Part 679

MANNHEIM: A. D. 1799. Capture by the Austrians.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

MANNHEIM: End--------

MANOA, The fabled city of.

See EL DORADO.

MANORS.

"The name manor is of Norman origin, but the estate to which it was given existed, in its essential character, long before the Conquest; it received a new name as the shire also did, but neither the one nor the other was created by this change. The local jurisdictions of the thegns who had grants of sac and soc, or who exercised judicial functions amongst their free neighbours, were identical with the manorial jurisdictions of the new owners. … The manor itself was, as Ordericus tells us, nothing more nor less than the ancient township, now held by a lord who possessed certain judicial rights varying according to the terms of the grant by which he was infeoffed. Every manor had a court baron, the ancient gemot of the township, in which by-laws were made and other local business transacted, and a court customary in which the business of the villenage was despatched. Those manors whose lords had under the Anglo-Saxon laws possessed sac and soc, or who since the Conquest had had grants in which those terms were used, had also a court-leet, or criminal jurisdiction, cut out as it were from the criminal jurisdiction of the hundred, and excusing the suitors who attended it from going to the court-leet of the hundred."

_W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 9, section 98, and chapter 11, section 129 (volume 1)._

"From the Conquest to the 14th century we find the same agricultural conditions prevailing over the greater part of England. Small gatherings of houses and cots appear as oases in the moorland and forest, more or less frequent according to the early or late settlement of the district, and its freedom from, or exposure to, the ravages of war and the punishment of rebellion. These oases, townships or vills if of some extent, hamlets if of but a few houses, gather round one or more mansions of superior size and importance, the Manor houses, or abodes of the Lords of the respective Manors. Round each township stretch the great ploughed fields, usually three in number, open and uninclosed. Each field is divided into a series of parallel strips a furlong in length, a rod wide, four of which would make an acre, the strips being separated by ridges of turf called balks, while along the head of each series of strips runs a broad band of turf known as a headland, on which the plough is turned, when it does not by custom turn on some fellow-tenant's land, and which serves as a road to the various strips in the fields. These strips are allotted in rotation to a certain number of the dwellers in the township, a very common holding being that known as a virgate or yardland, consisting of about 30 acres. … Mr. Seebohm's exhaustive researches have conclusively connected this system of open fields and rotation of strips with the system of common ploughing, each holder of land providing so many oxen for the common plough, two being the contribution of the holder of a virgate, and eight the normal number drawing the plough, though this would vary with the character of the soil. … At the date of Domesday (1086), the holders of land in the common fields comprise the Lord; the free tenants, socmanni or liberi homines, when there are any; the villani or Saxon geburs, the holders of virgates or half virgates; and the bordarii or cotarii, holders of small plots of 5 acres or so, who have fewer rights and fewer duties. Besides ploughing the common-fields, the villani as part of their tenure have to supply the labour necessary to cultivate the arable land that the Lord of the Manor keeps in his own hands as his domain, dominicum, or demesne."

