,278; Spain, $65,470; China, $54,855. The rest from Belgium, Cent. Am., Italy, Colombia, and Denmark. The war between Guat. and Salv., and revolution in Pan., paralyzed trade in 1885. It is noticed that notwithstanding the greater proximity and wealth of the U. S., Guatemala's commercial relations are greater with England. Exports: 1851-7, $9,613,099; 1860-4, $7,386,541; 1870-4, $12,418,083; 1879-83, $22,552,867. Coffee loomed up from none in 1860-4, 695,671 centals in 1870-4, to 1,519,494 centals in 1879-83. Sugar was also a prominent staple, followed by India-rubber. The number of merchant vessels which visited Guat. ports on the Pac. during 1883 were 7 steamers of the Pac. Mail S. Co., which made their periodical trips; 3 stmrs. of the Kosmos (German) line, to which special privileges were granted by the Guat. govt, in 1882. Sailing vessels, 6 Am., 1 Eng., 6 French, 3 German, and 1 Salvadoran. To Livingston, on the Atlantic, came monthly 4 Am. and one Eng. steamer. Seven vessels did coasting trade under the Eng. flag. Vessels arrived in 1884, 171 with 173,982 tons; departed 168 with 173,758 tons, carrying away 109,402 packages of merchandise and products of the country.

Honduras: exports consisted of bullion, mahogany, and other woods, hides, sarsaparilla, tobacco, cattle, and indigo; the imports, of cottons, silk, hardware, etc. The chief ports are Omoa and Trujillo on the Atlantic, and Amapala on the Pacific. Values of imports: 1856, $750,000, chiefly from Great Britain; 1867, $750,000; 1873, $1,000,000; 1877, $640,000; 1880, $750,000; 1882-3, $2,885,000; 1886, from $2,000,000 to $2,500,000. The tariff was low. Exports: 1856, $825,000; 1867, $825,000; 1872-3, $2,370,000; 1876, $1,234,983; 1877, $595,000; 1880, $650,000; 1882-3, $3,415,000; 1886, $2,000,000 to $2,500,000. British Hond. or Belize: imports: 1873, $1,183,074; 1878-81, $1,923,000, nearly two thirds from G. Britain, and the rest from the U. S. Exports: $1,251,000, about two thirds to G. Britain, and the rest to the U. S. The principal exports to the latter country were woods, raw sugar, fruits, nuts, coffee, drugs and dyes, rubber, hides, etc.

Salvador: articles of export, indigo, coffee, sugar, tobacco, caoutchouc, rebozos, balsam, hides, and cotton. Imports: comestibles, wines and liquors, cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, hardware, etc. The ports of entry were La Union, La Libertad, and Acajutla. Imported goods pay duties according to the tariff, which were mostly specific, but many articles paid, besides, 20 per cent ad valorem. Products of the other Central American states on being imported, reciprocity existing, paid only 4 per cent ad val. Articles intended for the development of industries and education were exempt. The importation of arms, without special leave of the government, alcohol and common rum, cognac, gin, absinthe, aniseseed, coriander, sassafras, saltpetre, and obscene images was forbidden. Products of the country were free from export dues, except indigo, ores, gold and silver bullion, and jewelry. Import values: 1855-61, $6,816,879; 1864, $1,233,711; 1866-8, $5,799,912; 1871-4, $12,869,514; 1877, $2,186,000; 1880-3, $5,750,000. Exports: the greater part to Great Britain, the U. S. occupying the second place: 1855-61, $8,831,990; 1864-8, $13,931,675, cotton counting somewhat among the exports during the war in the U. S.; but after its termination this staple ceased to figure; 1871-8, $29,206,953; 1880-3, $8,708,000.

Nicaragua: principal markets, U. S., Eng., France, and Cent. Am.; chief exports, coffee, India-rubber, cattle, hides, and gold; also cabinet and dye woods, indigo, sugar, rum, cacao, dairy products, gums, pearl and tortoise shells, etc. Ports San Juan del Norte, San Juan del Sur, and Realejo or Corinto. The first named was declared a free port in 1860. Import values: 1861-73, $3,355,600, exclusive of coin, and not including the years 1870-2. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 21, 1874. Lévy, a good authority, gives the imports for 1865-71 at $6,275,324, adding that in the first two years the balance of trade was against Nic. to the amount of $453,429; 1873-6, $4,313,876; 1877-80, $5,117,661; 1881-4, $7,157,525; these figures include about half a million dollars in coin. Wholesale merchants sold at long terms, often 18 months; most of the buyers disposed of the goods at once, with 20 per ct loss, but for cash, and during 17 months' use of the capital making as much as 50 per ct profit, which enabled them to pay for the merchandise originally bought. Exports: 1861-73, $4,153,677, without including for 1871-2. Lévy has for 1865-71, $6,789,841; 1873-6, $5,694,009; 1877-80, $6,303,589; 1881-4, $8,926,965. In view of the fall in the price of coffee in late years in foreign markets, and of the decrease in the production of rubber, there was cause to fear that the day was not distant when the balance of trade would be against Nic., unless with the facilities afforded by the railroads the exportations of timber and dye-woods should be greatly developed, as expected. The exports of cattle to the other states of Cent. Am. have become quite considerable. The two chief centres of internal trade were Granada and Leon, which supplied their own departments. Chontales was supplied from the former, Segovia from the latter, Matagalpa from both. Rivas and Chinandega imported a portion of their supplies, buying the rest respectively at Granada and Leon. Rivas furnished cacao; Jinotepeque and Chinandega, sugar; Leon, corn and salt; Masaya and other towns, edibles.

Costa Rica imported cotton, linen, woollen, and silk fabrics, fancy articles, comestibles, wines, liquors, and other things, from England, France, U. S., etc., and exported chiefly coffee, tortoise-shells, hides, rubber, vanilla, sarsaparilla, timber, etc. Her ports for foreign trade are at present Limon on the Atlantic, and Puntarenas on the Pacific; the latter being, down to 1883, almost the only port of Costa Rica; but of late the former, owing to railroad facilities, has obtained the first rank; shipments through Puntarenas being mainly of produce from Esparta, and other places near it. It was a free port at one time, but ceased to be such in Jan. 1861. In earlier years Matina and Caldera had been open ports, and even Guanacaste was made a free port in 1848. Port Limon was created in Oct. 1852; it has a free zone under decrees passed in 1883. Costa Rica's import values: 1845, $463,000, through Matina and Puntarenas; 1852-9, $7,330,398; 1864, $1,718,000; 1871, $2,225,000; 1873-4, $6,980,000; 1877, about $2,000,000; 1880-3, $7,220,000. Exports: 1845, $631,700; 1852-9, $7,458,913; 1864, $1,812,682; 1868, $2,189,118; 1871, $2,288,450; 1873-4, $8,192,517; 1877, $5,308,000; May 1, 1879, to Apr. 30, 1881, $7,724,810; 1882-3, $6,470,000. The exports of coffee from Puntarenas and Limon in 1884 were 191,719 centals. Large quantities of bananas were also exported from Limon. Vessels arrived in 1882-3, at Limon 86, at Puntarenas 75; in 1883-4, at Limon 77, at Puntarenas 110. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 147; _Baily's Cent. Am._, 158; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 269-70, 310, 458-9, 471-2, 526; _Squier's Travels_, i. 83; _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 31-3, 64-6; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 93; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 34-7, 51-4, 168-9, 261-3, 436; _Am. Cyclop._, v. 290, 395; viii. 790; xiv. 610; _Montúfar_, _Resúmen Hist._, v. 519; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), vi. 398; xii. 135-6; _El Guatemalteco_, March 19, May 19, 1884; _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 322, 359; _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 36; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 512, 516-17; _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 862-6, 73; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1861, 527; _Salv._, _Constitucional_, no. 6; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, June 3, 7, Oct. 21, 1875; March 4, 1876; Sept. 17, 1878, suppl.; Jan. 11, May 3, 1879; _Id._, _Gac._, Aug. 12, 1853; Oct. 27, 1876; Feb. 27, 1877; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 23, 1865; Dec. 15, 1866; Aug. 22, 1868; March 12, 1870; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1869-70, 141-4; _Id._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 8, 1862; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Fomento_, for years 1867-71; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1871-83; _Presid. Cárdenas_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 15, 1885; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, i. 771, 785-92; _Id._, _Gob. Democ._, i. 2-3; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, for years 1880-4; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1883-5; _U. S. Gov. Docs._, _Comm. Rel._, for years 1856-77; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 43, Sess. 1, vol. i. years 1873-4, 440-7; Sess. 2, xvi. 188-95, 200; Cong. 46, Sess. 2, xxv. pt 1, 27; Cong. 47, Sess. 1, xiv. 38; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, iv. 112-14; v. 232-4; vi. 301-3; x. 78-9, 142-4, 148-57; xvi. 199-200; xvii. 135-6; _Id._, _Col. Dispos. Legisl._, 1878, 113-14; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1853, 11-12; 1875, 34; 1880, annexes 15-23; 1883, annexes 11-12; 1884, 24, 246-66, 304, 308; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Obras Púb._, 1878, 15-17; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Agric._, 1879, 22, and table 4; 1880, 23-4; _Id._, _Gaceta Gob._, Jan. 26, Feb. 16, 1850; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Marina_, 1883, 7, and two tables, annex 5; _Id._, _Regl. Franquicias_, 1883, 1-15; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1881; Sept. 13, 1882; Jan. 17, Feb. 1, 17, March 23, 1883; March 8, 15, Dec. 16, 1884; March 9, Oct. 24, 1885; June 2, 1886; _La Estrella de Pan._, Nov. 6, 1884; _Samayoa, J. M._, _Apuntam._, 1885, 5.

[XXXIII-6] The principal fairs were held at Chalatenango, San Vicente, and San Miguel, in Salvador. That of San Miguel took place in November, and lasted two weeks. There was another fair at the same town about the beginning of Feb., to which, as well as to the former one, large numbers of cattle were taken from Hond. and Nic. In Guat. annual fairs were held in several places; namely, Esquipulas, where large quantities of merchandise were sold; it was also a cattle fair; Rabinal in Vera Paz, for dry goods; Mazatenango, for cattle, cacao, dry goods, etc.; San Pedro Ayampuk; Sololá, for dry goods, fruit, and stock; Quezaltenango and Chimaltenango, for woollen manufactures. In Jocotenango a fair was held every Aug. In later times fairs have been authorized at several other places, to wit, at the hippodrome, near the capital, Salcajá, Santa Cruz del Quiché, Jalapa, Santa Rosa, and San Pedro Pinula. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 309-530; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 38; 1885, 39-40; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 14, 1885.

[XXXIII-7] The Am. Atlantic and Pacific Ship Canal Co. of New York, of which Vanderbilt and White were the chief owners, undertook to construct an interoceanic canal. Their contract with the Nic. govt involved the privilege to the company of exclusive steam navigation in the interior waters, meaning Lake Nicaragua. The company concluded to separate this privilege from the rest of the contract, and succeeded, Aug. 1851, in obtaining from the Nic. govt the monopoly of transit from San Juan del Norte to San Juan del Sur. It is unnecessary to go into details as to how this was consummated; suffice it to say, it was by fostering the intestine war then raging. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., 75, 141-5, x., Cong. 31, Sess. 1; _Id._, Sen. Doc., 68, 84-103, xiii., Cong. 34, Sess. 1; _Cent. Am. Miscel. Doc._, 45; _Stout's Nic._, 272-91; _Wells' Walker's Exped._, 203-5; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 210-11; _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, 245-6.

[XXXIII-8] The first steamboat used in Nic. waters was the _Orus_, wrecked on the Machuca rapids; the next, the _Director_, was worked over the rapids, and plied on the lake for several years, being the sole transport for passengers from San Cárlos to La Vírgen. The increase of the Transit company's business brought the _Central America_ and other steamers. _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, Sept. 5, 1850; _Stout's Nic._, 65-6.

[XXXIII-9] The particulars of this transaction appear elsewhere. Previous to this, in 1854, there had been serious differences between the gov. of Nic. and the company, about the settlement of accounts, and even then the govt threatened to cancel the charter. _Guat._, _Gaceta_, May 13, July 8, 1853; _Perez_, _Mem. Hist. Rev. Nic._, 55-6; _Id._, _Mem. Camp. Nac._, 27-30; _El Nicaragüense_, Feb. 23, 1856.

[XXXIII-10] In 1858 the Nic. govt confiscated the company's property, and the next year made the transit free to all nations. However, under a subsequent arrangement between it and the original Transit co., under the name of Cent. American Transit Co., ratified in March 1861, the latter agreed to reopen the route; but failing to do it within the required time, the govt seized all the property, as agreed in the contract. The matter was settled in diplomatic correspond. with the U. S. govt in 1863. _Rocha_, _Cód. Nic._, ii. 133-4, 141-2; _Nic._, _Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1857-8, 44-5; 1859, ii. 78-9; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 16, 1864. The company renewed its operations, and continued them until annihilated by the overland railway to S. F., in 1869. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 434.

[XXXIII-11] Costa R. in 1872 forbade the navigation of the Colorado River by Hollenbeck & Co. _Nic._, _La Union_, June 29, 1861; _Id._, _Dec. y Ac._, 1861, iv. 57-68; 1869-70, 100-6; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 8, 1868; March 12, July 23, Aug. 20, 1870; Dec. 7, 1872; _Id._, _Mem. Min. Guerra_, 1872, 12; _Semanal Nic._, Dec. 5, 1872; _El Porvenir de Nic._, May 26, June 2, 1872. Trade between Granada and San Juan del Norte was continued in piraguas and steamers, the former measuring from 15 to 25 tons. There were river and lake steamers. Merchandise was first transferred at San Cárlos, and often in the summer a second time at the Castillo. For some time the steamboat plying in the lower part of the river passed by the Colorado branch because of scanty water in the San Juan.

