CHAPTER XXVII.

CENTRAL AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS.

1886.

EXTENT OF THE COUNTRY—CLIMATE—MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES—EARTHQUAKES—RIVERS AND LAKES—COSTA RICA'S AREA, POSSESSIONS, AND POLITICAL DIVISION AND GOVERNMENT—HER CHIEF CITIES—NICARAGUA, HER TERRITORY, TOWNS, AND MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION—HONDURAS' EXTENT, ISLANDS, CITIES, AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT—SALVADOR, HER POSITION, AREA, TOWNS, AND CIVIL RULE—GUATEMALA'S EXTENT AND POSSESSIONS—HER CITIES AND TOWNS—INTERNAL ADMINISTRATION—ISTHMUS OF PANAMÁ—AREA, BAYS, RIVERS, AND ISLANDS—DEPARTMENT AND DISTRICT RULE—THE CAPITAL AND OTHER TOWNS—POPULATION—CHARACTER AND CUSTOMS—EDUCATION—EPIDEMICS AND OTHER CALAMITIES.

Central America proper embraces the region situated between the state of Chiapas in the republic of Mexico on the north, and the former state, now department, of Panamá on the south, extending from about latitude 7° to 18° north, in length from 800 to 900 miles, and in breadth varying from about 30 to about 300 miles. The united area of the five republics comprised therein is about 175,000 square miles.[XXVII-1]

[Sidenote: PHYSICAL FEATURES.]

The climate of this region on the Atlantic coast is about the same as that of the West Indies, somewhat modified by various causes. The Atlantic coast from Trujillo downward, including the Mosquito region, is low and insalubrious. That of the Pacific coast is better in every respect, the heat not being so oppressive, which is due to a drier and purer atmosphere. The result is, that while the coasts on the Atlantic are nearly uninhabited, those on the Pacific are lined with towns and well settled.

Beginning with Guatemala, and going southward, in Los Altos, the highlands of the republic, the average temperature is lower than anywhere else. Snow falls occasionally near Quezaltenango, but soon disappears. The heat is never excessive.[XXVII-2] In the vicinity of the city of Guatemala, the thermometer ranges from 55° to 80° with an average of 72°. In Vera Paz, the north-eastern department, it is nearly 10° warmer. The whole coast from Belize down to Izabal and Santo Tomás is hot and unhealthy.[XXVII-3] The state of Salvador, lying entirely on the Pacific slope, has probably a higher average temperature than Guatemala or Honduras; but the heat is oppressive only at some points on the coast.[XXVII-4] Honduras has a fine climate, excepting the portion spoken of on the coast of the Atlantic.[XXVII-5] Nicaragua, with the exception of her department of Segovia, which borders on Honduras and has the same surface and temperature, has a topography and climate of her own, with an average temperature in the lake region of about 79° to 80°, due more to favorable causes than to elevation. In Costa Rica there is almost every degree of temperature, from the intensest heat of Puntarenas to the constant spring of San José, or the autumnal temperature of the belt above Cartago. The coast from Chiriquí lagoon to the north is hot, wet, and unhealthy.[XXVII-6] Properly speaking, there is no dry season on the Atlantic coast of Central America. However, from June to September, inclusive, there is less rainfall on the Atlantic side. During these months the Pacific slope has its rainy season, but the rains are brief, occurring in the afternoon and night.[XXVII-7]

At a short distance from the Pacific coast the country is traversed from north-west to south-east by an unbroken chain of mountains,[XXVII-8] at least to Nicaragua Lake, and covered with diversified vegetation. This cordillera is a connecting chain between the Rocky Mountains of the northern, and the Andes of the southern, continent.[XXVII-9] On the slopes and summits are fine table-lands, some of which are quite extensive, and all temperate and surpassingly fertile. It may be asserted that no portion of the earth presents a greater diversity of level on an equal extent of surface than Central America, or a greater variety of climate.

The majority of the highest peaks are volcanoes, and no less than thirty volcanic vents are said to be in activity. Extinct craters, rent rocks, lava beds, scoriæ, vitrified, charred, and pumice stones, hot and sulphurous springs, mark Central America as a most volcanic region.[XXVII-10]

[Sidenote: HISTORIC EARTHQUAKES.]

