Part 722

In 1224 Jingiz "divided his gigantic empire amongst his sons as follows: China and Mongolia were given to Oktai, whom he nominated as his successor; Tchaghatai received a part of the Uiguric passes as far as Khahrezm, including Turkestan and Transoxania; Djudi had died in the meantime, so Batu was made lord of Kharezm, Desht i-Kiptchak of the pass of Derbend and Tuli was placed over Khorasan, Persia, and India."

_A. Vámbéry, History of Bokhara, chapter 8._

"Popularly he [Jingis-Khan] is mentioned with Attila and with Timur as one of the 'Scourges of God.' … But he was far more than a conqueror. … In every detail of social and political economy he was a creator; his laws and his administrative rules are equally admirable and astounding to the student. … He may fairly claim to have conquered the greatest area of the world's surface that was ever subdued by one hand. … Jingis organised a system of intelligence and espionage by which he generally knew well the internal condition of the country he was about to attack. He intrigued with the discontented and seduced them by fair promises. … The Mongols ravaged and laid waste the country all round the bigger towns, and they generally tried to entice a portion of the garrison into an ambuscade. They built regular siege-works armed with catapults; the captives and peasants were forced to take part in the assault; the attack never ceased night or day; relief of troops keeping the garrison in perpetual terror. They employed Chinese and Persians to make their war engines. … They rarely abandoned the siege of a place altogether, and would sometimes continue a blockade for years. They were bound by no oath, and however solemn their promise to the inhabitants who would surrender, it was broken, and a general massacre ensued. It was their policy to leave behind them no body of people, however submissive, who might inconvenience their communications. … His [Jingis'] creed was to sweep away all cities, as the haunts of slaves and of luxury; that his herds might freely feed upon grass whose green was free from dusty feet. It does make one hide one's face in terror to read that from 1211 to 1223, 18,470,000 human beings perished in China and Tangut alone, at the hands of Jingis and his followers."

_H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, volume 1, pages 49, 108-113._

"He [Jingiz-Khan] was … a military genius of the very first order, and it may be questioned whether either Cæsar or Napoleon can, as commanders, be placed on a par with him. The manner in which he moved large bodies of men over vast distances without an apparent effort, the judgment he showed in the conduct of several wars in countries far apart from each other, his strategy in unknown regions, always on the alert yet never allowing hesitation or over-caution to interfere with his enterprises, the sieges which he brought to a successful termination, his brilliant victories … —all combined, make up the picture of a career to which Europe can offer nothing that will surpass, if indeed she has anything to bear comparison with it."

_D. C. Boulger, History of China, volume 1, chapter 21._

See, also, CHINA: A. D. 1205-1234; KHORASSAN; BOKHARA: A. D. 1219; SAMARKAND; MERV; BALKH; KHUAREZM.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1202. Overthrow of the Keraït, or the kingdom of Prester John.

See PRESTER JOHN, THE KINGDOM OF.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1229-1294. Conquests of the successors of Jingiz Khan.

"Okkodai [or Ogotai or Oktai], the son and successor of Chinghiz, followed up the subjugation of China, extinguished the Kin finally in 1234 and consolidated with his empire all the provinces north of the Great Kiang. … After establishing his power over so much of China as we have said, Okkodai raised a vast army and set it in motion towards the west. One portion was directed against Armenia, Georgia, and Asia Minor, whilst another great host under Batu, the nephew of the Great Khan, conquered the countries north of Caucasus, overran Russia making it tributary, and still continued to carry fire and slaughter westward. One great detachment under a lieutenant of Batu's entered Poland, burned Cracow, found Breslaw in ashes and abandoned by its people, and defeated with great slaughter at Wahlstadt near Lignitz (April 12th, 1241) the troops of Poland, Moravia and Silesia, who had gathered under Duke Henry of the latter province to make head against this astounding flood of heathen. Batu himself with the main body of his army was ravaging Hungary. …

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301].