[XXXIII-12] _Costa R._, _Informe Obras Púb._, for years 1876-80; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, years 1883-4; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 321; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 412; _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Guerra_, 1875, pp. x.-xv.; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 2, 1881; Feb. 1, 2, 1883; _Id._, _Cronista_, Jan. 20, 1883; _Salv._, _Gac. Ofic._, Sept. 5, 7, 1876; _Presid. Barrios_, _Mensaje_, 1876, 39-60; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, 10-12; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1880-5.

[XXXIII-13] Gold pieces of 10, 5, 2, and one dollar, the first named having the weight of 16,120 grammes. In former years it coined gold ounces with the weight of 25,836 grammes, worth $16, and halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths; silver peso, and its subdivisions worth 50, 25, 10, and 5 cts. Copper one-cent pieces containing 95 parts of copper and 5 of nickel. Silver in coins of 10 and 5 cts in legal tender only to the sum of $100; and cents not exceeding 100. The money coined in Costa Rica in the years 1829-82 has been as follows: gold, $2,351,808; silver, $56,648; total, $2,922,138. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 41; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 21, 1885; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883, annex no. 10.

[XXXIII-14] There is a nominal money used in retail trade called peso sencillo, worth 80 cents. The old Costa R. doubloon passes for $14.40 only, and the subdivisions in proportion. The new Costa R. piece of $5 is worth only $4.50. Chilian and Colombian condors pass for $9. _Lévy_, _Nic._, 370-1, 521.

[XXXIII-15] It paralyzed foreign trade, became depreciated, and caused other evils. _Montúfar_, _Res. Hist._, iii. 277. The govt endeavored to retire this coin by a gradual redemption every year.

[XXXIII-16] Foreign coins pass at their true valuation. Very little money leaves Honduras. _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 20, 1853; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 272; _Wells' Hond._, 567-72.

[XXXIII-17] In former times there was the ounce of $16 and its subdivisions, and the silver peso with its subdivisions down to medio real, or 6¼ cents. Most of the silver coin in circulation was the macuquina or cut, which was a nuisance. The government in 1873 ordered it retired, which was in the course of time done. The system established in the law of 1870 found favor with the people as regarded gold coin. Not so with silver; the public clinging to the old denominations, and refusing to accept base metals which this law had also provided for.

[XXXIII-18] Standard of the coin 0.900. Weight of the peso 25 grammes.

[XXXIII-19] Mex. eagle $20; its subdivisions in proportion. Peruvian pieces of $20 and $10, and Colombian condors of $20 and $10, at their face value. Chilian condors of $10, $9.50. German gold piece of 20 marks, $4.93¾. American, French, and English gold coins have their full value; though they generally command a high premium. Further details may be found in _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, ii. 578-82; _Id._, _Gob. Dem._, i. 83, 197; _Salv._, _Diario_, Dec. 14, 1878.

[XXXIII-20] There were in 1883 two banks, the Internacional and Colombiano, in the city of Guatemala; both having ample capital for a time stood high. The former, founded in 1878, suspended in 1885. The latter, founded in 1879 by capitalists who were mostly Colombians, has no agencies, and limits its operations within the capital of the republic, and to the sale of bills of exchange on foreign markets. There was also the Banco de Occidente at Quezaltenango with a capital of $100,000; its main object being to assist agriculture and manufactures in the wealthy departments of Los Altos. Its standing was somewhat shaken by its bills having been largely counterfeited in Sept. 1882; but it managed to weather the storm. The Banco de Nicaragua, a bank of issue, loans, and discounts, with a capital of $600,000, has been quite successful. It was chartered in May 1871. The Banco Anglo-Costaricense went into operation at Managua in 1873, with a capital of $100,000, under the management of Allan Wallis. The Banco Internacional of Salvador began business on the 20th of Aug., 1880, and has since been prosperous, excepting in 1885, owing to the war with Guatemala, and a subsequent revolution. However, the results of the first six months were satisfactory. In 1867 the Banco Nacional de Costa Rica went into operation at San José, with a capital of $500,000, and power to increase it to one million dollars, under a contract for ten years between John Thompson and the government. Dec. 1, 1876, the government decreed the statutes of the Banco de Emision, with a capital of $500,000 secured with mortgages on real estate to the amount of $1,000,000. But the stockholders failing to pay in the capital, the government suspended the bank, which had been operating, and ordered the books transferred to the Banco Nacional of San José, which was to redeem all notes of that bank in circulation. The Banco Nacional had been created by a decree of Dec. 25, 1877, with a capital of $250,000. Its operations were not to include the issue of notes. A charter was granted in Jan. 1881, to establish a Banco Hipotecario Franco-Costaricense with a capital of $500,000. The by-laws were approved by govt in July 1881. The bank was to have a branch in Paris. _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 24; _S. F Cronista_, Feb. 3, 1883; Jan. 31, Apr. 25, 1885; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 3, 1867; July 8, 1871; _Id._, _Semanal Nic._, Apr. 10, 1873; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 3, 1867; Sept. 2, 1885; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xvii. 45-50, 51-5; xx. 4-19, 110-16, 295-7, 304-6, 311-12; xxiv. 197-205; xxv. 245-60; Id., 1878, 104-6; 1881, 17-26, 64-6, 143-68; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1882, 37.

[XXXIII-21] In 1809 there was a postal service between Guatemala and David in Panamá, via Cartago in Costa Rica, by which route correspondence was kept up with South America. In 1811 a tri-monthly mail was established between Guat. and Mex., Merida, the Windward Islands, and Spain. In 1829 there was a monthly packet between New York and the Isthmus. After that, some sort of mail service was kept up till it became regular with the establishment of steamship lines. In 1844 the first mail steamer touched at Chagres, and in 1845 a line was established between Panamá and Valparaiso. In 1846 a post-route between the two oceans was established under a grant of the Brit. govt. At this time the U. S. contemplated establishing a line of steamers from Pan. to Or. via Cal. The present Pacific Mail Steamship Company was organized in 1847 for that purpose, and on the 5th of Oct. their pioneer steamship, the _California_, went to sea, followed at short intervals by the _Panamá_ and _Oregon_. At the inception of the enterprise, success was looked for only from the agricultural resources of the Pacific coast. The discovery of gold in Cal. secured that success. The company kept up the service between N. Y. and Colon, and between Panamá and S. F. via Acapulco and Manzanilla, and later sent ships to China. _Niles' Reg._, xxxvii. 242; _Pan. Constitucional del Istmo_, Oct. 30, 1834; _Mayer's Mex. as it Was, etc._, 369-74; _Pan._, _El Movimiento_, Dec. 22, 1844; _Seemann's Hist. Ist. Pan._, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 17, 1847; _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 3-10.

[XXXIII-22] Costa R. has been quite successful. The number of pieces received at and forwarded by the main office at San José in 1883 were 1,377,243, against 549,096, in 1880, and 1,172,259, in 1882. In Nic. the service is a source of considerable expense to the govt. In 1861-2, the expenses were only $5,349. In 1881-2, $39,327; the receipts $19,476, leaving a deficit of $19,851. This is owing to long distances and sparse population. In Hond. the exchange of mail matter amounted in 1880 to 937,331 pieces; the expenses of the department, $17,102. In Guat. the aggregate amount of mail matter was as follows: 1880, 835,906; 1881, 1,039,652; 1882, 1,400,043; 1883, 2,111,366; 1884, 2,912,411. The receipts in 1884, $48,342; expend. $46,017. The appropriation for the fiscal year 1886-7 was computed at $58,812. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, years 1883-4; _Id._, _Guerra_, 1880, 1883; _Id._, _Hac._, 1884; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 3, 1885; _Pan. Canal_, Jan. 13, 1883; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, July 2, 1881; Feb. 8, 1883; Sept. 9, 1885; _Nic._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1875; _Id._, _Id._, 1883; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Gobern._, 1883; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 18, Nov. 30, 1875; July 12, Nov. 2, 1878; March 5, 1879; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, 1880-5; _Id._, _Presupuesto Gen._, 1886, 18-19; _Encyc. Brit._, xvi. 492; _El Guatemalteco_, Feb. 2, Sept. 24, 1884; _Batres' Sketch Guat._, 69-76.

[XXXIII-23] _Crosby's Statem._, MS., 3-10. At the sailing of the _Panamá_ there were 2,000 persons to embark for S. F.; four steamships to sail for the same destination; namely, _Sarah Sands_, _Carolina_, _Isthmus_, and _Gold Hunter_. Early in the summer of the same year there were 4,000 passengers waiting for vessels to take them to Cal., in a place which could hardly afford accommodations for 100. Hundreds of deaths occurred. _Pan. Star_, March 29, 1850; _Sac. Placer Times_, i., Apr. 26, 1850; _Advent. of a Capt.'s Wife_, 18; _Cal. Courier_, Sept. 14, 1850. The steamer _W. H. Aspinwall_ then began to ply on the River Chagres, between Chagres and Gorgona, which did away with the bongos nuisance. _Sac. Transcript_, March 14, 1851.

[XXXIII-24] 1850-5 were years of brisk business for the Isthmus. Gold circulated so abundantly that few did not handle gold coin. Provisions ruled high. Silver was so scarce that in 1850 a five-dollar gold piece could buy only 40 dimes. Americans said that Panamá was a better place for business than S. F. _Maldonado_, _Anales Polít. Pan._, MS., 7.

[XXXIII-25] 1852-66: passengers, 517,852; gold and silver, $849,157,076; paper money, $19,062,567; jewelry, $513,001; 1855-66: merchandise, mail matter, baggage and coal, 614,535 tons. Mail matter averaged 380 tons yearly. Merchandise steadily increased from 10,658 tons in 1856, the lowest, to 93,414 tons in 1866, the highest; and coal from 8,934 in 1856 to 13,418 in 1866. In 1860 and 1861, the coal transportation exceeded 16,000 tons a year. The total tonnage transported across the road in 1856 was 20,053, which increased every year till it reached 107,590 tons in 1866. The largest number of passengers crossed was in 1859, 46,976, nearly 5,000 in excess of 1858; the smallest number was in 1862, 26,420, being 5,280 less than in 1866. The large travel of 1859 was due to great reduction of passage money by steam lines running in opposition. The gold transported in 1856 was $48,047,692; in 1866, $48,234,463; at no other period did it equal these amounts. Silver showed a gradual increase from $9,439,648 in 1856 to $18,653,239, declining in 1866 to $14,331,751. Paper money was transported by the U. S. govt during the war. Jewelry varied from $192,718 to $844,490, but gradually declined. The tariff rates established by the company Jan. 1, 1865, were as follows: passengers, foreign, $25 each, children of 6 to 12 years one half, under 6, one quarter; Colombians, $10 each. Baggage exceeding 50 lb., 5 cts per lb. Merchandise, special rates: 1st class paying 50 cts per cubic foot; 2d to 6th 1½ cts to ¼ cent respectively per lb. All payments in Am. gold, or its equivalent. _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 139-45; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 277-86, 389-93. In 1867, the value of the transit trade in merchandise and treasure over the route was $92,191,980, and 35,076 passengers. In 1872 the road conveyed 194 millions pounds of weight, 2½ millions of feet, besides 215,000 gallons of oil, 13,952 of wine, and 13,952 passengers. _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 11. 1878-9, merchandise, 314,220 tons; 1880-4, 1,033,596 tons; the quantity in 1884 was 287,243, not including 10,000 tons of bananas, an increase of 71,518 over 1883. 1880-4, passengers, 1,024,128; the number in 1884 was 515,520, an excess of 75 per cent over 1883; the large increase being mainly due to the operations of the interoceanic canal company, and the transportation of their vast material. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 2, 14, 1867; May 17, Sept. 5, 1877; June 23, 1881; Apr. 22, 1885; _S. F. Ev'g Bulletin_, Apr. 12, 1878; Apr. 2, 1884; _S. F. Chronicle_, Apr. 3, 1884; _Superint. Burt's Report_, March 7, 1885; _U. S. Govt Doc._, Comm. Rel., years 1857-77.

[XXXIII-26] The steamship lines doing such service in 1867 were the following: 1st. The Pacific Mail Co. of N. Y., whose capital in 1847 was $400,000; raised in 1850 to $2,000,000; in 1860 to $4,000,000; and in 1866 to $20,000,000; the lowest estimate of its property being set down in 1867 at $30,000,000. This company has passed through many vicissitudes, as indicated by the stock market. The highest rates attained by its shares were 248 in 1863, 325 in 1864, 329 in 1865, 234 in 1866. Every other year they have been under 200, the highest being in 173½ in 1867. From that time they sank very low, even to 16¼ cents in 1876, the highest that year being 39¼. 2d. Brit. and W. India and Pac. running between Liverpool, W. Ind., W. coast of S. and Cent. Am., and Colon. 3d. Brit. Royal Mail, between Southampton, W. Ind., eastern coast of Mexico, S. and Cent. Am., and Colon. 4th. Brit. Pan., New Zealand, and Australia. 5th. Brit. Pac. Steam Navigation Co., between Pan. and ports of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. 6th. Pan. R. Road Co.'s steamers between Pan. and Acapulco, touching at all Cent. Am. ports. This line finally was merged in the Pacific Mail Co. 7th. Am. Cal. Or. and Mex. Co.'s line running between S. F. and Mex., and between S. F. and Portland, Or., and Island of Vancouver. It was afterward discontinued. 8th. French Transatlantic Co. running between St Nazaire in France, W. Ind., Mex., and Colon. 9th. German line. In 1871 the following arrivals of vessels occurred: steamers, Brit., 84, with 158,579 tons; Am., 25, with 66,813 tons; German, 36, with 42,740 tons; French, 24, with 15,782. Sailing vessels, 56 Brit., 43 Am., 12 German, 4 French, 8 Italian, 112 Colombian, mostly small. Grand total of tonnage, 316,271 tons. _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 50-6, 148-60, 169-232; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 2, 1867; Apr. 14, 1877; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Comm. Rel., 1871-2, 252, 263; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 353-7. The author of the last-quoted work was British vice-consul at Panamá, and enjoyed leisure and opportunity for gathering facts from many sources, concerning the past and present history of Panamá, as well as on her resources, trade, etc. The arrangement of the book, as he acknowledges, is defective, there being no order—chronological or other—in the information he gives. The description of the social and political condition of the city and country, to the time of his writing, is quite accurate.