In a region abounding with volcanoes, and where great convulsions of nature have taken place, earthquakes—violent ones, at times—frequently occur.[XXVII-11] The great shocks experienced by the city of Guatemala in 1751, 1757, 1765, and the one of 1773, which caused the abandonment of the old site, have been elsewhere mentioned.[XXVII-12] The year 1809 was noted for a succession of violent temblores, causing much distress among the inhabitants of Guatemala and Honduras, and doing much damage, particularly in the latter state.[XXVII-13] Since that time the five republics have constantly had such visitations, causing at times loss of life and damage to property. I give in a note a number of such occurrences.[XXVII-14] The Isthmus of Panamá has likewise repeatedly experienced the effects of earthquakes, some of which have created much alarm and injured property.[XXVII-15]

[Sidenote: LAKES AND RIVERS.]

From the lofty sierras and volcanic cones descend streams, which, meeting on the plains below, form beautiful lakes, or swell into rivers that roll on to either ocean. They are numerous, and though not of great length, because of the narrowness of the region they traverse, are by no means insignificant.[XXVII-16] The country has several lakes, some of which have occupied the attention of scientists, statesmen, and merchants, and I will have occasion to treat of them in connection with interoceanic communication and commerce farther on.[XXVII-17]

* * * * *

The republic of Costa Rica is that portion of Central America extending between Nicaragua and Panamá, and having on one side the Pacific Ocean, and on the other the Atlantic.[XXVII-18] Costa Rica has the islands of Colon, San Cristóbal, Bastimento, La Popa, and others in Boca del Toro; the Escudo de Veragua in the Atlantic, the Cocos, Caño, San Lúcas, and Chira in the Pacific; these latter two and smaller ones lying within the gulf of Nicoya.

The political division of the republic is in provincias and comarcas;[XXVII-19] namely, provincias of San José, Cartago, Alajuela, Heredia, and Guanacaste, and the comarcas of Puntarenas and Limon. The provincias and comarcas are alike divided into cantones, and the latter subdivided into barrios. At the head of each provincia and comarca is a governor, and of each canton a jefe político, all of executive appointment. The police department is under the governor, unless, in special cases, the supreme government should assume the immediate control over it in certain localities. Each provincial capital has a municipal corporation,[XXVII-20] acting, like the governors and other subordinate authorities, under the general ordinances, made and provided for the government of the whole republic.

The cities of the republic are San José, Cartago, Heredia, Alajuela, Liberia, Puntarenas, and Limon. There are, besides, seven or eight villas, and nine or ten pueblos.[XXVII-21]

The republic of Nicaragua, probably the most important section of Central America, is bounded on the south by Costa Rica, on the north-west by Honduras, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south-west by the Pacific.[XXVII-22] Nicaragua has a few insignificant isles or cays on her coasts of both oceans.

[Sidenote: POLITICAL DIVISIONS.]

The republic is politically divided into seven departments; namely, Granada, Leon, Rivas, Chinandega, Chontales, Matagalpa, and Nueva Segovia. Their capitals or head towns are respectively Granada, Leon, Rivas, Chinandega, Acoyapa, Matagalpa, and Ocotal.[XXVII-23] The departments are subdivided into distritos, and the latter into cantones. For the purposes of civil administration there is a prefect at the head of each department, who is also a subdelegado of the treasury; a subprefect rules over each district, and the cantones have jueces de paz.[XXVII-24] These officials are appointed by the executive government. The capitals of departments and head towns of districts and cantones have elective alcaldes, and regidores constituting the municipal corporations.[XXVII-25] In each department there is a gobernador de policía, who likewise derives his appointment from the national executive.

[Sidenote: NOTABLE CITIES.]