Pesth was now taken and burnt and all its people put to the sword. The rumours of the Tartars and their frightful devastations had scattered fear through Europe, which the defeat at Lignitz raised to a climax. Indeed weak and disunited Christendom seemed to lie at the foot of the barbarians. The Pope to be sure proclaimed crusade, and wrote circular letters, but the enmity between him and the Emperor Frederic II. was allowed to prevent any co-operation, and neither of them responded by anything better than words to the earnest calls for help which came from the King of Hungary. No human aid merited thanks when Europe was relieved by hearing that the Tartar host had suddenly retreated eastward. The Great Khan Okkodai was dead [A. D. 1241] in the depths of Asia, and a courier had come to recall the army from Europe. In 1255 a new wave of conquest rolled westward from Mongolia, this time directed against the Ismaelians or 'Assassins' on the south of the Caspian, and then successively against the Khalif of Baghdad and Syria. The conclusion of this expedition under Hulagu may be considered to mark the climax of the Mongol power. Mangu Khan, the emperor then reigning, and who died on a campaign in China in 1259, was the last who exercised a sovereignty so nearly universal. His successor Kublai extended indeed largely the frontiers of the Mongol power in China [see CHINA: A. D. 1259-1294], which he brought entirely under the yoke, besides gaining conquests rather nominal than real on its southern and southeastern borders, but he ruled effectively only in the eastern regions of the great empire, which had now broken up into four. (1) The immediate Empire of the Great Khan, seated eventually at Khanbalik or Peking, embraced China, Corea, Mongolia, and Manchuria, Tibet, and claims at least over Tunking and countries on the Ava frontier; (2), the Chagatai Khanate, or Middle Empire of the Tartars, with its capital at Almalik, included the modern Dsungaria, part of Chinese Turkestan, Transoxiana, and Afghanistan; (3), the Empire of Kipchak, or the Northern Tartars, founded on the conquests of Batu, and with its chief seat at Sarai, on the Wolga, covered a large part of Russia, the country north of Caucasus, Khwarizm, and a part of the modern Siberia; (4), Persia, with its capital eventually at Tabriz, embraced Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and part of Asia Minor, all Persia, Arabian Irak, and Khorasan."

_H. Yule, Cathay and the way Thither: Preliminary Essay, sections 92-94 (volume 1)._

ALSO IN: _H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, chapters 4-5._

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[Image: Map of the Mongol Empire, A. D. 1300. ]

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MONGOLS: A. D. 1238-1391. The Kipchak empire. The Golden Horde.

"It was under Toushi [or Juchi], son of Tschingis, that the great migration of the Moguls effected an abiding settlement in Russia. … Toushi, with half a million of Moguls, entered Europe close by the Sea of Azof. On the banks of the river Kalka he encountered the united forces of the Russian princes. The death of Toushi for awhile arrested the progress of the Tatar arms. But in 1236, Batu, the son of Toushi, took the command, and all the principalities and cities of Russia, with the exception of Novogorod, were desolated by fire and sword and occupied by the enemy. For two centuries Russia was held cabined, cribbed, confined by this encampment or horde. The Golden Horde of the Deshti Kipzak, or Steppe of the Hollow Tree. Between the Volga and the Don, and beyond the Volga, spreads this limitless region the Deshti Kipzak. It was occupied in the first instance, most probably, by Hun-Turks, who first attracted and then were absorbed by fresh immigrants. From this region an empire took its name. By the river Akhtuba, a branch of the lower Volga, at Great Serai, Batu erected his golden tent; and here it was he received the Russian princes whom he had reduced to vassalage. Here he entertained a king of Armenia; and here, too, he received the ambassadors of S. Louis. … With the exception of Novogorod, which had joined the Hanseatic League in 1276, and rose rapidly in commercial prosperity, all Russia continued to endure, till the extinction of the house of Batu, a degrading and hopeless bondage. When the direct race came to an end, the collateral branches became involved in very serious conflicts; and in 1380, Temnik-Mami was overthrown near the river Don by Demetrius IV., who, with the victory, won a title of honour, Donski, which outlasted the benefits of the victory; although it is from this conflict that Russian writers date the commencement of their freedom. … After an existence of more than 250 years the Golden Horde was finally dissolved in 1480. Already, in 1468, the khanate of Kusan [or Kazan] was conquered and absorbed by the Grand Duke Ivan; and, after the extinction of the horde, Europeans for the first time exacted tribute of the Tatar, and ambassadors found their way unobstructed to Moscow. But the breaking up of the Golden Horde did not carry with it the collapse of all Tatar power in Russia. Rather the effect was to create a concentration of all their residuary resources in the Crimea."