[XXXIII-27] Between 1825 and 1830 the expense of conveying a bale of goods overland, including duties and taxes, was $10 or $12.

[XXXIII-28] In 1820 it was deplorable. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1820, iv. 180-2; _Gordon's Hist. and Geog. Mem._, 48-9.

[XXXIII-29] It was said that $45,000,000 of English manufactures unlawfully crossed the Isthmus for Sp. Am. between 1810 and 1817. _Arrillaga_, _Inf._, in _Cedulario_, iv. no. 1, 72; _Alaman_, _Hist. Méj._, iv. 473-4.

[XXXIII-30] Communication was kept up on the Atlantic side with Jamaica by a Brit. man-of-war which twice a month carried letters and specie; with Cartagena by government vessels bimonthly; and with the same and other points by independent traders. On the Pacific traffic was better along the whole coast. In 1825 the spirit of enterprise was rash. Exclusive of small coasters, there came to Chagres 1 ship, 7 brigs from France, 21 schooners from the W. Indies, 6 schooners from the U. S., and 3 from Cartagena. In 1828, these numbers were reduced to about 20 all together. In the same years the entries at Panamá were respectively 17 and 24 vessels. In 1830 trade was in a state of stagnation. _Lloyd's Notes Isth. Pan._, in _Roy. Geog. Soc._, i. 96-7; _Niles' Reg._, xxxviii. 141.

[XXXIII-31] Bocas del Toro was also made a free port. _El Arco Iris_, July 25, 1847; _Molina_, _der Freistaat, Costa R._, 58-9; _S. F. Californian_, ii., Sept. 29, 1847.

[XXXIII-32] The passengers from Cal. no longer remained in Pan., but were hurried off to Colon; thus the expenditure formerly made by the thousands of passengers ceased. Many business houses had to close in 1855 and 1856. Later the influx of passengers from Europe, who stop longer at Panamá, helped to support the hotels, etc. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 263.

[XXXIII-33] A portion of the imports was paid for in remittances of specie, or in bills on Europe, sold from time to time by foreign men-of-war and steamship companies. The amount of exports may be augmented some $100,000 by produce sold to steamship companies. Besides pearls and pearl shells, ivory, nuts, and India-rubber figured considerably among the exports. The recklessness with which the rubber-trees have been cut down has reduced the production in 1886 to an insignificant quantity. The imports from 1856 to 1863 inclusive reached $6,386,135; the exports from 1857 to 1863 probably $5,000,000 or $6,000,000. Data on this point are unreliable. _U. S. Govt Doc._, Comm. Rel., 1859-61; _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 265-7, 277-8; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 2, 1867.

[XXXIII-34] Adopted in 1853. _Pan._, _Crónica Ofic._, Aug. 20, 1853.

[XXXIII-35] The national government of Colombia, on the 3d of May, 1861, decreed that the notes of the National Bank, silver coin of the fineness of 0.500, and nickel coin, should be the only legal tender receivable at public offices of the nation, states, and department of Panamá. The enforcement of the decree in Panamá, where the money in circulation is sufficient for all purposes, is deemed ruinous, as the paper thus forced into circulation is irredeemable. There are no manufactures nor products that merchants can send abroad in payment of the articles of daily necessity which are imported. _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 31, 1886.

[XXXIII-36] _Dunlop's Cent. Am._, 39-40; _Wagner_, _Costa R._, 458-65; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 457. The exportation of shells on a large scale upon the coasts of the mainland, gulfs, and islands was farmed out in Oct. 1885, to a private party for 16 years, the lessee paying for the privilege as follows: 1st. $1,000 a year during the first six years, and $2,000 a year for each of the other ten. 2d. $6 for every 1,000 kilog. of pearl shells taken out in the first six years, and $8 per 1,000 kilog. the next ten years. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 7, 1885.

[XXXIII-37] _Findlay_, _Directory_, i. 236. _J. Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatémala_; _Notes de Voyages au Centre Amérique_, Paris, 1877, fol. 448 pp., 4 sheets, and wood-cuts, is a narrative of a commercial traveller of three journeys to and through the five republics of Cent. Am., in 1866, 1870, and 1874-5, containing general information on their history and resources, agriculture, and other industries, and the character, manner, and customs of their inhabitants. Statistical tables, and numerous cuts of important towns and of natives are accompanied. The style is plain, clear, and concise, and the mode of treatment shows an intelligent observer. In an unpretentious manner the author gives much that is valuable on those countries.

[XXXIII-38] The information which has reached us for the years previous to 1817 is both meagre and contradictory. One authority has it that Spain undoubtedly received every year till 1809 a net revenue of a little over 50,000 pesos; another claims that a yearly allowance of 150,000 pesos came from the treasury of New Spain. _Torrente_, _Revol. Hisp. Am._, i. 23-5; _Mex._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1875, 65. In 1812 the Sp. córtes abolished the tribute till then exacted from the Indians. _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1811-12, xi. 376.

[XXXIII-39] Including 157,681 pesos from excise, 3,872 pesos from gunpowder, and 256,975 from tobacco. During those five years the tobacco monopoly had sales amounting to 2,920,316 pesos, the expenses being 1,325,869 pesos, leaving a clear profit to the treasury of 1,594,447 pesos, or an average of 318,890 pesos a year. _Dunn's Guat._, 214.

[XXXIII-40] 'Habia desaparecido durante la esclavitud del imperio.' _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 140.

[XXXIII-41] The public debt amounted to $3,726,144, and the yearly expenses were nearly $900,000, to meet which the revenue was totally inadequate. The several states were in no better condition, inasmuch as the revenue from stamped paper, rum, excise, and other small sources, which had been assigned them, was not enough for their needs.

[XXXIII-42] A security for the payment of the interest and of the sinking fund to extinguish the principal, the revenue from tobacco and customs was hypothecated. Under the contract the interest was payable quarterly together with $50,000 for the sinking fund. It was calculated that the debt would be extinguished in twenty years, and that the interest would come to $482,571. _El Indicador de Guat._, Apr. 21, May 18, 1826; _Guat._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1830-1.

[XXXIII-43] A natural result of selling $100 bonds at $30, and paying $100 the next year. The govt was shamefully swindled by the few men who had a share in the transactions. _Id._, 1846, 51-6. On the other hand, the funds received from the loan were misapplied. _Marure_, _Bosq. Hist. Cent. Am._, 142-7.

[XXXIII-44] Direct imposts: Guatemala's sources of revenue were 3 per thousand on the assessed value of real estate, military, and road taxes. Several others existing as late as 1882, such as a tax on sugar-cane, were suppressed. Indirect duties on imports and exports, and port charges paid by ships. Stamped paper, slaughtering cattle, imposts on native flour, salt, inheritances, and endowments, and 5 per ct on sales and transfers of real estate. Monopoly of spirituous liquors, tobacco since 1879, gunpowder, and saltpetre. To these are to be added a number of other means of lesser import, but which in the aggregate yield considerably over $100,000.

[XXXIII-45] From the following sources, namely: direct taxation, $176,908; indirect ditto, $1,916,987; govt monopolies, $1,549,173; special revenue, $323,212; divers and extraordinary receipts, $88,577; contracts and divers negotiations, $2,569,418, being for temporary loans, etc. The total amount of revenue from customs included in the item of indirect taxation was $1,485,280, mostly collected at the general custom-house in Guatemala city; to which must be added $52,793 collected on the frontiers, $3,734 for export duties, and $1,530 for port charges. The revenue from imports in the four preceding years were: 1879, $1,501,729; 1880, $2,008,237; 1881, $211,765; and 1882, $1,679,047. The total revenue from all sources from 1852 to 1862 footed up $8,442,835; from 1863 to 1871, $8,547,529; 1871 yielded only $750,848; 1872-9, $19,571,233; 1880, $4,158,199; 1881, $4,423,964; 1882, $4,131,945. The net proceeds or actual revenue from the sale of spirituous liquors for 1878-83 was $6,178,095; from tobacco, 1879, for licenses, $8,656; 1880, two months, $32,232; 1881-3, $484,263. The total amount of municipal revenue throughout the republic was $485,622 in 1883, and $535,364 in 1884. _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1873, 1880-4; _Id._, _Fomento_, 1885.

[XXXIII-46] The outlay in 1855 appears to have been $993,522, including $317,094 applied to payment of the public debt; 1864, $1,130,708; 1879, $4,526,263, as follows: Ordinary expenses, $2,728,457; public works, $27,837; advance to the railway company, $200,000; payment of warrants, reimbursement of temporary loans, etc., $1,569,969; 1881, $7,313,889, of which only $3,333,470 was for expenses; $163,241 was for purchase of tobacco, powder, and saltpetre; the balance to payment of debts; 1882, $6,503,422, of which $3,414,747 was for the actual expenses. _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 84-5; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 1527; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1880-4.

[XXXIII-47] In order to be enabled to meet expenses, and payments of the internal debt, the rate of duties on imports was raised in 1873 and again in 1879. It also established an export duty of 12½ cents per quintal on coffee. In 1879, after consolidating the whole debt, 40 per cent of the customs revenue was reserved for its gradual payment.

[XXXIII-48] The interest and portion of the sinking fund were made payable twice a year; viz., April 1st and Oct. 1st. After several deductions, the amount actually received in Guat. was $1,351,069. One of the deductions was of £15,000 for retiring from the London market £20,000 five per cent bonds of the federal loan, purchased at 75 per cent. _Samayoa_, _Apuntam._, 1885, 29-37; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, pt 1, 72; _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1873, 24-5; _Pan. Canal_, Jan. 13, 1883; _Id._, _Cronista_, Feb. 21, 1883; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1880-4.

[XXXIII-49] According to the calculation of the secretary of the treasury, it had become increased on Apr. 1, 1880, to $3,404,967.

[XXXIII-50] _Guat. Presupuesto Gen._, 1886, 111-14.

[XXXIII-51] The chief sources are import duties and port charges, export duty on woods, tax on spirituous liquors, stamped paper, tobacco, and gunpowder monopoly, etc. Squier, _Cent. Am._, 271, estimated the revenue in 1856 at about $250,000; but Astaburuaga, _Cent. Am._, 71-3, sets it down at $154,248, and deducting $37,713 for loans and other receipts not belonging to ordinary revenue, and $24,000 for two years' interest on the English debt, there remained $92,535 to meet an expenditure calculated at $116,898. The assembly voted for 1857, $134,253; 1858, $119,852; 1859, $132,912. In 1857 and 1858 $40,000 more had to be added, owing to political disturbances. _Wappäus_, _Mex. und Cent. Am._, 306. In 1867 the receipts seem to have been about $200,000, exceeding the expense some $17,000. _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527. Those of 1869 are set down at about $560,000. _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1873, 88. For 1872 they were estimated at $400,000. _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 791. According to President Soto's message in 1883, the revenue in 1881 was $1,120,175, and in 1882, $1,298,878. _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883; June 2, 1886.

[XXXIII-52] It is understood that President Bogran, in his efforts to diminish the expenditures, reduced in 1886 his own and other salaries. _Id._, June 2, 1886.

[XXXIII-53] Pres. Soto, in his message of 1883, says that the opinion prevailed in Europe that Honduras had been victimized; he believed that in truth and justice the republic cannot be held responsible for the enormous debt. Indeed, it is of a very questionable origin. It was contracted for the alleged purpose of constructing an interoceanic railway. There were four loans negotiated; namely, two in London, in 1867, for the nominal amount of £1,000,000, issued at 80 with 10 per cent interest; another in 1868 at Paris for the nominal sum of 62,252,700 francs, issued at 75 and 6 per cent interest, and the last in London in 1870, for £2,500,000, issued at 80 and 10 per cent interest. _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 791; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, 1883; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 10, 1884.

[XXXIII-54] The chief sources were customs, monopoly of spirituous liquors, tobacco, and gunpowder, stamped paper, etc. The receipts of 1848-56, including $175,419 for loans in 1856, were $3,408,068, averaging $359,183 a year; for 1866-9, $3,224,348, or $806,087 per year; for 1870-4, $4,930,238, or $1,232,560 yearly; for 1875-8, $7,880,316, or an average of $1,970,079. Expenditures: 1848-56, $3,251,802; 1867-8, $1,468,850; 1873-8, $9,269,113. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 307; _Salv._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, 1851; March 20, 1877; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, March 24, 25, 1875; March 13, 14, 1878; _Costa R._, _Boletin Ofic._, March 14, 1855; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 23, 1867; Feb. 22, 1868; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 76; _Camp's Year-Book_, 1869, 527; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 1, 1869; Aug. 29, 1874; May 10, 1875; Feb. 26, 1884; Sept. 29, 1886; _Id._, _Cronista_, Jan. 20, 1883; _Jülfs_, _Die Seehäfen_, 36; _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1873, 88; _Salv._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1875-9; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 190-1.