The principal cities of the republic are Granada, Managua, Masaya, Leon, Rivas, and Chinandega. Managua was an insignificant town, but being situated between Granada and Leon, was made the national capital, in order that the government might be rid of the complications arising from their constant rivalry, and intrigues to control the destinies of Nicaragua. The position of the capital is a splendid one, the surroundings being very picturesque.[XXVII-26] The streets are not paved; the town has not a building worthy of mention. The government house is a low, square edifice, with balconies in the old Spanish style, without any exterior ornamentation or architectural character, Leon, the old capital, is situated on a beautiful plain, and spreads over a very wide area.[XXVII-27] In the central part the streets are paved and lighted. There are some fine buildings in the city, those most worthy of notice being the cathedral, a strong piece of masonry, often used as a fortress in times of civil war, the old and new episcopal palaces, the university, government house, two churches of greater architectural beauty than the cathedral, four buildings which were formerly convents, and now devoted to objects of public utility. The place being in the region of earthquakes, and the temperature extremely warm, the buildings are made to meet these conditions. There is also a fine stone bridge, which García Jerez had constructed. Near Leon, and with only the width of a street from it, is Subtiaba, which has a separate municipality, and whose church is the largest, after the cathedral, and the oldest of the temples in Nicaragua.[XXVII-28] I give in a note some information on other cities deserving of special notice.[XXVII-29]

The republic of Honduras is bounded on the north and east by the bay of Honduras and the Caribbean Sea, extending from the mouth of the River Tinto to the mouth of the Wanks or Segovia. On the south it is bounded by Nicaragua—the line of division following the Wanks for about two thirds of its length, and thence deflecting to the south-west, to the sources of the Rio Negro, flowing into the gulf of Fonseca; it has a coast line of about sixty miles on this gulf from the Rio Negro to the Rio Goascorán. On the west and south-west are the republics of Salvador and Guatemala.[XXVII-30]

Honduras possesses in the gulf of Fonseca the islands Tigre, Zacate Grande, and Gueguensi; and in the Caribbean Sea the group known as Bay Islands; namely, Roatan, Guanaja, or Bonaca, Utila, Helena, Barbaretta, Morat, and other smaller isles.

The republic is politically divided into seven departments: Choluteca, Comayagua, Gracias, Olancho, Santa Bárbara, Tegucigalpa, and Yoro. Nacaome is the capital of Choluteca, and Jutecalpa of Olancho. The other capitals bear the same names as the departments to which they belong. The departments are subdivided into districts, and at the head of each of the former is a jefe político, appointed by the executive, who is the organ of communication between the supreme government and the people.[XXVII-31]

[Sidenote: TOWNS AND HOUSES.]

The principal cities in the republic are Comayagua, anciently called Valladolid, the former capital, and Tegucigalpa, the present seat of government. The former is on the right bank of the Humuya or Ulúa River, and on the southern border of the wide and fertile valley of Comayagua. From its position, upwards of 2,000 feet above the sea-level, surrounded by high mountains, its temperative is mild and equable. The political disturbances of the country have reduced Comayagua to a low condition,[XXVII-32] and the loss of its standing as the capital has tended to bring it down still lower. Most of the houses are of a single story, and built of sundried bricks. The former fine fountains, monuments, and public buildings have gone to decay. The only building still in good condition is the cathedral, which is a rather imposing edifice.[XXVII-33] Tegucigalpa enjoys a cool temperature, and has an excellent climate. The city is the largest and finest in the republic. It is built with regularity, and has six churches, the parochial edifice comparing favorably with the cathedral at Comayagua. There are also a number of magnificent convents, and the university also deserves mention.[XXVII-34] There are other places in the state not entirely devoid of interest, a few particulars about which I append in a note.[XXVII-35]

The republic of Salvador, the only one of Central America not having a coast line on the Atlantic, is bounded on the north and east by Honduras, on the south-east by Fonseca Bay, on the south by the Pacific Ocean, and on the north-west by Guatemala.[XXVII-36] It possesses the small islands called Punta Zacate, Martin Perez, Conchagüita, and Mianguera in the bay of Fonseca.