_C. I. Black, The Proselytes of Ishmael, part 3, chapter 4._

"The Mongol word yurt meant originally the domestic fireplace, and, according to Van Hammer, the word is identical with the German herde and the English hearth, and thence came in a secondary sense to mean house or home, the chief's house being known as Ulugh Yurt or the Great House. An assemblage of several yurts formed an ordu or orda, equivalent to the German hort and the English horde, which really means a camp. The chief camp where the ruler of the nation lived was called the Sir Orda, i. e., the Golden Horde. … It came about that eventually the whole nation was known as the Golden Horde." The power of the Golden Horde was broken by the conquests of Timour (A. D. 1389-1391). It was finally broken into several fragments, the chief of which, the Khanates of Kazan, of Astrakhan, and of Krim, or the Crimea, maintained a long struggle with Russia, and were successively overpowered and absorbed in the empire of the Muscovite.

_H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 2, pages 1 and x._

See, also, above: A. D. 1229-1294;

KIPCHAKS; and RUSSIA: A. D. 1237-1480.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1257-1258. Khulagu's overthrow of the Caliphate.

See BAGDAD: A. D. 1258.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1258-1393. The empire of the Ilkhans.

See PERSIA: A. D. 1258-1393.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1371-1405. The conquests of Timour.

See TIMOUR.

MONGOLS: A. D. 1526-1605. Founding of the Mogul (Mongol) empire in India.

See INDIA.: A. D. 1399-1605.

MONGOLS: End----------

MONITOR AND MERRIMAC, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH).

MONKS.

See AUSTIN CANONS; BENEDICTINE ORDERS; CAPUCHINS; CARMELITE FRIARS; CARTHUSIAN ORDER; CISTERCIAN ORDER; CLAIRVAUX; CLUGNY; MENDICANT ORDERS; RECOLLECTS; SERVITES; THEATINES; TRAPPISTS.

MONMOUTH, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778 (JUNE).

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1685 (MAY-JULY).

MONOCACY, Battle of the.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (JULY: VIRGINIA-MARYLAND).

MONOPHYSITE CONTROVERSY.

See NESTORIAN AND MONOPHYSITE CONTROVERSY; also, JACOBITE CHURCH.

MONOTHELITE CONTROVERSY, The.

"The Council of Chalcedon having decided that our Lord possessed two natures, united but not confused, the Eutychian error condemned by it is supposed to have been virtually reproduced by the Monothelites, who maintained that the two natures were so united as to have but one will. This heresy is ascribed to Heraclius the Greek emperor, who adopted it as a political project for reconciling and reclaiming the Monophysites to the Church, and thus to the empire. The Armenians as a body had held, for a long time, the Monophysite (a form of the Eutychian) heresy, and were then in danger of breaking their allegiance to the emperor, as they had done to the Church; and it was chiefly to prevent the threatened rupture that Heraclius made a secret compromise with some of their principal men. … Neither … the strenuous efforts of the Greek emperors Heraclius and Constans, nor the concession of Honorius the Roman pontiff to the soundness of the Monothelite doctrine, could introduce it into the Church. Heraclius published in A. D. 639 an Ecthesis, or a formula, in which Monotheism was covertly introduced. The sixth general council, held in Constantinople A. D. 680, condemned both the heresy and Honorius, the Roman pontiff who had countenanced it. {2225} 'The doctrine of the Monothelites, thus condemned and exploded by the Council of Constantinople, found a place of refuge among the Mardaites, a people who inhabited the mountains of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, and who, about the conclusion of this century, received the name of Maronites from John Maro, their first bishop-a name which they still retain.' … In the time of the Crusaders, the Maronites united with them in their wars against the Saracens, and subsequently (A. D. 1182) in their faith. After the evacuation of Syria by the Crusaders, the Maronites, as their former allies, had to bear the vengeance of the Saracenic kings; and for a long time they defended themselves as they could, sometimes inflicting serious injury on the Moslem army, and at others suffering the revengeful fury of their enemies. They ultimately submitted to the rule of their Mohammedan masters, and are now good subjects of the sultan. … The Maronites now … are entirely free from the Monothelite heresy, which they doubtless followed in their earlier history; nor, indeed, does there appear a single vestige of it in their histories, theological books, or liturgies. Their faith in the person of Christ and in all the articles of religion is now, as it has been for a long time past, in exact uniformity with the doctrines of the Roman Church."