[XXXIII-55] The greater portion was Salvador's share of the federal debt; which was augmented by several foreign claims aggregating about $100,000. No interest on the federal debt had been paid since 1848. _Squier's Cent. Am._, 308.

[XXXIII-56] I find that the republic paid up in 24 years, prior to 1875, $4,833,775 to cover both the federal debt and its own—an equivalent of about a million and a quarter every five years by a population of only 600,000 souls. _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Apr. 6, Aug. 4, Oct. 28, 1875; Oct. 17, 1878; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 15, 1878; _Am. Cyclop._, xiv. 610; _Mex._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1873, 25; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guatém._, 191; _Salv._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1875; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Apr. 16, 1874; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 26, 1884.

[XXXIII-57] The chief sources of revenue are those of customs, slaughtering cattle, and sales of spirituous liquors, tobacco, gunpowder, and stamped paper. The total revenue of 1845 amounted to $74,911, a sum entirely inadequate to meet the most necessary expenses of the government. The import duty was 20 per cent ad valorem, to which was added 8 per cent. The only export duty was 1 to 3 per cent on gold, silver, and precious stones. A transit duty of 5 per cent was levied on goods passing through Nic. to the other states. Merchant vessels paid 50 cts per ton. The total revenue from customs in 1846 was $51,818; from internal taxation, $3,626; from rum, etc, $24,260. The revenue from tobacco was pledged to the Brit. govt, in order to ransom the port of San Juan del Norte. Other sources were insignificant. Receipts of 1851, $122,686; 1857-60, $1,327,637; 1861-70, $5,665,877. The tariff of imports was modified in Dec. 1868, and increased 10 per cent in Feb. 1870. Agricultural implements, materials for mining, and other articles, were exempted from import duty by a law of Nov. 2, 1869. The revenue from customs became flourishing, and yielded in 1883 $1,275,506, due to the law of Sept. 25, 1879, which raised the duties on several articles, and changed the mode of collecting from ad valorem to weight. It seems that most goods paid no more under the new system than formerly; but much fraud was averted. Imports generally paid 50 per cent ad val. The port of San Juan del Norte and the Mosquito reservation have a free zone, the merchants of San Juan paying a tax in lieu of import duties. Receipts of 1871, $958,922; 1873-80, $8,416,879; 1881-2, $3,351,767, an increase of $951,674 over the preceding two years. _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 311; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 353-8; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 6, 1863; March 18, Apr. 29, 1865; Jan. 20, 1866; March 21, 1868; Jan. 2, 23, 30, Nov. 6, 1869; May 27, 1871; Jan. 20, 1872; _Id._, _Decretos_, 1869-70, 123; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 1, 1883.

[XXXIII-58] Expenses of the supreme powers, $112,548; departments of the interior, $513,069; war, $389,466; treasury, $1,353,612; foreign relations, $762,457; sundries, $109,787. During this term was paid $57,586 outstanding from the preceding, the ordinary expenses of administration; for improvements, $563,918; and extraordinary expenses caused by disturbances. The expenditures in 1846 and 1851 were $106,145 and $173,646, respectively, in both cases creating deficits; in 1859-60, $652,515; 1861-70, $5,316,951; 1871-2, $1,721,355; 1873-4, $1,995,040. Those of the following years kept pace with the increased revenues; but large sums were appropriated to internal improvements, education, and other purposes conducive to the intellectual and material advancement of the republic. _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, for years 1846 to 1883; and the _Gacetas_ quoted in the preceding note.

[XXXIII-59] She had on the 15th of Sept., 1867, recognized £45,000 as her proportion. _Nic._, _Gaceta_, March 28, 1868.

[XXXIII-60] _Presid. Cárdenas_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 15, 1885, in _Costa R._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 4, 1885. For further information, see the biennial reports of the minister of the treasury; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 358-60; _Am. Cyclop._, xii. 424; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Feb. 1, 1883.

[XXXIII-61] From customs, $427,395, which was less than had been expected; liquor monopoly, $200,168; stamped paper and stamps, $63,033; paper money issued, $310,764; the balance from sundry sources. The receipts in specie were $1,046,967. The law of Dec. 10, 1839, first established the sources of revenue for the state govt as follows: Maritime and internal duties on merchandise; purchase and coinage of bullion; sales of public lands; monopoly in cultivation and sale of tobacco; sale of gunpowder, stamped paper, domestic and foreign liquors; postage, excise, confiscation of contraband goods, and fines. _Montúfar_, _Reseña Hist._, iii. 272, 570.

[XXXIII-62] A new tariff, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1886, was decreed, subjecting imported merchandise to specific duties, and considerably modifying the tariff of 1877. Gold and silver in bullion, bars, dust, or coin, as also fence wire, lightning rods, machinery for agriculture, material and tools for ship-building, ships, and animals were exempted from duty. _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 12, 13, 1885; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxv. 15-47. The following figures show approximately the receipts of the government for about forty years past, to wit: 1845, $132,000—there is no published history of the finances of Costa R. prior to 1845; 1847-50, $1,006,207; 1851-60, $5,956,873; 1861-70, $8,518,636; 1871-82, $30,475,828, less amounts included, which were merely casual receipts, $4,545,277, leaving for actual revenue, $25,930,551. _Molina_, _Bosq. Costa R._, 45; _Squier's Cent. Am._, 470-1; _Astaburuaga_, _Cent. Am._, 43; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), vi. 398; _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Hac._, 1852-85.

[XXXIII-63] As near as I have been able to ascertain, the outlay of the Costa Rican treasury has been, for 1847-50, $986,245; 1851-60, $6,637,124; 1861-70, $9,682,265; 1871-82, $32,362,189. _Id._; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 14, 1886.

[XXXIII-64] 'Se logró la total cancelacion de la deuda inglesa.' _Costa R._, _Informe Min. Hac., etc._, 1848, 16.

[XXXIII-65] The history of these loans, as furnished in the reports of the Costa Rican treasury department, is the following: In 1871, Costa Rica contracted with Bischoffsheim and Goldsmidt for a loan of the nominal amount of £1,000,000, at 72 with 6 per cent interest, and 2 per cent for a sinking fund; however, per agreement of May 5, 1871, the rate was reduced to 56, and only yielded £560,000. Bischoffsheim and Goldsmidt retained £105,000, which reduced the proceeds to £455,000, and this sum was further diminished £42,000, leaving only £413,000, or somewhat less than 42 per cent. A new loan was negotiated in 1872, with Knowles and Foster of London, which appeared as for £2,400,000, but did not exceed £2,226,500, the difference not having been taken up. The negotiation was at 82, with interest at 7 per cent, and 1 per cent for a sinking fund. This loan actually yielded to Costa Rica £598,611 18_s._ 5_d._, which is explained thus: Knowles and Foster paid over to E. Erlanger and Co. of London in money £1,576,240 9_s._ 1_d._, the difference between this sum and that taken up being £650,259. Erlanger and Co. were the syndics of the loan under the 8th clause of the contract with Knowles and Foster, and had bound themselves to take up £800,000 of it. Under the 3d and 4th clauses, they were empowered to repurchase bonds for account of Costa Rica, though subject to the following conditions: 1st. That the repurchasing should be indispensable to secure the success of the loan; 2d. It was not to be done with the £800,000 Erlanger and Co. were bound for; and 3d. The operations were not to be effected but within 30 days of the issue. This condition was violated. Erlanger and Co. claimed to have repurchased with the money received by them bonds of both the 6 per cent and 7 per cent loans to the value of £1,426,500. The result of this transaction was that the loan, save the £800,000 taken up by Erlanger and Co., was exhausted; and yet it was said, in and out of Costa Rica, that her government had received $17,000,000. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), vi. 398. The whole yield of both loans was but £1,011,611 18_s._ 5_d._, or $5,058,060. Besides the £105,000 retained by Bischoffsheim and Goldsmidt, under the pretext of securing the interest of the 6 per cent loan, the government remitted for interest and sinking fund £135,000, which were taken from the very funds received, and reduced them to £876,611 18_s._ 5_d._ Moreover, under an agreement with Erlanger and Co., the government of Costa Rica was authorized to draw on them for £150,000. Its drafts were allowed to go to protest, and the amounts drawn for had to be replaced. The government felt that it had been victimized, and in order to protect the country's good name, after consultation with legal lights of London, established suits at law against the parties. The suit has cost a great deal of money; early in 1877 $373,380 had been paid for expense. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1874-7. Should the decisions of the British courts be against Costa Rica, her financial situation should not be deemed very alarming, as is made apparent. The 7 per cent loan, reduced to Costa Rican money at 9 per cent, £2,226,500, nominal $12,134,425.

Bonds repurchased, £1,026,500 $5,594,425

Received from Erlanger and Co., and appearing among the liabilities, £598,611 18_s._ 5_d._ 3,262,435

Amount not appearing among the liabilities, £601,388 1_s._ 7_d._ 3,277,565 ----------- $12,134,425

Accepting the responsibility for the whole 7 per cent loan, it would amount to $12,134,425, deducting $3,262,435, and $5,594,425 for repurchased bonds, the total sum not included in the liability in 1876 would be reduced to $3,277,565, to which must be added $13,517, balance of the 6 per cent loan, making $3,291,082. Advantageous offers were received from Europe to extinguish the debt, which, if accepted, would reduce the nominal indebtedness of $11,990,000 to $2,398,000. This loan was negotiated for funds to build a railway. The road has cost $12,239,296, and its three sections are valued in 1883 at $6,600,000. _Id._, 1872-5, 1883, annexes 7 and 8.

[XXXIII-66] _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 29, 1884; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, Sept. 4, 1885. Half a million dollars was voted by congress in July 1886 to the extinction of the internal debt. _Id._, Aug. 14, 1886.

[XXXIII-67] From customs, $145,000; rum, $24,000; loans, $42,500; received from Spain, $10,000; voluntary and forced contributions, $150,000; judicial deposits, $101,000; papal dispensation bulls, $27,000—were among the items. _Lloyd's Notes Isth. Pan._, in _Roy. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, i. 99.

[XXXIII-68] Including $4,527, balance from the preceding year; $86,820 of loans; $70,000 from customs; $15,820, duties on tobacco. _Id._, 98.

[XXXIII-69] The general government decreed in 1849 the suppression of tithes; requiring of the several provinces of the Isthmus to make up the amount which the suppressed tax yielded the previous year. The aggregate was to be applied to cover national expenses. _Pinart_, _Pan. Col. Doc._, MS., no. 86, p. 14; _Pan._, _Crónica Ofic._, Oct. 23, 1849.

[XXXIII-70] The commercial tax was not to be more than double that assessed in 1885. The general govt on the 1st of April, 1885, established a salt monopoly, and in the same year decreed the reëstablishment of custom-houses at the Isthmus ports. This decree was subsequently suspended. _La Estrella de Pan._, May 16, 1885; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 2, 4, Dec. 30, 1885. The budgets for the ten years from 1867 to 1876 amounted together to $3,018,391, and the appropriations voted for the same year were $3,335,084. The absence of regular accounts for the period 1867-75 renders it impossible to find out what were the actual receipts and expenditures. The revenue from Jan. 1, 1876, to June 30, 1877, was $339,526, and the expenses reached $356,483, though only $274,298 were paid. The revenue collected from July 1, 1877, to June 30, 1878, $218,095; the assembly voted for expenses of that fiscal year $382,841, but the government seems to have paid out only $226,278. For 1880-1 the legislature computed the revenue at $300,628. It had the preceding year authorized the executive to increase the commercial tax 25 per cent. The expenditures for the year were estimated at $316,077. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Jen._, 1878, 43-6, 48; 1879, 3, 32-3; _Id._, _Leyes_, 1879-80, 8, 9, 64-78.

[XXXIII-71] $81,375 of it bore interest at 6 per cent. _Pan._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1879, 37. Dec. 19, 1879, the legislature authorized the executive to borrow $50,000 at 12 per cent. For further information, see _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 17, 1870, to Sept. 1, 1881, passim.

[XXXIV-1] See summary of geographical knowledge and discovery from the earliest records to the year 1540. _Hist. Cent. Am._, i. 68-154, this series.

[XXXIV-2] They thus argued from the first: Quintus Metellus Celer, proconsul of Rome in Gaul, was presented by the king of Suevia with a number of red men, who had been thrown upon his coast. So said Cornelius Nepos, and Pliny repeated it. Now these savages, having no knowledge of ships or navigation, could not have come from America; they were not black, and consequently were not from Africa. There were no people in Europe like them; so they must have come from Asia. But how? Either from the east or from the west; they could not have rounded the eastern hemisphere either by its northern or southern side, for obvious reasons; therefore they must have come from the north-west, and hence there must be a way from Asia north-eastward to Europe, running round the north pole. Upon this logic were staked thousands of lives and millions of money. Dominicus Marius Niger, the geographer, speaks of men who were driven from India through the north sea to Germany, while on a trading expedition. As late as 1160, some strange persons arrived on the coast of Germany. Humboldt thought they might have been Eskimos. Othon, in his _Storie of the Gothes_, speaks of such arrivals, arguing that they must have drifted in through a north-west passage. Gilbert's Discourse, in _Hakluyt_, iii. 16-17. Again, Hakluyt finds it recorded that some 200 years before the coming of Christ, the Romans sent a fleet against the Grand Khan, which, crossing the strait of Gibraltar, and steering toward the N. W., in lat 50° found a channel, in which it sailed to the westward until it reached Asia, and after fighting the king of Cathay, returned by the way it went.