For the purposes of government the republic is divided into fourteen departments; namely, San Salvador, Cuscatlán, San Vicente, La Paz, Usulután, San Miguel, Gotera,[XXVII-37] La Union, Cabañas, Chalatenango, Santa Ana, Ahuachapan, Sonsonate, and La Libertad. The departments are subdivided into districts, and the latter into cities, villas, pueblos, and aldeas. The chief towns of the departments bear the same names as the latter, excepting those of Cuscatlán, La Paz, Gotera, La Union, Cabañas, and La Libertad, which are respectively called Cojutepeque, Zacatecoluca, Osicala, San Cárlos, Sensuntepeque, and Nueva San Salvador. They all have the rank of cities. Chinameca, Jucuapa, Ilobasco, Suchitoto, Metapan, and Izalco enjoy the same distinction. There are, besides, about 36 villas, and 176 pueblos.

[Sidenote: MUNICIPAL REGULATIONS.]

At the head of each department is placed a governor, who has a substitute to fill the office in his absence, both being appointed by the national executive for a constitutional term. They may be impeached for misdemeanors in office before the senate.[XXVII-38] The alcaldes of district head towns are the chief authorities of their respective districts, and like the alcaldes of other towns, are subordinate to the governor. In the event of absence or disability of an alcalde, the regidor depositario assumes his duties pro tempore. Alcaldes are represented in distant country places by comisionados of their own appointment. Each town has for its internal management a municipal corporation chosen by the direct votes of the citizens, and consisting of one alcalde, one síndico, and from two to six regidores, according to population.[XXVII-39] Such corporations act under the general ordinances provided for the government of municipal districts.[XXVII-40]

The principal cities are San Salvador, San Miguel, Santa Ana, which has been the capital, Cojutepeque, which has also been the seat of government, Sonsonate, Zacatecoluca, San Vicente, Sensuntepeque, Chalatenango, Santa Rosa, Ahuachapán, and Santa Tecla or Nueva San Salvador.

San Salvador was first founded at a place now called Bermuda, about eighteen miles to the northward of the present site. During the Spanish domination it was the residence of the gobernador intendente. After the separation from the Spanish crown it became the capital of Salvador, and for a while was the federal district, and seat of the Central American government. The city, as I have stated elsewhere, has been repeatedly shattered by earthquakes, but in each instance rebuilt, notwithstanding efforts to abandon the site. Both the town and its position are beautiful. It is in the midst of a broad elevated plateau in the coast range, between the valley of the Lempa River and the Pacific Ocean, 2,115 feet above the sea.[XXVII-41] The place has a cathedral, and other churches, a national palace, a university, and other government buildings. Excepting the central and paved park, San Salvador is embowered in tropical fruit-trees.

San Miguel is justly considered the second city of Salvador. Its houses have a home aspect, comfort in the interior, and elegance in the exterior. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct. There are fountains to refresh the air and to please the eye. Two iron bridges cross the San Miguel River, said to have been constructed by Guzman at an expense of $90,000 of his own money. Back of the town is the majestic volcano of San Miguel. In the bay of Fonseca is the excellent port of La Union, to the west that of La Libertad, and beyond that of Acajutla at a short distance from Sonsonate and the Izalco volcano.

The republic of Guatemala is bounded on the north and west by the Mexican states of Yucatan and Chiapas; on the east by British Honduras, the bay of Honduras, and the republics of Honduras and Salvador; and on the south by the Pacific Ocean.[XXVII-42]

[Sidenote: DEPARTMENTAL GOVERNMENT.]

The state is divided for the purposes of civil government into departments; namely, Guatemala, Sacatepéquez, Amatitlan, Escuintla, Chimaltenango, Sololá, Totonicapan, Quiché, Quezaltenango, Retalhuleu, Suchitepéquez, Huehuetenango, San Márcos, Peten, Baja Verapaz, Alta Verapaz, Livingston Izabal, Chiquimula, Zacapa, Jalapa, Jutiapa, and Santa Rosa.[XXVII-43] They are subdivided into municipalidades, each of which forms regulations or ordinances for the management of its own affairs, subject to approbation or amendment by the supreme government. At the head of each department is a jefe politico, and some of them likewise have a sub-jefe.