_J. Wortabet, Researches into the Religions of Syria, pages 103-111; with foot-note._

ALSO IN: _H. F. Tozer, The Church and the Eastern Empire, chapter 5._

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 47._

_P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, volume 4, chapter 11, sections 109-111._

MONROE, James, Opposition to the Federal Constitution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787-1789.

Presidential election and administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1816, to 1825.

MONROE DOCTRINE, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1823.

MONROVIA.

See SLAVERY, NEGRO: A. D. 1816-1847.

MONS: Start--------

MONS: A. D. 1572. Capture by Louis of Nassau, recovery by the Spaniards, and massacre.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.

MONS: A. D. 1691. Siege and surrender to Louis XIV.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1689-1691.

MONS: A. D. 1697. Restored to Spain.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1697.

MONS: A. D. 1709. Siege and reduction by Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

MONS: A. D. 1713. Transferred to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

MONS: A. D 1746-1748. Taken by the French and restored to Austria.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1746-1747; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

MONS: End--------

MONS GRAMPIUS, Battle of.

See GRAMPIANS.

MONS SACER, Secession of the Roman Plebeians to.

See ROME: B. C. 494-492.

MONS TARPEIUS.

See CAPITOLINE HILL.

MONSIEUR.

Under the old regime, in France, this was the special designation of the elder among the king's brothers.

MONT ST. JEAN, Battle of.

The battle of Waterloo— is sometimes so called by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1815 (JUNE).

MONTAGNAIS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and ATHAPASCAN FAMILY.

MONTAGNARDS, OR THE MOUNTAIN.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (OCTOBER); 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER); and after, to 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

MONTAGNE NOIRE, Battle of (1794).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY).

MONTANA: Start--------

MONTANA: A. D. 1803, Partly or wholly embraced in the Louisiana Purchase. The question.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

MONTANA: A. D. 1864-1889. Organization as a Territory and admission as a State.

Montana received its Territorial organization in 1864, and was admitted to the Union as a State in 1889.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

MONTANA: End--------

MONTANISTS.

A name given to the followers of Montanus, who appeared in the 2d century, among the Christians of Phrygia, claiming that the Holy Spirit, the Paraclete, "had, by divine appointment, descended upon him for the purpose of foretelling things of the greatest moment that were about to happen, and promulgating a better and more perfect discipline of life and morals. … This sect continued to flourish down to the 5th century."

_J. L. von Mosheim, Historical Commentaries, 2d Century, section. 66._

MONTAPERTI, Battle of (1260).

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1248-1278.

MONTAUBAN, Siege of (1621).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1620-1622.

MONTAUKS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

MONTBÉLIARD, Battle of (1871).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870-1871.

MONTCALM, and the defense of Canada.

See CANADA: A. D. 1756, to 1759.

MONTE CASEROS, Battle of (1852).

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1819-1874.

MONTE CASINO, The Monastery of.

See BENEDICTINE ORDERS.

MONTE ROTUNDO, Battle of (1867).