[XXXIV-3] _Hist. Cal._, i. 1-109; _Hist. Northwest Coast_, i. 1-342; _Hist. North Mexican States and Texas_, i. 1-201; _Hist. Oregon_, i. I will add, in this connection, that Juan de Ayola, with 200 Spaniards, in 1535 crossed from the Paraguay River to Peru. Irola, twelve years later, ascended the Paraguay River to 17° S., crossed the mountains to the Guapay River, and succeeded in establishing communications between Peru and her dependency, La Plata. _Lardner's Cabinet Cyclop._, ii. 90.

[XXXIV-4] They fitted out two vessels, Le Maire advancing most of the money, and going on the voyage as supercargo, Van Schouten as commander. They doubled the cape with one remaining ship in Jan. 1616. The Spaniards afterward completed the exploration, and their forts in Magellan Sound became useless. The straits of Magellan have been, however, used in late years as the transit of an English steamship line.

[XXXIV-5] Previously several attempts had been made. Kotzebue, of the Russian navy, went in 1815 to Bering Strait, and the next year discovered the sound bearing his name. Golovnin made a voyage also, but accomplished nothing. The English made a number of efforts, which, if unsuccessful in not attaining the main object, added much to geographic knowledge. Herewith I give the expeditions fitted out in England, or under English auspices. In 1818 two ships, the _Dorothea_ and _Trent_, under Buchan and Franklin, went to the Spitzbergen waters, but could not advance far. Two other ships, the _Isabella_ and _Alexander_, under John Ross and W. E. Parry, were ordered to Davis Strait and verified Baffin's exploration of Baffin Bay. Ross entered Lancaster Sound, and reached 81° 30' W. by 74° 3' N. Parry made three other voyages, in 1819, 1821, and 1824, in the last of which one of his ships, the _Fury_, was wrecked in seeking a passage through Regent Inlet. In 1827 he attempted the polar voyage in sled-boats from Spitzbergen, reaching 82° 40' 30", the farthest point hitherto attained. Capt. John Franklin tried to find the passage overland from York Factory on the west coast of Hudson Bay. He wintered at Fort Chepeweyan in 1819, and in the _Enterprise_ in 1820. In July 1821 he navigated the Arctic sea, east of Coppermine River, a considerable distance, hoping from the trend of the coast to reach Hudson Bay. Want of provisions compelled the abandonment of the expedition, and after severe hardships, and journeying 5,500 miles, reached Great Slave Lake in Dec. 1821. Lyon in 1824 attained Sir Thomas Rowe's Welcome. Franklin renewed his land survey of the Arctic coasts, 1825-7. He wintered in 1825 on Great Bear Lake, descended the Mackenzie, and surveyed the coast line westward to Return Reef in 70° 26' N., and 148° 52' W. Meanwhile Richardson and Kendall of his party made a voyage from Mackenzie to Coppermine River, doubling several capes, and completing the survey of the coast through 60 degrees of longitude. Beechey in 1826 in the _Blossom_ explored the coast from Kotzebue Sound to Icy Bay. One of his parties reached Cape Barrow. He waited for Franklin till Oct. 1827, and returned home via Cape Horn. Ross in 1829 tried to find a passage through Regent Inlet, but had to abandon his ship in Victoria Harbor, near 70°. P. W. Dease and T. Simpson in 1837-9 made important explorations between Point Barrow and Mackenzie River; the portion on the east side between Point Turnagain and the estuary of the Back's Great Fish River; and also the south sides of Victoria Land and King William Land. John Rae of the Hudson's Bay Company surveyed a part of the Arctic coast east. In 1845 he surveyed Regent Inlet east and west, found an isthmus between Regent Inlet and the sea explored by Dease and Simpson. Franklin and Crozier were despatched in May 1845 with two stout ships, the _Erebus_ and _Terror_, well supplied for three years. The expedition sent letters from Whalefish Island, near Disco, and was last seen on July 26th waiting to cross the 'middle ice' on to Lancaster Sound, 220 miles distant. The orders were to proceed to about 74¼° N. lat. and 98° W. long.; thence take a S. and W. course for Bering's Strait, the passage west from Melville Island being precluded. A number of expeditions were despatched in search of Franklin; namely, one under John Richardson and Rae, 1847-9; ships _Enterprise_ and _Investigator_ under Ross and Bird, 1848-9; _Herald_ and _Plover_ under Kellet and Moore, 1848-52; _North Star_, commanded by Saunders, 1849-50; the _Investigator_ and _Enterprise_, in 1850, under McClure and Collinson; whaler _Advice_, under Goodsir; a squadron commanded by Austin, consisting of the _Resolute_ and the _Assistance_. Capt. Ommaney with two steam tenders under lieuts Osborn and McClintock; several ships sent by Franklin's wife; Rae in 1851; expedition under Edward Belcher, 1852-4; ships _Amphitrite_ and _Plover_, 1852-5; McCormick in 1852; Rae in 1853-4; Anderson in 1855; and several others, among which deserve mention the American expeditions under lieut De Haven and S. P. Griffin, E. K. Kane, Hayes, Hall, and Schwatka; most of whom made important geographical discoveries and found relics of Franklin's party. It was ascertained beyond a doubt that Franklin sailed up Wellington Channel to 77°, descended by the west side of Cornwallis Island, and wintered 1845-6 at Beechey Island. The wintering positions of the ships were in 1846-7-8 off the north end of King William's Island. Franklin died June 11, 1847, and the ships were abandoned near the above spot Apr. 22, 1848, Capt. Crozier intending to lead the 105 survivors to Great Fish River. Only 40 men reached the vicinity of this river, and all died, according to Eskimo accounts. On this journey Lancaster Strait was connected with the navigable channel along the continent, and the existence of the north-west passage proved. _Richardson's Polar Regions_, 136-7, 146-9, 151-202; _Lardner's Cabinet Cyclop._, iii. 176-7, 198-247; _Tytler's Hist. View_, 133-4, 283-92; _Franklin's Narr._, i. ii.; _Quarterly Rev._, xviii. 219; _Am. Jour._, xvi. 130-2; _Encyclop. Brit._, xi. 347; xviii. 329-30; xix. 331-2, 335-8; _Dictionnaire de la Conversation_, xii. 2; xiii. 608-10.

[XXXIV-6] Sent by Capt. Pellet on Barrow Strait, and was guided by a message left by McClure at Winter Harbor on Melville Island.

[XXXIV-7] Nordenskiöld, a Swedish professor and experienced navigator, with the steamer _Vega_, commanded by Lieut Palander, on the 19th of August, 1878, reached Cape Severo or Tchelyusken, the most northern point of Siberia and of the Old World in 77° 41' N., and steered a south-easterly course, the sea free from ice and quite shallow. Aug. 27th the mouth of the Lena River was passed, the _Vega_ parting company with her tender, the _Lena_, and continuing her course eastward; she almost accomplished the passage that first season; but toward the end of Sept. the _Vega_ was frozen in off the shore of a low plain in 67° 7' N. and 173° 20' W. near the settlement of the Chugaches. After an imprisonment of 294 days, the _Vega_ on the 18th of July, 1879, continued her voyage, and on the 20th passed Bering Strait. Nordenskiöld, without loss of life or damage to his ship, arrived at Yokohama Sept. 2, 1879. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), xix. 337.

[XXXIV-8] For canal: I. Tehuantepec, connecting the rivers Coatzacoalcos and Chimilapa. II. Honduras. III. River San Juan de Nicaragua: 3. River San Cárlos, Gulf of Nicoya. Nicaragua Lake: 4. Rivers Niño and Tempisque, Gulf of Nicoya; 5. River Sapoa, Bay of Salinas; 6. San Juan del Sur; 7. Port Brito. Managua Lake: 8. River Tamarindo; 9. Port Realejo; 10. Bay of Fonseca. IV. Panamá: River Chagres: 11. Gorgona, Panamá; 12. Trinidad, Caimito; 13. Navy Bay, Rivers Chagres, Bonito and Bernardo; 14. Gulf of San Blas, and River Chepo. V. Darien: 15. Bay of Caledonia, Port Escocés, Gulf of San Miguel; 16. Rivers Arguia, Paya, and Tuyra, Gulf of San Miguel. River Atrato: 17. River Napipi, Bay of Cupica; 18. River Uruando, Kelley's Inlet. Overland. 1st. Coatzacoalcos, Tehuantepec; 2d. Bay of Honduras to Bay of Fonseca; 3d. River San Juan, Nicaragua, Managua, Bay of Fonseca; 4th. Port Limon to Caldera, Costa Rica; 5th. Laguna de Chiriquí on Golfo Dulce; 6th. Colon, Gorgona, and Panamá; 7th. Gorgon Bay, Realejo; 8th. Gorgon Bay and San Juan del Sur. _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, cliii. 9-10; _Davis' Rept_, 20.

[XXXIV-9] A survey made in 1715 was sent to the secret archives of Madrid, where other like documents lie hidden. In 1774 the Spanish officers Corral and Cramer, after inspecting the route reported that a canal of about eight leagues might join the Chimalapa and Malpaso rivers, and establish a communication between the two streams. The Spanish general Orbegoso in 1821 explored this isthmus, and formed a map, which was not published till 1839. In 1825 he showed that it was not easy to carry a through-canal across Tehuantepec. In 1842-3 a survey was made under the auspices of José de Garay by C. Moro and others, to determine the practicability of a ship canal by way of the Coatzacoalcos to the gulf of Tehuantepec. The objections to the route were shown to be the expense of cutting, the uncertainty of water upon the summit level, and inadequate ports at the termini. Garay, however, announced as practicable a canal of the same size as the Caledonia, in Scotland, and was put in possession of lands, etc.; but nothing came of the transaction but diplomatic complications resulting from Garay's transfer of his grant to a foreign company. Finally, the Mexican congress in 1851 declared the grant forfeited. _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, ci., iii., 8-9; _Duflot de Mofras_, _Explor. de l'Oregon_, 119; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 183-4, 188-9; _Córtes_, _Diario_, 1813, xix. 392; _Robles_, _Prov. Chiapa_, 70; _Chevalier_, _Pan._, 61-2; _Mex. Col. Dec. y Ord._, 115; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, _Ord. y Dec._, iii. 113-14; _Bustamante_, _Med. Pacific_, MS., ii., supplem. 15; _Mex. Mem. Sec. Rel._, 47-8; _Rivera_, _Gobern. Mex._, ii. 116; _Id._, _Hist. Jalapa_, ii. 362; iv. 211, 225, 236; _Dublan_ and _Lozano_, _Legisl. Mej._, i. 738-9; _Instituto Nac. de Geog._, Bol. No. 1, 30-43, with map and profile; _Ward's Mex._, i. 311; _Liot's Pan., Nic. and Tehuan._, 6-12; _Ramirez_, _Mem._, 1-108; _Garay_, _Privilegio_, 1-28; _Id._, _Survey Isth. Tehuan._, 3-188; _Manero_, _Notic. Hist._, 51-6; _Id._, _Apunt. Hist._, 12-13; _Mex. Mem. Sec. Guerra_, 1852, 19-22; _Id._, _Mem. Instruc. de los derechos_, etc., in _Mexican Financier_, no. 1, 1-39. In 1850-1 an American commission headed by Maj. Barnard, U. S. Engineers, surveyed the route, who reported it to possess but little 'merits as a practicable line for the construction of a ship canal.' _Davis' Report_, 5-6. In 1869 officers of the U. S. surveyed the route, and made a favorable report. In 1870 Capt. R. W. Shuffeldt, of the U. S. navy, made another survey, which confirmed the conclusions of the former, to the effect that no extraordinary engineering difficulties existed, as sufficient water could be had from rivers in the Sierra Madre to supply the canal. The route begins about 30 miles above the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos, and after traversing a long distance, rises to a level of about 680 ft, then descends to the lagoon on the Pacific, a total distance of 120 miles. The distance from New Orleans to Hongkong would be 8,245 miles less than by Cape Horn, and 1,588 less than by way of Panamá. _Am. Cyclop._, iii. 690; _Manero_, _Apunt. Hist._, 13-15.

[XXXIV-10] By resolution of the Mexican congress, the contract of the American company was declared void in Oct. 1882, and soon after the govt made an arrangement to have the road built on its own account. _Id._, _Artículos, Soc. Arquit._, 7-10; _S. F. Call_, Oct. 5, 1882; _Mex._, _Diario Ofic._, Oct. 10, 17, 18, 20, 1882.

[XXXIV-11] _Mex._, _Diario Debates_, 10th Cong., i. 273-1930, passim.; _Id._, _El Noticioso_, Nov. 29, 1880; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, xxxvi. 320-4; _Id._, _Diario Ofic._, June 2, 1881; Aug. 10, 23, 1882; _Mex'n Financier_, Dec. 13, 20, 27, 1884; Jan. 10, 24, 1885.

[XXXIV-12] The Mexican govt guaranteed in 1885 one and a quarter million dollars per annum for 15 years. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Jan. 16, 1886.

