Part 839

Roger L'Estrange "is remarkable for having been the writer of the best newspapers which appeared before the age of Queen Anne, and, at the same time, a most bitter enemy to the freedom of the press. He was appointed licenser or censor in 1663, and in the same year was given authority to publish all newspapers, periodicals, and pamphlets, not exceeding two sheets in size. He appears to have looked upon his newspaper as a noxious thing, suffered to exist only that an income might be created for him in return for the labour of purging the press. Yet he spared no pains to make his Public Intelligencer readable, and if we may trust his letters now preserved at the State Paper Office, expended in the first year more than £500 on 'spyes for collecting intelligence.' Three years afterwards he estimated the profits at £400 a year. … He sent paid correspondents, or 'spyes' as they were called, to all parts of the country, and even induced some respectable persons, under promise of concealing their names, to contribute occasional paragraphs; these persons were for the most part repaid by sending to them their newspapers and letters free of postage. Another set of 'spyes' was employed in picking up the news of the town on Paul's Walk or in the taverns and coffee–houses. L'Estrange printed about sixteen reams of his Intelligencer weekly, which were for the most part sold by the mercury-women who cried them about the streets. One Mrs. Andrews is said to have taken more than one-third of the whole quantity printed. … Advantage was taken of a slip in the weekly intelligence to deprive L'Estrange of his monopoly in favour of the new Oxford Gazette, published in the winter of 1665 and transferred to London in the ensuing spring. The Gazette was placed under the control of Williamson, then a rising under-Secretary of State, under whose austere influence nothing was suffered to appear which could excite or even amuse the public. … L'Estrange has not been a favourite with historians, and we confess that his harsh measures towards the press are apt to raise a feeling of repugnance. … But he was certainly an enthusiastic and industrious writer, who raised the tone of the press, even while taking pains to fetter its liberty. When he lost his monopoly, that era of desolation began which Macaulay has so forcibly described. The newspapers became completely sterile, omitting events even of such importance as the trial of the seven bishops, and were supplanted in popular favour by the manuscript news-letters, which were, in fact, the only journals of importance. On the day after the abdication of James II. three fresh newspapers appeared, and many more burst out after the appearance of the official journal under the style of the Orange Gazette. But it was not until 1694 that the king was induced to abolish the censorship and to permit free trade in news; 'he doubted much,' says Hume, 'of the salutary effects of such unlimited freedom.' The newspapers increased and multiplied exceedingly for the eighteen years between the abolition of the office of licenser and the passing of the Stamp Act, in 1712, by which a halfpenny tax was laid on every half-sheet of intelligence."

_Early English Newspapers (Cornhill Magazine, July, 1868)._

{2597}

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1685-1693. William Bradford and his Press in Philadelphia and New York.

William Bradford, a young printer, of the Society of Friends, came to Philadelphia in the autumn of 1685, and established himself in business. "His first publication was 'Kalendarium Pennsilvaniense, or America's Messenger; Being an Almanack for the Year of Grace 1686.' This brought him a summons before the Governor and Council, for referring to the Proprietary, in the table of chronology, ns 'Lord Penn;' and, on his appearance, he was ordered to blot out the objectionable title, and forbidden to print anything without license from the Provincial Council. In 1687 he was cautioned by the Philadelphia meeting not to print anything touching the Quakers without its approval. Two years later he was again called before the Governor, and Council—this time for printing the charter of the province. The spirited report, in his own handwriting, of his examination on this occasion, is now preserved in the collection of the New York Historical Society. Disappointed at the non-fulfilment of Penn's promise of the government printing and the failure of his scheme for printing an English Bible, which, although indorsed by the meeting, found few subscribers, and harassed by both the civil and religious authorities, Bradford determined to leave the province," which he did, with his family, sailing to England in 1689. He was induced, however, by promises of increased business and a yearly salary of £40, to return. In 1692, having become one of the supporters of George Keith, and having printed Keith's "Appeal", he was arrested and imprisoned.

See PENNSYLVANIA: A. D. 1692-1696.