The general government makes its administrative action felt in the departments. Down to 1879 the laws relating to civil administration in them were not only confused, but contained clauses which were, some of them, opposed to the principles of modern legislation, and others directly contrary to the liberal and progressive system the nation had adopted since 1871.[XXVII-44] Hence the necessity of prescriptions consonant with the existing situation.[XXVII-45] A decree was also issued to insure common principles and rules for the municipal corporations.[XXVII-46] Under the new order of things, the sum total of receipts by all the municipalities in 1883 was $530,040, and of expenditures $489,422.[XXVII-47]

Guatemala, the capital, together with the whole republic, has had its beauties more or less extolled by every foreign traveller who has visited it and published a book, from 1822 to late years. These praises were well deserved; but they fall short of what they now should be, considering the improvements introduced by the energetic administration of President Barrios, which placed it on a level with many cities of greater pretensions and resources.[XXVII-48]

The city stands about 5,300 feet above the sea, upon a fertile plateau traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, being almost surrounded by ravines. It is laid out in wide, regular, well-paved, and clean streets, forming right angles, and has extensive suburbs. The number of houses is probably 5,000, most of them of one story. There is, however, a considerable number with two stories. They are mostly constructed with solidity and comfort, and many have fountains, gardens, and courts.[XXVII-49] Besides the cathedral, archepiscopal palace, government house, mint, and other public buildings, there are several beautiful churches, and a number of fine and extensive edifices, formerly occupied by religious orders, and now devoted to practical uses.[XXVII-50] There are many reservoirs filled with potable water, some of them of handsome construction, and surrounded by beautiful grounds. Water is supplied the city by aqueducts from a distance of several miles.[XXVII-51] Most of the houses also have wells. The city is likewise well provided with educational and benevolent establishments, as well as places of amusement, such as the theatre and the hippodrome.[XXVII-52] From the Jocotenango ward to the circus there is a fine boulevard along which runs the tramway from the Calvary. The city will soon be in communication with Port San José by railway, as it has long been by telegraph with the other chief towns. The monkish, funereal appearance which Guatemala presented prior to 1871 has disappeared, being succeeded by a pleasing aspect of life. The city police has been organized and equipped in American style, and the body of men is second to none in Spanish America.[XXVII-53]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: PANAMÁ ISTHMUS.]

Panamá was formerly a state, but under a recent organization of the republic of Colombia, has been reduced to the condition of a national department. It lies partly between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific, and is bounded on the south-east by the state of Cauca in the same republic, and on the west by Costa Rica.[XXVII-54]

There are a number of islands belonging to the department, among which are the Mulatas archipelago, the Pearl group, Coiba, Taboga, and Flamenco.[XXVII-55] The range of mountains traversing the Isthmus is a continuation of the Andes, but the elevation in some parts does not exceed 300 feet above the sea. From this ridge flow about 150 streams into the Atlantic, and more than double that number into the Pacific.[XXVII-56]

The state has been hitherto divided into departments; namely, Panamá, Colon, Coclé, Chiriquí, Los Santos, and Veragua,[XXVII-57] which are subdivided into distritos parroquiales. At the head of the distrito capital and departamento de Panamá is a governor, and the other departments have prefectos. Each distrito is under an alcalde.[XXVII-58]

[Sidenote: BUILDINGS AND POPULATION.]

The city of Panamá is laid out with regularity, on a rocky peninsula, presenting a fine appearance from the sea, as it stands out from the dark hills inland with an air of grandeur. The Ancona hill 540 feet high rising a mile westward of the city—helps to render the place conspicuous. But on entering, the visitor finds himself disappointed. The principal streets cross the peninsula from sea to sea, intersected by the Calle Real, running east and west. The place has a quiet and stately appearance, without promising comfort. The houses are mostly of stone built in the Spanish style, the larger ones having heavy balconies in the upper stories, with court-yards or patios. There is little relief or variety.[XXVII-59] The smaller ones are of a single story. The churches and public buildings, namely, the cathedral, casa de la gobernacion, cabildo or town hall, ecclesiastical seminary, and four convents for friars and one for nuns, were strongly built; but years of neglect and the deteriorating effects of the climate have brought many of them to decay; notwithstanding which some of the ecclesiastical edifices are still used for the service of God, whilst others, not utterly ruined, are applied to other purposes.[XXVII-60] The place was at one time tolerably well fortified, but the fortifications no longer exist; the south and west ramparts are, however, in good condition forming an agreeable promenade. The drainage is very bad; many necessary things to insure cleanliness and comfort are wanting; good potable water being scarce and high-priced.[XXVII-61] The city has enjoyed the benefit of gas light for several years past, and since the construction of the canal was begun, it has had many improvements introduced, among them a fine and spacious hospital.[XXVII-62]