[XXXIV-13] Gov. Pedrarias Dávila had the outlet of lakes Nicaragua and Managua discovered. His officers Este and Rojas favored the plan of a canal round the falls of the San Juan, and another on the Pacific slope. The project occupied the court and colony for many years. _Herrera_, iv., iii., ii.; _Cent. Am._, _Extractos Sueltos_, in _Squier's MS._, xxii. 108; _Fröbel_, _Aus. Am._, i. 144, 241. The plan not only engaged the Spaniards but the French and English, the latter contemplating the conquest of the country. The royal engineer Manuel Galisteo in 1781, the system of locks being little known then, declared the connection of the lake with the Pacific to be impracticable. In 1791 La Bastide proposed widening the river Sapoa between the lake and Papagayo Gulf, and cutting a canal between that river and the gulf of Nicoya; but the French revolution caused the matter to be forgotten. In 1814 the Spanish córtes decreed the survey and construction, but subsequent political events made that decree inoperative. _Saravia_, _Bosq. Polít. Est._, 13-17; _Viajero_, _Univ._, xxvii. 180-4; _Bastide_, _Mém. Sur. Nouv. Passage_, 1-70; _Humboldt_, _Essai Polít._, i. 1-17; _Bourgoane's Trav._, in _Pinkerton's Coll._, ii. 498-9; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 169-70; _Duflot de Mofras_, _Explor. de l'Oregon_, i. 137; _Squier's Nic._, 658.

[XXXIV-14] Herewith I give a synopsis of what occurred. In 1823 a franchise was given to John Baily for a house in London, who did nothing, and the privilege was granted to parties in New York, who also failed to carry out the stipulations. Numerous proposals came between 1825 and 1829, which were successively accepted, but neither of them had effect. In 1829 a franchise was decreed to the king of Holland, and there was some prospect of a canal being constructed; but the war which detached Belgium from Holland broke out, and the king abandoned the project. President Morazan then contemplated doing the work on Central American account, and the survey was begun in 1837, interrupted by Morazan's fall, but continued in 1838 for account of Nicaragua. This same year Edward Belcher, of the Brit. navy, suggested the possibility of an artificial communication between Lake Managua and the bay of Fonseca. Baily's explorations along the line from Rio Lajas to San Juan del Sur were terminated in 1843, and their publication furnished exact data on the canal. Meanwhile, P. Rouhand (1839), Viteri (1840), Castellon and Jerez (1842), had unsuccessfully tried to raise funds for the work in Europe. The king of France in 1844 refused his coöperation. In 1846 Louis Napoleon became warmly interested for a time. Great Britain in 1847 seized San Juan del Norte on the north, and Tiger Island on the south. Louis Napoleon turned his thoughts to other subjects. Örsted studied, in 1847-8, for the Costa Rican govt, a canal project which differed from Baily's in choosing a low line south of San Juan del Sur along the Sapoa River into Salinas Bay. Nicaragua in 1848 entered into a contract to build the canal with a house in New York, which, however, surrendered it. _Baily's Cent. Am._, 127-50; _Annales des Voy._, cliii. 14-17; clvii. 16-17; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, xxviii. (1825), 370-82; xxxii. (1826), 369-74; _Squier's Trav._, ii. 251-80, 405-20; _Id._, _Nic._, 658; _Liot's Pan. Nic. and Tehuan._, 13-16; _Niles' Reg._, xxx. 447; xxxi. 2, 72-3; lxiv. 130-1; lxv. 57-61; lxvii. 148; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Dec. 16, 1879; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 171-3; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xiv. 127-9; xx. 172; _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, 241; _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 84-7, 137; _Id._, _Carte d'études_, 35-45; _Strain's Int. Comm._, 7-8; _Garella_, _Projet_, 182-8; _Sampson's Cent. Am._, 7-18; _Marure_, _Mem. Hist._, 1-47; _Bülow_, _Nic._, 44-57; _U. S. Comm. Rept_, 145, p. 230-65; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Sen. Miscel., Cong. 30, Sess. 1, no. 80, 69-75; _Id._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 31, Sess. 1, no. 75, 50-326, passim.

[XXXIV-15] This survey was considered reliable. English engineers pronounced Brito 'unworthy of this great ship navigation.' _Davis' Report_, 6-7.

[XXXIV-16] S. Bayley in 1852 proposed a route from La Vírgen to San Juan del Sur, nearly following that of the Transit Co. without passing through the valley of the Lajas, which Baily recommended in 1843. In 1853 E. G. Squier tried to revive Belcher's plan of utilizing both lakes, and reaching Fonseca Bay through the Conejo Valley and the Estero Real. Squier's proposed Honduras railway also was to reach that bay; and it is quite possible that he contemplated connecting the two works. Felix Belly, for Belly, Millaud, and Company, in a contract of May 1858 with the Nicaraguan government, purposed carrying into execution Örsted's proposition; but after several years' waiting without Belly or his assigns, the International Canal Co., accomplishing anything, or offering better prospects for the future, the government, in 1868, declared his contract forfeited, and entered into another with Michel Chevalier, from which better expectations were entertained; but they were destined not to be realized. Chevalier required, as a condition sine qua non, that the contract should be ratified by the Costa Rican congress. This took place a year later, and then came the war between France and Prussia, and Nicaragua's last effort, like all former ones, was frustrated. _Belly_, _Nic._, i. 31-50, 170-4, 401-6; ii. 1-13, 27-36, 59-464; _Id._, _Carte d'études_, 19-27, 49-91; _Nic. Canal de_, 1-21; _Col. Dec. y Acuerdos_, 1863, 39-40, 118; 1869-70, 8-23; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 1-14, 58, 116-34, 221-30, 322-70, 394; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 7, Apr. 8, 1865; March 20, Apr. 17, 1869; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1869, 8-9; _Id._, _Id._, _Hacienda_, 1869, 3-5; _Marcoleta_, _Min. Nic._, 1-32; _Hunt's Merch. Mag._, lv. 31-48; lvi. 32-4.

[XXXIV-17] _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Dec. 12, 24, 1863; Nov. 9, 1867.

[XXXIV-18] The exploration by Com. Lull, of the U. S. navy, established the existence of a practicable route for a canal with Lake Nicaragua as its summit level, 107 ft above mean tide. It was proposed to connect the lake with the Pacific by a canal 16.3 miles in length, from the mouth of the Medio River to Port Brito. The first 7.5 miles would require an excavation averaging 54 ft in depth, which would be the most costly part of the work. The plan calls for ten locks, and one tide-lock between the lake and the sea. The lake navigation is of 56 miles. The river San Juan would be improved by means of four dams; namely, at the rapids of Castillo, Balas, and Machuca, and at the mouth of the San Cárlos River, all of which places are suitable for dams. A short section of canal with one lock would be needed to get around each of the upper three dams. From the fourth dam to San Juan del Norte, an independent canal 41.4 miles long with 7 locks must be constructed, which presents no apparent engineering difficulty. The total length of the canal would be 61.7 miles. No tunnelling needed. The harbor of San Juan del Norte must be dredged, and otherwise improved, to insure that no water but that of the canal shall run into the harbor. Short breakwaters must be built to protect the entrances from the surf. Lake Nicaragua with a surface of 2,700 sq. miles, and a drainage area of 8,000 sq. miles, will supply 38 times the maximum possible demand of water. The depth of water would be 26 ft; the width at bottom 72 ft, and at surface 150 ft. The locks, 21 in number, with a lift of from 8 to 10 ft, would be 400 ft long, 72 ft wide. The cost was estimated at about eighty million dollars. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, _Sen. Jour._, 916, Cong. 41, Sess. 2; Id., H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 2, i. no. 1, pt. 1, 670-8; Id., 3d Sess., i. p. 160, 462-5; _Id._, _Sec. Navy Rept_, Cong. 43, Sess. 1, p. 10-12; _Id._, Nic. Ship Canal Route, Cong. 43, Sess. 1; _Lévy_, _Nic._, 428-40; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Aug. 20, 27, Oct. 22, Dec. 24, 1870; Oct. 21, 1871; Jan. 11, Feb. 22, July 12, 1873; March 21, June 6, Nov. 28, 1874; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1871, 10-16, 29-39; 1875, xiii.-xiv.; 1879, xxvii.-viii.; _Costa R._, _Col. Ley._, xix. 17-34, 180-1; _Id._, _Informe Sec. Rel._, 1872, 2-5; 1877, 2; 1885, 4-6, 47-54; _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Rel._, 1884, 6, 8, 9; _Pan. Canal_, March 5, 1883; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, Feb. 12, 14, 1883; _La Estrella de Pan._, Jan. 15, 1885; _El Guatemalteco_, March 4, 1884. It has been asserted that formidable obstacles exist to a permanent deep-water entrance at San Juan del Norte, owing to sand and other detritus carried into it by the San Juan River, rendering it shallow and dangerous. _Gisborne's Isth. Darien_, 8-11.

[XXXIV-19] The report of course gives in minute detail the engineering features of the three divisions. The proposed locks have a uniform length of 650 ft between gates, and at least 65 ft of width. The canal is to have a depth of 28 or 30 ft. It is anticipated that a ship can pass from San Juan to Brito in 30 hours. Thirty-two vessels can pass the canal in a day. Excellent materials for construction are at hand. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 5, 1885, and San Francisco newspapers.

[XXXIV-20] This latter objection seems to be disproved by the researches of the American engineers. But the great difficulty still remains about the establishment and future maintenance of a deep-water entrance to the canal at San Juan del Norte. _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), iv. 701.

[XXXIV-21] This Isthmus was surveyed in 1520 by two Flemish engineers, who reported adversely. The king for politic reasons would not have the subject mentioned again. So it has been said. _Duflot de Mofras_, _Explor. de l'Oregon_, i. 119. The section was repeatedly explored. In 1534 preliminary work for a ship canal was done, under royal order, by Gov. Gama. The Chagres River was made navigable to where the wagon road began. _Pan. Céd._, in _Squier's MSS._, xi. 1-6; _Andagoya_, _Carta al Rey._, in _Id._, 8; _Garella_, _Isth. de Pan._, 3-5; _Datos Biog._, in _Cartas de Ind._, 761. Various schemes were broached in the 17th century, meeting with no encouragement. In 1687 Lionel Wafer was guided by Mandinga Indians from the gulf of San Miguel to Concepcion on the Atlantic side. W. Paterson, from his settlement at Caledonia Harbor, made several journeys into the interior, recommending it to his company for interoceanic traffic. Ulloa and Jorge Juan explored Panamá for a route in 1736. _Juan_ and _Ulloa Voy._, i. 94; _Fitz-Roy_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xx. 170, 178; _Reichardt_, _Cent. Am._, 164-5. A road was opened on the isth. of Darien by Gov. Ariza from Puerto Escocés to Puerto del Príncipe on the Sabana River, which enters the Pacific. _Ariza_, _Darien_, MS., 11-12; _De Puydt_, in _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xxxviii. 69; _Cullen's Darien_, 192-204; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 183-4; _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, i. 248-9. In 1820 Capt. Illingsworth of the Chilian corvette _La Rosa_ (a) _Andes_ had his shallop drawn across the cordillera, and launched in the Napipi, whence it proceeded to Quibdó or Citerá, near the mouth of the Atrato, where it was found in 1824 by Cochrane, who in examining Darien for a canal route found the obstacles almost insurmountable. _Annales des Voy._, cliii. 8, 22, 36. Domingo Lopez, a Colombian, traced a line for a canal between Panamá and Portobello. _Arosemena_, _Apuntes Hist._, 4. In 1827, C. Friend of the British navy made an excursion from the banks of the Atrato to the bay of Cupica. But the first formal exploration was made, shortly after Friend's tour, by Lloyd of Pres. Bolívar's staff, and Capt. Falmarc, a Swede in the Colombian service, under Bolívar's auspices. After completing their labors in 1829, they declared that a railway, if not a canal, was feasible between Chagres and Panamá. The notes of the expedition were published in _Philosophical Trans._, for 1830, and in _London Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, i. 69-101; _Chevalier_, _Pan._, 112-13; _Bull. Societé Geog._, xiv. 88, 53-66; _Democ. Rev._, vi. 297-8; _Nouv. Annales des Voy._, xlviii. 380-1; _Garella_, _Isth. de Pan._, 8-9.

[XXXIV-22] Thierry's canal project, 1835; Biddle's survey for a canal, 1836; Morel, soon after Lloyd's survey, in 1837-8, sought a canal route somewhat south of the line from Chagres to Pan. in the angle between the rivers Chagres and Trinidad, through Vino Tinto Lake. In a later survey he kept more to the left; Watts' explorations in 1838; Barnet's survey of Chiriquí in 1839. _Niles' Reg._, xlviii.; _Arosemena_, _Exámen_, 8-34; _Pinart_, _Misc. Papers_, no. 1, Decrees 113-17; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Oct. 4, 1882; _Interoc. Canal and Monroe Doct._, 23-4; _Chevalier_, _Pan._, 117-22; _Barnet's Surv._, in _Chiriquí Imp. Co. Coll._; _Pan._, _Gaceta Ist._, Sept. 20, 1841; _G. B. Watts_, in _Am. Geog. and Stat._, _Soc. Bull._, i., pt. iii. 64-80.