This occurred in August, and his trial followed in December. The jury disagreed, and he was held for appearance at the next court. "In the meantime the dissensions in the province aroused by the Keithian schism had led to the abrogation of Penn's charter by the crown, and the appointment of Benjamin Fletcher to be Royal Governor of Pennsylvania as well as New York." This change led to the dropping of proceedings against Bradford, and to his removal from Philadelphia to New York, whither he seems to have been invited. His removal was undoubtedly prompted by a resolution which the Provincial Council of New York adopted on the 23d of March, 1693: "That if a Printer will come and settle in the city of New York for the printing of our Acts of Assembly and Publick Papers, he shall be allowed the sum of £40 current money of New York per annum for his salary and have the benefit of his printing besides what serves the publick." "Bradford's first warrant for his salary as 'Printer to King William and Queen Mary, at the City of New York,' was dated October 12, 1693, and was for six months, due on the 10th preceding," showing that he had established himself in the colony more hospitable to his art as early as the 10th of April, 1693. "What was the first product of his press is a matter of doubt. It may have been, as Dr. Moore suggests, the 'Journal of the Late Actions of the French at Canada,' or 'New England's Spirit of Persecution Transmitted to Pennsilvania'"—which was a report of his own trial at Philadelphia—or it may have been an Act of the New York Assembly—one of three which his press produced early that year, but the priority among which is uncertain.

_C. R Hildeburn, Printing in New York in the 17th Century (Memorial History of the City of New York, volume 1, chapter 15.)_

ALSO IN: _I. Thomas, History of Printing in America, 2d edition, volume 1._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1695. Expiration of the Censorship law in England. Quick multiplication of Newspapers.

"While the Licensing Act was in force there was no newspaper in England except the 'London Gazette,' which was edited by a clerk in the office of the Secretary of State, and which contained nothing but what the Secretary of State wished the nation to know. There were indeed many periodical papers: but none of those papers could be called a newspaper. Welwood, a zealous Whig, published a journal called the Observator: but his Observator, like the Observator which Lestrange had formerly edited, contained, not the news, but merely dissertations on politics. A crazy bookseller, named John Dunton, published the Athenian Mercury: but the Athenian Mercury merely discussed questions of natural philosophy, of casuistry and of gallantry. A fellow of the Royal Society, named John Houghton, published what he called a Collection for the Improvement of Industry and Trade: but his Collection contained little more than the prices of stocks, explanations of the modes of doing business in the City, puffs of new projects, and advertisements of books, quack medicines, chocolate, Spa water, civet cats, surgeons wanting ships, valets wanting masters, and ladies wanting husbands. If ever he printed any political news, he transcribed it from the Gazette. The Gazette was so partial and so meagre a chronicle of events that, though it had no competitors, it had but a small circulation. … But the deficiencies of the Gazette were to a certain extent supplied in London by the coffeehouses, and in the country by the news-letters. On the third of May 1695 the law which had subjected the press to a censorship expired. Within a fortnight, a stanch old Whig, named Harris, who had, in the days of the Exclusion Bill, attempted to set up a newspaper entitled Intelligence Domestic and Foreign, and who had been speedily forced to relinquish that design, announced that the Intelligence Domestic and Foreign, suppressed fourteen years before by tyranny, would again appear. Ten days later was printed the first number of the English Courant. Then came the Packet Boat from Holland and Flanders, the Pegasus, the London Newsletter, the London Post, the Flying Post, the Old Postmaster, the Postboy, and the Postman. The history of the newspapers of England from that time to the present day is a most interesting and instructive part of the history of the country. At first they were small and mean-looking. … Only two numbers came out in a week; and a number contained little more matter than may be found in a single column of a daily paper of our time."

_Lord Macaulay, History of England, chapter 21._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1704-1729. The first Newspapers in America.

"There was not a newspaper published in the English colonies, throughout the extensive continent of North America, until the 24th of April, 1704. John Campbell, a Scotchman, who was a bookseller and postmaster in Boston, was the first who began and established a publication of this kind. It was entitled 'The Boston News-Letter.' … It is printed on half a sheet of pot paper, with a small pica type, folio. {2598} The first page is filled with an extract from 'The London Flying Post,' respecting the pretender. … The queen's speech to both houses of parliament on that occasion, a few articles under the Boston head, four short paragraphs of marine intelligence from New York, Philadelphia, and New London, and one advertisement, form its whole contents. The advertisement is from Campbell, the proprietor of the paper." In 1719, a rival paper was started in Boston, called the "Gazette," and in 1721, a third, founded by James Franklin, took the name of "The New England Courant." Meantime there had appeared at Philadelphia, on the 22nd of December, 1719,—only one day later than the second of the Boston newspapers—"The American Weekly Mercury," printed by Andrew Bradford, son of William Bradford. The same printer, Andrew Bradford, removing to New York, brought out "The New York Gazette," the first newspaper printed in that city, in October, 1725.