The place next in importance on the Isthmus is Colon, otherwise known as Aspinwall, on the island of Manzanilla. It is the Atlantic port of the Isthmus, and contains the stations, offices, and wharf of the railway company, as well as those of the several steam-ship companies, and likewise a number of buildings of the ship-canal enterprise. The town was progressing rapidly, and had a number of fine modern buildings other than those before mentioned, but it was ruined by the vandalic act of revolutionists, which event has been elsewhere described in this volume.[XXVII-63]

The official census of population in the Isthmus of Panamá for 1880 showed the number of inhabitants to have been 307,598.[XXVII-64] The report laid by the state government before the assembly in September 1882 stated that the population had increased since 1880 to 343,782, which was due to the influx of men employed on the canal-works. There have been many fluctuations since. The proportion of negroes and mixed breeds has ever been larger than the pure whites in the city of Panamá and on the Caribbean Sea coast, and after the opening of the canal-works it became greatly increased with laborers from the coast to the south, Jamaica, etc., almost all being negroes. In the interior departments the case is quite different, the majority of the inhabitants being of pure whites.

Efforts made from time to time to develop foreign colonization through land grants have never led to any advantageous acquisition of immigrants.[XXVII-65]

[Sidenote: ISTHMUS SOCIETY.]

The number of American indigenes on the Isthmus is computed at about 10,000.[XXVII-66] The chief of the Savaneries claimed the sovereignty over the land they occupied, and their rights thereto were recognized by the authorities of Veraguas.[XXVII-67]

The Manzanillos occasionally visit Portobello and neighboring villages, and at one time, if not always, were in a state of warfare with the Bayanos. The latter hate the Spaniards and their descendants, but are friendly to the English.[XXVII-68]

In 1873, a law was enacted to compel the wild Indians to adopt the usages of civilized life, and prompt action was recommended by the executive of Panamá in 1874, but nothing came of it.[XXVII-69]

There are but few families of the higher class in Panamá, and time is required to establish a footing of intimacy with them. Considerable has been said in Europe against the character of the women of Panamá, which is not borne out by fact. Much real worth exists among them. Indeed, the native women of the Isthmus generally, possess the best qualifications. They are not only pretty, graceful, and refined, but are dutiful daughters, and excellent wives and mothers. Those in the higher positions, even while laboring under the disadvantage of a limited education, which during a long time was the case with a majority of them, have, as a rule, been of industrious and economical habits. In later years the young girls of the better class have been enabled to acquire an education. The same cannot be said of the women of the lower classes, whose moral scale is quite low, marriage with them being the exception rather than the rule. For this state of things the upper class is partly responsible, inasmuch as from a misguided feeling of charity it looks upon the practice with indifference instead of frowning upon it.[XXVII-70]

The women of Panamá, since the early days of railway travelling, have abandoned their former ways of dressing and of arranging their beautiful hair, adopting European fashions and putting on hats. The women of the lower order, till very recently, wore the polleras;[XXVII-71] but this is becoming a thing of the past. These women are very untidy; they move about their houses slipshod and stockingless. The dress of the native laboring man is a pair of cotton or linen trousers and a shirt.

The young men of the educated class are well-mannered, and most of them have an average share of ability, but application and steadiness of purpose are wanting. Like their sisters, they are kind and affectionate to their families and relatives.[XXVII-72] Nearly all the male inhabitants speak English as well as their native language, and a number, who have been abroad, are conversant with French and even German.