[XXXIV-23] Garella's canal, beginning at Limon Bay, was to pass under the Ahogayegua ridge by means of a tunnel 120 ft high and 17,390 ft long, to the bay of Vaca del Monte, 12 miles west of Panamá. The route follows the Bernardino and Caimito valleys on the southern slope, and those of Quebrado and Chagres on the northern. The highest elevation 459 feet above the sea level, the mountain being tunnelled 324 feet 9 in. below its highest point; so that the canal would at the summit be 135 feet above the sea, and require 35 locks. Lloyd, acting for the British government, arrived at the same conclusions. _Garella_, _Projet d'un canal_, 11-194, 230; _Nouv. Ann. des Voy._, cvi. 36-40; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Com. Rept, 145, p. 70-7, 506-71, Cong. 30, Sess. 2; _Arosemena_, _Exámen_, 5-6, 11. Hellert, in 1844-5, explored the Darien from Rio Paya to the Atrato. W. B. Liot, of the Brit. navy, proposed in 1845 a macadamized road, or a railroad from Portobello to Panamá. Capt. Kellet, being informed by Indians that the Napipi River, a tributary of the Atrato, approached very closely to the bay of Cupica, crossed on foot in 1847 till he reached a river which was supposed to flow into the Atlantic. Cullen claimed to have crossed the Darien. In 1849 he found the Sabana River, ascended it, crossed from Cañasas to the sea-shore at Port Escocés and returned. In 1850 and 1851 he crossed several times alone by different routes from the Sabana to Escocés, convinced that this must be the future route for ships. Here are the requisite secure harbors; the highest elevation of the valleys through the ridges is not over 150 feet, which is lower than any level as yet found; locks and tunnel might be avoided; the canal need be only 26 or 27 miles long, two miles through hard rock. Unfortunately, Cullen gave no notes or measurements to prove this. Capt. Fitz-Roy, of the British navy, published a memoir on a communication between the Atrato, by way of its tributary the Napipi or Naipi, and Cupica Bay. Greiff, a Swedish engineer, confirmed his observations. In 1850-1 Chevalier explored the Isthmus for information on interoceanic routes. _U. S. Coast Survey_, 1868, 260-7; _Liot's Pan., etc._, p. iii.; _Seemann's Voy._, i. 220; _Davis' Rept_, 9-14, and several maps; _Cullen's Isth. Darien Ship Canal_, 2d ed., 19; _Annales des Voy._, cliii. 23; _Chevalier_, in _Soc. Géog. Bull._, ser. iv., tom. iv., no. 19, pp. 30-70.

[XXXIV-24] The U. S. had the country surveyed in 1833-4 between the Chagres and Panamá. _Fairbairn_, in _United Serv. Jour._, 1832, pt ii. 207-9; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, 4 Ex. Doc. 228, vol. iv., Cong. 25, Sess. 2; _Id._, Id. 77, vol. iv., Cong. 28, Sess. 1; _Id._, U. S. Comm. Rep. 145, p. 3, 265-332, Cong. 30, Sess. 2; _Pub. Treaties_, 1875, p. 558; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, Nov. 18, 1848; _Niles' Reg._, i. 440; _Tucker's Monroe Doc._, 43-4.

[XXXIV-25] The parties forming the company were William H. Aspinwall, Henry Chauncey, and John L. Stephens, all of New York, who on the 15th of April, 1850, made a contract with the New Granadan government, binding themselves to construct within a given time a railway between a point on the Atlantic and Panamá, for the transportation of travellers, cattle, merchandise, etc., under a fixed tariff of rates. Certain advantages were allowed New Granadan citizens. It is not necessary to state here all the terms of the contract. It was to be in force 49 years, and the New Granadan government was to receive three per centum of the net profits. It subsequently received $10,000 a year additional on the mails. Passengers, merchandise, and everything else passing in transitu over the railroad, were to be free of duties and imposts. The contract was amended July 5, 1867. Under the new arrangement the company was to own the railway for 99 years; and pay the Colombian government one million dollars in gold, and thereafter $250,000 a year in quarterly instalments, Colombian mails passing over the road free of expense. Large grants of land were made to the company, who further bound themselves to carry the railroad to the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco, or to some other suitable place on the bay. The prolongation has never been carried out. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 299-308, 397-417; _Pan._, _Boletin Ofic._, Nov. 15, 1867; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Oct. 31, 1880; _Arosemena_, _Pan. Prolong. Ferrocarril_, 1-18; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Sept. 3, Oct. 5, 1867; Sept. 12, 13, 28, 1877; _Rouhaud_, _Régions Nouv._, 1878-9, p. 343-51; _Pan. Mem. Sec. Jen._, 1877, 21-2.

[XXXIV-26] The difficulties of the ground and climate, together with scanty resources of the country and scarcity of labor, were overcome. The road runs on the easterly bank of the Chagres River as far as Barbacoas, where it crosses the river over a bridge 625 ft long, 18 ft broad, and 40 ft above the mean level. A full account of the construction may be found in _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 1-46; _Thornton's Oregon and Cal._, ii. 349-52; _Pim's Gateway_, 192-209, 415-28; _Nic._, _Corr. Ist._, May 30, June 12, 1850; _De Bow's Encyc._, pt ii. 493-4; _Fremont's Am. Trav._, 171-2, and other authorities too numerous to name here. The construction cost many lives of all nationalities, owing to the climate; and was finally completed with negroes of the Isthmus, Jamaica, the coast of Cartagena and Santa Marta. _Maldonado_, _Asuntos Polít._, MS., 6.

[XXXIV-27] Receipts from 1852 to Dec. 31, 1854, $1,026,162; 1855-60, $8,748,026; 1861-6, $12,369,662. Total, $22,143,850. Expenses to end of 1855, including share of profits paid the New Granadan govt, $1,123,081; of 1856-66, $8,748,318. Total, $9,871,399. Net proceeds, $12,272,451. The transit trade has been the main business of the Isthmus. For many years, till the Brit. steamship trade by the straits of Magellan developed, and the overland railway between Omaha and S. F. was completed, almost all merchandise going to or from Europe and the eastern ports of the United States, Cuba, etc., to California, the west coast of South America, and Central America, was sent by way of the Isthmus, including even copper from Bolivia and Chile. Receipts of the railroad 1883-4, $6,306,760. Expenses in same years, $3,979,144. Net proceeds $2,327,616; a net increase of earnings in 1884 over 1883, of $24,032. Further information in the last preceding chapter connected with the Isthmus transit trade. _Bidwell's Isth. Pan._, 286; _Otis' Hist. Pan. R. R._, 59-69; _Superint. Burt's Rept_, March 7, 1885, in _Pan. Star and Herald_, Apr. 22, 1885; _La Estrella de Pan._, May 2, 1885.

[XXXIV-28] _Pan. Star and Herald_, June 23, 1881; Sept. 18, 1882; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 48, Sess. 1, i. pt 1, 217-19.

[XXXIV-29] _Davis' Rept_, 8; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Journ., 1345, Cong. 36, Sess. 1; 541, Cong. 36, Sess. 2; _Id._, Sen. Doc. 1, pp. 17, 36-44, iii. pt 1, Cong. 36, Sess. 2; _Harper's Mag._, xxii. 193-209.

[XXXIV-30] New Granada granted, in 1852, to Fox, Cullen, and others, the privilege of opening a canal between Caledonia Bay and the gulf of San Miguel. _Cullen's Darien Ship Canal_, 1-146. Gisborne thought it was a mere matter of excavation costing about sixty million dollars. After having spent a great deal of time on the examination of the Atrato and San Juan rivers since 1852, F. M. Kelly, of N. Y., in 1864 explored the route from Chepo River to the gulf of San Blas, which is only 30 miles long, but calls for a tunnel. Several surveys followed; namely, Strain, of the U. S. navy, early in 1854, with a party explored the Darien. After several weeks' toil they lost themselves; five men perished, the rest reaching Yavisa on the east coast. About the same time a New Granadan expedition under Codazzi made a similar attempt, but meeting with disaster, after losing several men, gave up the enterprise. The same year English and French officers made explorations. Cullen and Gisborne were with them, and saw their former statements proved false. Next in order is Kennish's examination, followed by Michler and Cravens, of the U. S. navy, who confirmed his report in all essential points. _Scherzer_, _Cent. Am._, 250-1; _Mex. Anales Min. Fomento_, i. 83-8; _Strain's Inter. Comm._, 18-27. La Charme, in 1865, by order of the merchant Gogorza, surveyed from the south of the gulf of Darien to the gulf of San Miguel by way of the Tuyra River. De Puydt, for the International Colombia Co., reported having found a favorable route from Puerto Escondido to the Tuyra, and thence to the gulf of San Miguel. _Abert's Ship Canal_, 63-9, 72-9; _La Charme_, in _Putnam's Mag._, iii. 329-41; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, July 2, 1876; _Lond. Geog. Soc._, _Jour._, xxiv. 249; xxxviii. 69-99. Bourdivl, in 1864, passed from the Pacific with 25 men to the mouth of the Lara, and thence across the Isthmus to Chucunaque River, reaching it just below the Sucubti. Here the natives left him for fear of the savages, and he had to return. Rear-adm. C. H. Davis, supt of the U. S. Naval Observatory at Washington, issued a _Report_ on Interoceanic Canals and Railways, for his government, in 1867, reviewing modern explorations of the continent from Darien to Honduras for canals and railroad routes, and giving maps thereof, and a list of authorities thereon. His work is quite thorough to its date. _Davis' Rept_, 15-19. The secretary of the U. S. navy thus summarized in 1873 the report of Com. Selfridge, who, in 1870-2, made a thorough exploration of several lines in the narrower portion of Darien. This route includes 100 miles of navigation of the Atrato River, which is capable of being navigated by the largest steamers. Between the Atrato and the Pacific, a canal must be made of 28 miles in length, of which it would pass 22 through a plain with a gradual rise of 90 feet. Of the other 6 three would be in moderate cutting, the other three would be of tunnelling. The estimated cost was between $52,000,000 and $63,000,000, and the time for completing the work ten years. The tunnel would be 112 ft high, 60 feet wide, and have 87 ft of clear headway above the surface of the water. The canal would have 25 ft in depth, 50 ft of width at the bottom, and 70 at surface. The locks, 20 in number, were to be 427 ft long, 54 ft wide, with a lift of 10 ft. The water supply, much in excess of the requirement, would be derived from the Napipi River. Two alternative schemes were also presented, increasing the length of tunnelling, and diminishing the number of locks, at an estimated cost of $85,000,000 to $90,000,000. He proved De Puydt's line impracticable. Selfridge's full report, with maps and illustrations, etc., in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, Darien Explor., Cong. 42, Sess. 3; Brief reports by sec. of the navy and Selfridge, in _Id._, H. Ex. Doc., i. p. 3 (sec. of navy), vol. iii., pp. 9-10, 133-41, Cong. 41, Sess. 3; _Harper's Mag._, xlvii. (Nov. 1873), 801-20; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed.), iv. 700-1. In 1873 Selfridge surveyed the valley of the Bojaya, another tributary of the Atrato, more to the north, which was regarded as more favorable. The Am. govt despatched two other expeditions in 1874, one of which surveyed a line between the Atrato and the Pacific across the state of Cauca; the other a line parallel with the Panamá railway.

[XXXIV-31] It affords a much shorter route than that of Darien, and the cordillera is there less than 290 ft high. The watershed being nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic, the streams running into the former ocean are of little importance, whereas the Chagres on the Atlantic slope, with its tributary, the Obispo, forms a navigable channel, which in the rainy season attains to formidable proportions.

[XXXIV-32] A copy of the contract and grant appears in _Bogotá_, _Diario Ofic._, May 22, 1878; an English translation in _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 46, Sess. 2, i. pt i. 243. Under the contract the Colombian govt will receive at certain periods of it from 6 to 8 per cent of the net receipts; but its share is never to be under $250,000 a year.

[XXXIV-33] The U. S. govt tried to secure by treaty with Colombia the right to establish forts, arsenals, and naval stations on the Isthmus, though no forces were to be kept there in time of peace. A protocol was signed in New York by representatives of both governments in Feb. 1881, to amend the treaty of 1846, but failed of ratification at Bogotá. _Diario de Cundinamarca_, Apr. 28, 1881; _Pan. Star and Herald_, May 20, 24, June 24, 25, 1881.

[XXXIV-34] De Lesseps, Wyse, and other officials of the canal, received the highest marks of regard from the people of the Isthmus. _Pan. Ley._, years 1879-80, 9-11, 30; _Id._, _Gaceta_, Feb. 1, 12, 19, 22, 1880; Jan. 27, Feb. 13, 17, 1881. The company at once made provision for a health service, in spacious and well-regulated hospitals, etc. _Companyo_, _Projet d'organiz. du serv. de santé_, 1-137, and a map.

[XXXIV-35] The bottom throughout its length, 8½ metres below the mean level of both oceans; width, 22 metres at bottom, 50 metres at top; except through the Culebra ridge, where the depth will be 9 metres, with the width of 24 metres at bottom and 28 metres at top. It must be observed that the levels of the two oceans are not alike at all times; at Colon the difference in the tides never exceeds 23 inches, whereas in Panamá it is usually 13 ft, and at times nearly 20. This must produce a current in the canal sufficient to impede navigation for several hours at each tide. The great difficulties to overcome are the mountain and the river Chagres. The company contemplated at first to tunnel the mountain, but gave up the plan, and resolved to cut down through the solid strata—fortunately soft and otherwise easy—for a depth of between 300 and 400 ft over a long distance. The next task—by far the most difficult one—is to deal with the eccentricities of the Chagres, which discharges at Matachin a volume of water averaging 100 cubic metres per second, which at low water may sink to 15 or 20 cubic metres, and at flood rise to 500 or 600. Several plans have been contemplated, one of which was to construct an enormous dam at Gamboa, between the Obispo and Santa Cruz hills, 960 metres at the base, 1,960 at the top, with a width at bottom, of 1,000 metres, and a height of 45 metres. But it is understood that the engineers have finally concluded to make no use of the waters of the Chagres, but to change their course and let them run to the ocean through the desert; this will be left to the last. Moreover, locks will be built to control the tides. De Lesseps, confident that the canal will be finished in 1889, says there will be no time in the interval to construct the locks; that they can be made later. The chief point being that shipping shall pass through the canal. See _Bulletin du Canal Océanique_, issued since 1879; _Engineering_, 1883-4; _Reclus_, _Explor._, in _Tour du Monde_, for a series of views; _Sullivan's Problem of Interoc. Communic._, Washington, 1883; _Ammen's Interoc. Ship Canal_, Phila., 1880; _N. Y. Herald_, Feb. 6, 1882; _Encyclop. Brit._ (Am. ed., 1885), xviii. 213.