_I. Thomas, History of Printing in America, volume 2, page 12, and after._

"In 1740, the number of newspapers in the English colonies on the continent had increased to eleven, of which one appeared in South Carolina, one in Virginia, three in Pennsylvania—one of them being in German—one in New York, and the remaining five in Boston. … The New England 'Courant,' the fourth American periodical, was, in August 1721, established by James Franklin as an organ of independent opinion. Its temporary success was advanced by Benjamin, his brother and apprentice, a boy of fifteen, who wrote for its columns, worked in composing the types as well as printing off the sheets, and, as carrier, distributed the papers to the customers. The sheet satirized hypocrisy, and spoke of religious knaves as of all knaves the worst. This was described as tending 'to abuse the ministers of religion in a manner which was intolerable.' … In July 1722, a resolve passed the council, appointing a censor for the press of James Franklin; but the house refused its concurrence. The ministers persevered; and, in January 1723, a committee of inquiry was raised by the legislature. Benjamin, being examined, escaped with an admonition; James, the publisher, refusing to discover the author of the offence, was kept in jail for a month; his paper was censured as reflecting injuriously on the reverend ministers of the gospel; and, by vote of the house and council, he was forbidden to print it, 'except it be first supervised.' Vexed at the arbitrary proceedings, Benjamin Franklin, then but seventeen years old, in October 1723, sailed clandestinely for New York. Finding there no employment, he crossed to Amboy; went on foot to the Delaware; for want of a wind, rowed in a boat from Burlington to Philadelphia; and bearing marks of his labor at the oar, weary, hungry, having for his whole stock of cash a single dollar, the runaway apprentice—the pupil of the free schools of Boston, rich in the boundless hope of youth and the unconscious power of modest genius—stepped on shore to seek food and occupation. On the deep foundations of sobriety, frugality and industry, the young journeyman built his fortunes and fame; and he soon came to have a printing-office of his own. … The assembly of Pennsylvania chose him its printer. He planned a newspaper [the 'Pennsylvania Gazette']; and, when (1729] he became its proprietor and editor, he defended freedom of thought and speech, and the inalienable power of the people."

_G. Bancroft, History of the United States of America, part 3, chapter 15 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN: _J. Parton, Life of Franklin, parts 1-2 (volume l)._

_B. Franklin, Life by Himself, edited by J. Bigelow, part 1._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1709-1752. The Periodicals of the Essayists. The "Tatler," "Spectator," and their successors.

"In the spring of 1709, Steele [Sir Richard] formed a literary project, of which he was far indeed from foreseeing the consequences. Periodical papers had during many years been published in London. Most of these were political; but in some of them questions of morality, taste, and love-casuistry had been discussed. The literary merit of these works was small indeed; and even their names are now known only to the curious. Steele had been appointed gazetteer by Sunderland, at the request, it is said, of Addison; and thus had access to foreign intelligence earlier and more authentic than was in those times within the reach of an ordinary news-writer. This circumstance seems to have suggested to him the scheme of publishing a periodical paper on a new plan. It was to appear on the days on which the post left London for the country, which were, in that generation, the Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. It was to contain the foreign news, accounts of theatrical representations, and the literary gossip of Will's and of the Grecian. It was also to contain remarks on the fashionable topics of the day, compliments to beauties, pasquinades on noted sharpers, and criticisms on popular preachers. The aim of Steele does not appear to have been at first higher than this. … Issac Bickerstaff, Esquire, Astrologer, was an imaginary person, almost as well known in that age as Mr. Paul Pry or Mr. Pickwick in ours. Swift had assumed the name of Bickerstaff in a satirical pamphlet against Partridge, the almanac-maker. Partridge had been fool enough to publish a furious reply. Bickerstaff had rejoined in a second pamphlet still more diverting than the first. All the wits had combined to keep up the joke, and the town was long in convulsions of laughter. Steele determined to employ the name which this controversy had made popular; and, in April, 1709, it was announced that Isaac Bickerstaff, Esquire, Astrologer, was about to publish a paper called the 'Tatler.' Addison had not been consulted about this scheme; but as soon as he heard of it, he determined to give it his assistance. The effect of that assistance cannot be better described than in Steele's own words. 'I fared,' he said, 'like a distressed prince who calls in a powerful neighbour to his aid. I was undone by my auxiliary. When I had once called him in, I could not subsist without dependence on him.' 'The paper,' he says elsewhere, 'was advanced indeed. It was raised to a greater thing than I intended it.'"