See ITALY: A. D. 1867-1870.

MONTE SAN GIOVANNI, Battle and massacre (1495).

See ITALY: A. D. 1494-1496.

MONTEBELLO, Battle of (1800).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

Battle of (1859.)

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

MONTECATINI, Battle of (1315).

See ITALY: A. D. 1313-1330.

MONTENEGRO.

See BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES.

MONTENOTTE, Battles at (1796).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER).

MONTEREAU, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

MONTEREAU, The Bridge of (1419).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1415-1419.

MONTEREY, California: Possession taken by the American fleet (1846).

See CALIFORNIA: A. D. 1846-1847.

MONTEREY, Mexico: Siege by the Americans (1846).

See MEXICO: A. D. 1846-1847.

MONTEREY, Pennsylvania, The Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JUNE-JULY: PENNSYLVANIA).

MONTEVIDEO: Founding of the city.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

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MONTEZUMA, The so-called Empire of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1325-1502.

MONTFORT, Simon de (the elder), The Crusade of.

See CRUSADES: A. D.1201-1203.

MONTFORT, Simon de (the younger), The English Parliament and the Barons' war.

See PARLIAMENT, THE ENGLISH: EARLY STAGES IN ITS EVOLUTION; and ENGLAND: A. D. 1216-1274.

MONTGOMERY, General Richard, and his expedition against Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1775-1776.

MONTGOMERY CONSTITUTION and Government.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY).

MONTI OF SIENA, The.

See SIENA.

MONTLEHERY, Battle of (1465).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1461-1468.

MONTMÉDY: Start--------

MONTMÉDY: A. D. 1657. Siege and capture by the French and English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1655-1658.

MONTMÉDY: A. D. 1659. Cession to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

MONTMÉDY: End--------

MONTMIRAIL, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (JANUARY-MARCH).

MONTPELIER, Treaty of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1620-1622.

MONTPELIER, Second Treaty of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1624-1626.

MONTPENSIER, Mademoiselle, and the Fronde.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1651-1653.

MONTREAL: Start--------

MONTREAL: A. D. 1535. The Naming of the Island.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1534-1535.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1611. The founding of the City by Champlain.

See CANADA: A. D. 1611-1616.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1641-1657. Settlement under the seigniory of the Sulpicians.

See CANADA: A.D. 1637-1657.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1689. Destructive attack by the Iroquois.

See CANADA: A. D. 1640-1700.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1690. Threatened by the English Colonists.

See CANADA: A. D. 1689-1690.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1760. The surrender of the city and of all Canada to the English.

See CANADA: A. D. 1760.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1775-1776. Taken by the Americans and recovered by the British.

See CANADA: A. D. 1775-1776.

MONTREAL: A. D. 1813. Abortive expedition of American forces against the city.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1813 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

MONTREAL: End--------

MONTROSE, and the Covenanters.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1638-1640; and 1644-1645.

MONZA, Battle of (1412).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

MONZON, MONÇON, Treaty of (1626).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1624-1626.

MOODKEE, Battle of (1845).

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849.

MOOKERHYDE, Battle of (1574).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574.

MOOLTAN, MULTAN: A. D. 1848-1849. Siege and capture by the English.

See INDIA: A. D. 1845-1849.

MOORE, Sir John: Campaign in Spain and death.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (AUGUST-JANUARY).

MOORE'S CREEK, Battle of (1776).

See NORTH CAROLINA: A. D. 1775-1776.

MOORISH SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL.

MOORS: Start--------

MOORS, OR MAURI, Origin.

See NUMIDIANS.

MOORS: A. D. 698-709. Arab conquest.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 647-709; and MAROCCO.

MOORS: A. D. 711-713. Conquest of Spain.

See SPAIN: A. D. 711-713, and after.

MOORS: 11-13th Centuries. The Almoravides and Almohades in Morocco.

See ALMORAVIDES; and ALMOHADES.

MOORS: A. D. 1492-1609. Persecution and final expulsion from Spain. The deadly effect upon that country.