[XXXIV-36] It is estimated that the excavation of the canal proper demands the removal of about 122,000,000 metres, and up to Jan. 31, 1886, only 15,000,000 metres had been done, at an expense of $30,000,000.

[XXXIV-37] Charles D. Jameson, a member of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers, thinks there is no insurmountable obstacle. The following newspapers contain information on the canal's affairs. _Pan. Canal_, July 12, 1881; _Id._, _Star and Herald_, July 20, 1881; July 11, Nov. 10, 1882; and in almost every issue till 1886 inclusive. _La Estrella de Pan._, July 31, 1884; _S. F. Bulletin_; _Id._, _Alta Cal._; _Id._, _Morning Call_; _Id._, _Chronicle_; and every other published on the Pacific coast, as well as in the whole United States; _Mex. Financier_, July 5, 1884; _Correoso's Statement_, MS., 9-11.

[XXXIV-38] To raise the original capital the liabilities of the company became $150,000,000, which at 4 per cent equals $6,000,000 annual interest. If ships crossing the canal be charged $3 per ton, $5,780,000 will be yearly required to pay the interest. _S. F. Call_, Nov. 9, 1886. De Lesseps reckoned the monthly output of excavation, which in 1885 was 658,000 metres and in 1886 1,079,000, should reach 2,000,000 metres a month in 1887, and 3,000,000 metres a month in 1888, and up to the completion of the work in 1889. _Pan. Star and Herald_, Aug. 5, 7, 11, 12, 1886.

[XXXIV-39] It is well to say in this connection that tramways have also been built in the capital, under the auspices of the govt. It was also planned to have another from the department of Sacatepequez, to run from the town of Ciudad Vieja, through Antigua Guatemala, to the town of Pastores.

[XXXIV-40] _Guat._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, for years 1880-5; _Id._, _Sec. Rel._, year 1884; _Id._, _El Guatemalteco_ (official), March 4, May 10, 22, Oct. 12, 1884; July 19, 1885; _Batres' Sketch Book_, 8-10, 43; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Nov. 24, Dec. 16, 1882; March 8, 1884; _Id._, _Canal_, Jan. 17, 1883.

[XXXIV-41] _Aniñon_, _Discurso_, _Izaguirre_, _Relacion_, _Duarte_, _Relacion_, and _Criado de Castilla_, _Descub._, all in _Squier's MSS._, v., vii., viii., and xvii., respectively.

[XXXIV-42] Loans were raised in Europe for the purpose, the particulars of which are given in connection with Honduran finances.

[XXXIV-43] For further information, see _Squier's Cent. Am._, 74-9, 680, 729-30, 756-9; _Id._, _Hond._, 207-16, 225-35; _Id._, _Hond. Interoc. Railway_, 1-102; _Reichardt_, _Nic._, 284-6; _Wells' Hond._, 130-1; _Fitz-Roy's Rept Railway_; _Guat._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 27, 1854; _Hond._, _Gaceta Ofic._, May 10, 1854; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, March 4 to Oct. 21, 1854, passim; _Nic._, _Gaceta_, July 25, Nov. 21, 1868; March 20, Nov. 13, 1869; Feb. 19, 1870; Feb. 11, Aug. 19, 1871; _Id._, _El Porvenir_, Oct. 1, 1871; _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., Cong. 42, Sess. 3, i. 306; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, May 15, 1873; _Am. Cyclop._, viii. 790; _Froebel's Cent. Am._, 189-90; _Belly_, _Nic._, ii. 22-7; _Pim's Gate of the Pac._, 313-21; _Laferrière_, _De Paris à Guat._, 101-6; _Pan. Star and Herald_, March 23, Oct. 4, 1883; March 20, 1886; _Id._, _Canal_, March 28, 1883; _Mex. Financier_, Dec. 8, 1883.

[XXXIV-44] _Nic._, _Mem. Min. Hac._, 1883, pp. vii.-viii.; _Presid. Cardenas_, _Mensaje_, Jan. 15, 1885, in _Costa R._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Feb. 4, 1885.

[XXXIV-45] The termination of the Atlantic and other lines depends on the arrangement of the republic's foreign indebtedness. The cost of the three sections was $12,239,296; and in 1883 they were valued at $6,600,000. _Costa R._, _Mem. Sec. Hacienda_, 1883, Table no. 10; Annexes 8 and 9; 1884, 152-3, 287; _Id._, _Id._, _Fomento_, 1883, 1-4; 1884, 29-30; _Pan. Star and Herald_, Dec. 8, 1883; July 23, Oct. 24, 1885; _Costa R._, _Gaceta_, May 16, Aug. 12, Sept. 1-27, 1885.

[XXXIV-46] For particulars, see _Costa R._, _Informe Sec. Gobern._, years 1873-4; _Id._, _Id._, _Obras Púb._, 1879-80; _Id._, _Id._, _Hac._, 1880, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, _Fomento_, 1883; _Id._, _Col. Ley._, 1880, 85-9; 1881, 55-9; _Nic._, _Semanal Nic._, Jan. 15, 1884; _Salv._, _Diario Ofic._, Aug. 18, Sept. 12, 1878; _Id._, _Gaceta Ofic._, Aug. 12, 1876; Jan. 9, Feb. 22, June 29, 30, 1877; Apr. 19 to Nov. 13, 1879, passim; _Nic._, _Mem. Sec. Hac._, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, _Gobern._, 1883; _Id._, _Id._, _Interior_, 1883; _Guat._, _Recop. Ley._, _Gob. Democ._, ii. 81; _Id._, _Mem. Sec. Fomento_, years 1880-5; _Id._, _Presupuesto Gen._, 19-29.

[XXXIV-47] _Eardley-Wilmot's Our Journal_, 69; _Colombia_, _Diario Ofic._, Feb. 26, Sept. 10, 1874; _Pan._, _Gaceta_, Jan. 11, Aug. 12, 1880. The connection at La Libertad was established on the 1st of Oct., 1882. _U. S. Gov. Doc._, H. Ex. Doc., For. Rel., Cong. 47, Sess. 2, i. 51-4.

Scattered through this third volume have been given bibliographical notices of about twenty of the chief works consulted in its preparation. I have now to add a few others deserving of special mention. _The Gospel in Central America_ was written by Frederick Crowe, an Englishman, and a Baptist preacher, who resided some time in Central America in the interest of his church. The book—a 12mo of 588 pages, published in London, 1850—contains, as its title implies, a sketch of the country, including British Honduras, physical and geographical, historical and political, moral and religious. The author did his task as well as circumstances permitted, in view of the fact that at his violent deportation much of the material he had gathered was left behind and never recovered. At all events, it afforded much which till then was little known of that country. The statements contained therein not original are credited to the sources from which they were taken; for events after the declaration of independence the author relied on the book of travels by Robert C. Dunlop, from which I have also culled some important facts. _Centro-Amerika_, and _Nicaragua_, both written in German by the traveller C. F. Reichardt, and published in Braunschweig, in 8vo form, respectively in 1851 and 1854; the former being of 256, and the latter of 296 pages, one and the other provided with maps. The two works contain valuable data, entitled to credit. _Aus Amerika_, by Julius Fröbel, issued in 1855 at Leipzig, and _Geographie und Statestif von Mexico und Centralamerika_, by J. G. Wappäus, published at Leipzig in 1863, have also afforded much useful knowledge. In writing this chapter on interoceanic communication, I am indebted to the _Cabinet Cyclopædia_, directed by Dionysius Lardner, and to John Richardson's _Polar Regions_, the first-named giving in its first three volumes all that was known to 1830-1, on the geography of the ancients and middle ages, and on modern voyages and discoveries. The latter narrates the voyages made to discover the north-west passage, furnishing likewise a view of the physical geography and ethnology of the polar regions north and south; the whole subject, though treated in a summary way, brings it out quite comprehensively. The _Report on Interoceanic Canals and Railroads_, between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans—an 8vo of 37 pages with numerous maps printed in Washington, 1867—by Charles H. Davis, superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory, contains all that was known on the subject to the time of its publication. The _Encyclopædia Britannica_—American edition, issued, 1875-86, at Philadelphia—has also afforded valuable data on the voyages in the polar seas, and on explorations and surveys connected with canal matters. None of those works, however, nor the numerous others consulted, have furnished the required information from the beginning of the 19th century to the present time; and those of later years do not usually, to any extent, go back to early ones, or if they do, it is only to give some meagre information.

But my researches have not been confined to books. Aside from the important facts obtained directly from the lips of intelligent natives and other persons conversant with Central American and Panamanian affairs, I have had before me presidential messages, reports of ministers and other officials of the several states, U. S. govt reports, official journals, statements of explorers and surveyors, cyclopædias, magazines, reviews, and a host of newspapers of different countries and in various languages, among which special credit should be given to the _Star and Herald_ of Panamá for an ever well-informed and reliable gatherer and transmitter of news to and from the countries on both oceans over this bridge of the nations. Important data, wheresoever found, have been brought into requisition.

[XXXIV-48] 'Mr. Hopkins,' says Capt Fitzroy, p. 23, 'was lately prevented by the Indians from ascending the Chepo River toward Mandinga or San Blas Bay; Mr Wheelwright was also stopped there in 1837; and Dr Cullen was likewise stopped by the aborigines while endeavoring to ascend the Paya River, that runs from near the mouths of the Atrato to the Tuyra, which falls into the gulf of San Miguel.'

I learned in Darien that Mr Hopkins and Don Pepe Hurtado, a Granadian engineer, made a present of a scarlet military coat to an Indian on the Chepo, and that as soon as the Indian chief of the district learned it, he flogged the Indian who accepted the present, and summoned his people to arms, and Mr H. and Don Pepe had to fly for their lives. Most probably the chief looked upon the acceptance of gaudy trappings as an acknowledgment of submission to foreigners. I have mentioned elsewhere my having learned subsequently that the reason of the Indians having stopped me was the fear of small-pox being introduced amongst them rather than any dislike to foreigners.

[XXXIV-49] This I attribute to the jealousy of the Spaniards, who were careful to withhold any information that might lead the English to the discovery of an easy communication between the two seas. Alcedo, in his _Diccionario Histórico de las Indias Occidentales_, says that it was interdicted, _on pain of death, even to propose_ opening the navigation between the two seas. 'En tiempo de Felipe II. se proyectó cortarlo, y comunicar los dos mares por medio de un canal, y á este efecto se enviaron para reconocerlo dos Ingenieros Flamencos, pero encontraron dificultades insuperables, y el consejo de Indias representò los perjuicios que de ello se seguirían á la monarquia, por cuya razon mandò aquel Monarca que nadie propusièse ó tratase de ello en adelante, _pena de la vida_.' The navigation of the Atrato also was interdicted, on pain of death.

[XXXIV-50] In its upper course, as it is navigable for large vessels nearly to Príncipe.

[XXXIV-51] 'It is ascertained,' says Captain Fitzroy, 'that there is only a trifling difference between the levels of the ocean at this Isthmus. A rise of tide not exceeding two feet is found on the Atlantic side, while in Panama Bay the tide rises more than eighteen feet; the mean level of the Pacific in this particular place being two or three feet above that of the Atlantic. It is high water at the same hour in each ocean.'

Colonel Lloyd says that the Pacific at high water is thirteen feet higher than the Atlantic, while the Atlantic is highest at low water by six feet. Baron Humboldt said, in 1809: 'The difference of level between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean does not, probably, exceed nine feet; and at different hours in the day, sometimes one sea, sometimes the other, is the more elevated.' But this difference would be no hindrance, but, on the contrary, a most important advantage in a ship-canal, since it would create a current from the Atlantic to the Pacific during the ebb, and one from the Pacific to the Atlantic during the flood-tide of the Pacific, and these alternate currents would enable each of the fleets to pass through at different times, those bound from the Atlantic to the Pacific during the ebb-tide of the latter, and those from the Pacific to the Atlantic during the flood-tide of the former. This arrangement in the periods of transit would afford many advantages, such as obviating the meeting of the vessels, and the necessity of their passing one another, and preventing their accumulation or crowding together in the canal, as each fleet could be carried right through in one tide, if not by the current alone, at least with the aid of tug steamers. The alternation of the currents would have the further beneficial effect of washing out the bed of the canal, and keeping it free from the deposition of sand or mud, so that dredging would never become necessary; and would also render the degree of width necessary for the canal less; though I do not reckon this to be a point of moment, as the wider and deeper it is cut the better, and the work once finished will last to the end of the world, since the natural effect of the alternate currents will be a gradual process of deepening and widening, which will convert the canal into a strait.

[XXXIV-52] And subsequent months, in a controversy with Evan Hopkins, Esq., C. E. & M. E.

[XXXIV-53] _Narrative of an Official Visit to Guatemala_, by G. A. Thompson. London, 1829, p. 512.

[XXXIV-54] March 13, 1788.

[XXXIV-55] Masthead angles were taken in Córdova's voyage, 1785-6.

[XXXIV-56] Four hundred.

[XXXIV-57] Five leagues from the shore. _Sp. MS._

[XXXIV-58] The arms of Santa Maria de la Antigua were a _golden castle_ between a jaguar and a puma.

[XXXIV-59] Squier's Nicaragua, vol. i. p. 195.