In their domestic life, notwithstanding their constant intercourse with people of other nations, the Panamanians keep themselves secluded, much as they did before the railway was constructed. They still hug a portion of their old opinions and prejudices. Nevertheless, the fullest liberty of conscience and of religion being recognized by the Colombian laws, all forms of worship may be publicly practised.[XXVII-73]

[Sidenote: EDUCATION.]

The government of Panamá has not always manifested a proper interest in the diffusion of knowledge among the masses. It must be acknowledged, however, that during the existence of the central régime, prior to 1860, the children throughout the Isthmus had a better opportunity to acquire instruction, there being schools with paid teachers in nearly all the towns.[XXVII-74] After the revolutionary period became inaugurated, the funds of the government hardly ever satisfied the greed of political leaders, or sufficed to meet the cost of a large military force, and public instruction suffered. This occurred more particularly in the interior, and even the capital has seen its public schools closed for the want of funds.[XXVII-75] The legislators in 1871 gave a new organization to this branch of the public service, but for various reasons nothing was accomplished until 1873, when the philanthropic Manuel J. Hurtado undertook the task of getting some light out of the existing chaos. His efforts soon began to yield good results, though more satisfactory ones might have been obtained had the state government afforded larger means.[XXVII-76] Normal schools have been also established for training teachers, and several other educational institutes have been founded, one for females under women of a religious order. Nevertheless, the majority of young men possessed of means go abroad or to Bogotá to complete their education.

The Isthmus has not produced any notable literary or scientific men, properly so-called, though there are and have been among its people bright intellects. In political and diplomatic life, however, may be mentioned as notabilities Justo Arosemena, José Obaldía, Pablo Arosemena, and Jil Colunje.

The newspaper press has been during many years represented on the Isthmus by the _Star and Herald_,[XXVII-77] which is the vehicle for the communication of news between Europe and the United States on the one side, and the countries in Central and South America on the other. It has been for many years, and continues to be, entitled to rank as a first-class newspaper. Its local edition now appears daily in English, Spanish, and French; the edition for Europe and the United States, to leave by each departing steamer, is in English; and the one for Central and South America is in Spanish, the publication then bearing the name of _La Estrella_.[XXVII-78] Several other newspapers have been published, besides the official organ, from time to time in English and Spanish, or wholly in Spanish, but they have been short-lived.

* * * * *

Bull-worrying is a popular amusement among all classes.[XXVII-79] Cock-fighting is also much patronized on Sundays and holidays.[XXVII-80] Horse-riding, and in later years driving, are recreations of the better classes. Public and private balls, and an occasional play, concert, or circus, when artists cross the Isthmus, help to break the monotony of life.[XXVII-81]

[Sidenote: HEALTH AND DISEASE.]

The Isthmus has suffered, not only from revolutions, but from calamitous visitations in the form of epidemics, particularly small-pox; also by convulsions of nature, and devastating fires.[XXVII-82]

Asiatic cholera visited Panamá in 1849,[XXVII-83] at a time when the Isthmus was crowded with strangers, early in the California gold fever. The destruction of life was heart-rending, as it spared no class or condition.[XXVII-84] Malignant fevers, pulmonary and throat diseases, and other maladies do their work of destruction, and yellow fever often carries off its victims from among unacclimated strangers.[XXVII-85] The tablon, a disease imported in 1873 from Cartagena, assumed an epidemic form, and carried off many of the aged and children.[XXVII-86]

Few, if any, precautions are taken to improve the sanitary condition of the capital, and much less of any other town. In fact, any partial efforts will be of little avail so long as drainage is so bad, and the habits of the lower classes continue so filthy. The necessity of sanitary measures is generally admitted, and ordinances have been enacted to that effect;[XXVII-87] but their observance is spasmodic at best.

The public hospital of Panamá city in 1865 was a poor affair.[XXVII-88] In late years, through the efforts of the private charity, improvements have been introduced, and greater pains taken in the care of the sick poor. The canal company has likewise made ample provision for the attendance of its sick employés and laborers.

Hurricanes and floods have helped to destroy life and property, and cause general distress. Fire has on several occasions left large numbers of people without shelter and utterly ruined.[XXVII-89]