_Lord Macaulay. Life and Writings of Addison (Essays)._

"Steele, on the 12th of April 1709, issued the first number of the 'Tatler.' … This famous newspaper, printed in one folio sheet of 'tobacco paper' with 'scurvy letter,' ran to 271 numbers, and abruptly ceased to appear in January 1711. It enjoyed an unprecedented success, for, indeed, nothing that approached it had ever before been issued from the periodical press in England. The division of its contents was thus arranged by the editor: 'All accounts of gallantry, pleasure, and entertainment shall be under the article of White's Chocolate House; poetry under that of Will's Coffee-House; learning under the title of Grecian; foreign and domestic news you will have from St. James's Coffee-House; and what else I shall on any other subject offer shall be dated from my own apartment.' {2599} The political news gradually ceased to appear. … Of the 271 'Tatlers,' 188 were written by Steele, 42 by Addison, and 36 by both conjointly. Three were from the pen of John Hughes. … These, at least, are the numbers usually given, but the evidence on which they are based is slight. It rests mainly upon the indications given by Steele to Tickell when the latter was preparing his edition of Addison's Works. The conjecture may be hazarded that there were not a few Tatlers written by Addison which he was not anxious to claim as his particular property. … Addison, … remained Steele's firm friend, and less than two months after the cessation of the 'Tatler' there appeared the first number of a still more famous common enterprise, the 'Spectator,' on the 1st of March 1711. It was announced to appear daily, and was to be composed of the reflections and actions of the members of an imaginary club, formed around 'Mr. Spectator.' In this club the most familiar figure is the Worcestershire Knight, Sir Roger de Coverley, the peculiar property of Addison. … The 'Spectator' continued to appear daily until December 1712. It consisted of 555 numbers, of which Addison wrote 274, Steele 236, Hughes 19, and Pope 1 (The Messiah, 'Spectator' 378). Another contributor was Eustace Budgell (1685-1736), Addison's cousin. … The 'Spectator' enjoyed so very unequivocal a success that it has puzzled historians to account for its discontinuance. In No. 517 Addison killed Sir Roger de Coverley 'that nobody else might murder him.' This shows a voluntary intention to stop the publication, which the Stamp Act itself had not been able to do by force."

_E. Gosse, A History of Eighteenth Century Literature, chapter 6._

"After this, in 1713, came the 'Guardian'; and in 1714 an eighth volume of the 'Spectator' was issued by Addison alone. He was also the sole author of the 'Freeholder,' 1715, which contains the admirable sketch of the 'Tory Foxhunter.' Steele, on his side, followed up the 'Guardian' by the 'Lover,' the 'Reader,' and half-a–dozen abortive efforts; but his real successes, as well as those of Addison, were in the three great collections for which they worked together. … Between the 'Guardian' of 1713 and the 'Rambler' of 1750-2 there were a number of periodical essayists of varying merit. It is scarcely necessary to recall the names of these now forgotten 'Intelligencers,' 'Moderators,' 'Remembrancers,' and the like, the bulk of which were political. Fielding places one of them, the 'Freethinker' of Philips, nearly on a level with 'those great originals the "Tatlers" and the "Spectators;"' but the initial chapters to the different books of 'Tom Jones' attract us more forcibly to the author's own 'Champion,' written in conjunction with the Ralph who 'makes night hideous' in the 'Dunciad.' … Another of Fielding's enterprises in the 'Spectator' vein was the 'Covent Garden Journal,' 1752. … Concurrently with the 'Covent Garden Journal' appeared the final volume of Johnson's 'Rambler,' a work upon the cardinal defect of which its author laid his finger, when in later life, he declared it to be 'too wordy.' Lady Mary said in her smart way that the 'Rambler' followed the 'Spectator' as a pack horse would do a hunter. … In the twenty-nine papers which Johnson wrote for Hawkesworth's 'Adventurer,' the 'Rambler' style is maintained. In the 'Idler,' however, which belongs to a later date, when its author's mind was unclouded, and he was comparatively free from the daily pressure" of necessity, he adopts a simpler and less polysyllabic style."

_A. Dobson, Eighteenth Century Essays, introduction._

PRINTING AND THE PRESS: A. D. 1712. The first Stamp Tax on Newspapers in England.