_T. E. Scrutton, Commons and Common Fields, chapter 1._

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Relative to the origin of the manor and the development of the community from which it rose there are divergent views much discussed at the present day. "The interpretation, current fifteen years ago, was the natural outcome of the Mark theory and was somewhat as follows: The community was a voluntary association, a simple unit within which there were households or families of various degrees of wealth, rank and authority, but in point of status each was the equal of the other. Each was subject only to the customs and usages of the community and to the court of the Mark. The Mark was therefore a judicial and political as well as an agricultural unit, though cultivation of the soil was the primary bond of union. All offices were filled by election, but the incumbent in due time sank back into the general body of 'markgenossen.' He who was afterwards to be the lord of the manor was originally only the first Marksman,' who attained to this preeminence in part by the prestige of election to a position of headship, in part by usurpation, and in part by the prerogatives which protection and assistance to weaker Marksmen brought. Thus the first Marksman became the lord and held the others in a kind of subjection to himself, and received from them, though free, dues and services which grew increasingly more severe. The main difficulty here seems to be in the premise, and it is the evident artificiality of the voluntary association of freemen which has led to such adverse criticism upon the whole theory. … While the free village community was under fire at home as well as abroad, Mr. Seebohm presented a new view of an exactly opposite character, with the formula of the community in villeinage under a lord. Although this view has for the moment divided thinkers on the subject, it has proved no more satisfactory than the other; for while it does explain the origin of the lord of the manor, it leaves wholly untouched the body of free Saxons whom Earle calls the rank and file of the invading army. Other theories have sought to supply the omissions in this vague non-documentary field, all erected with learning and skill, but unfortunately not in harmony with one another. Coote and Finlason have given to the manor an unqualified Roman origin. Lewis holds to a solid British foundation, the Teutonists would make it wholly Saxon, while Gomme is inclined to see an Aryo-British community under Saxon overlordship. Thus there is a wide range from which to select; all cannot be true; no one is an explanation of all conditions, yet most of them have considerable sound evidence to support them. It is this lack of harmony which drives the student to discover some theory which shall be in touch with known tribal conditions and a natural consequence of their development, and which at the same time shall be sufficiently elastic to conform to the facts which confront us in the early historical period. An attempt has been made [in the work here quoted from] to lay down two premises, the first of which is the composite character of the tribal and village community, and the second the diverse ethnological conditions of Britain after the Conquest, conditions which would allow for different results. … Kemble in his chapter on Personal Rank has a remark which is ill in keeping with his peaceful Mark theory. He says: 'There can be no doubt that some kind of military organization preceded the peaceful settlement, and in many respects determined its mode and character.' To this statement Earle has added another equally pregnant: 'Of all principles of military regiment there is none so necessary or so elementary as this, that all men must be under a captain, and such a captain as is able to command prompt and willing obedience. Upon this military principle I conceive the English settlements were originally founded, that each several settlement was under a military leader, and that this military leader was the ancestor of the lord of the manor.' Professor Earle then continues in the endeavor to apply the suggestion contained in the above quotation. He shows that the 'hundreds' represent the first permanent encampment of the invading host, and that the military occupation preceded the civil organization, the latter falling into the mould which the former had prepared. According to this the manorial organization was based upon a composite military foundation, the rank and file composing the one element, the village community; the captain or military leader composing the other, settled with suitable provision by the side of his company; the lord by the side of free owners. In this attempt to give the manor a composite origin, as the only rational means whereby the chief difficulty can be removed, and in the attempt to carry the seignorial element to the very beginning we believe him to be wholly right. But an objection must be raised to the way in which Professor Earle makes up his composite element. It is too artificial, too exclusively military; the occupiers of the village are the members of the 'company,' the occupier of the adjacent seat is the 'captain,' afterwards to become the lord. … We feel certain that the local community, the village, was simply the kindred, the sub-clan group, which had become a local habitation, yet when we attempt to test its presence in Anglo-Saxon Britain we meet with many difficulties."

_C. McL. Andrews, The Old English Manor, pages 7-51._

ALSO IN: _F. Seebohm, English Village Communities, chapter 2, section 12._

_Sir H. Maine, Village Communities, lecture 5._

MANSFIELD, OR SABINE CROSS ROADS, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-MAY: LOUISIANA).

MANSOURAH, Battle of (1250).

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1248-1254.

MANSUR, Al, Caliph, A. D. 754-775.

MANTINEA: Start--------

MANTINEA.

"Mantinea was the single city of Arcadia which had dared to pursue an independent line of policy [see SPARTA: B. C. 743-510]. Not until the Persian Wars the community coalesced out of five villages into one fortified city; this being done at the instigation of Argos, which already at this early date entertained thoughts of forming for itself a confederation in its vicinity: Mantinea had endeavored to increase its city and territory by conquest, and after the Peace of Nicias had openly opposed Sparta."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 5, chapter 5 (volume 4)._

MANTINEA: B. C. 418. Battle.

See GREECE: B. C. 421-418.

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MANTINEA: B. C. 385. Destruction by the Spartans.

See GREECE: B. C. 385.

MANTINEA: B. C. 371-362. Restoration of the city. Arcadian union and disunion. The great battle. Victory and death of Epaminondas.

See GREECE: B. C. 371; and 371-362.

MANTINEA: B. C. 222. Change of name.

In the war between Cleomenes of Sparta and the Achæan League, the city of Mantinea was, first, surprised by Aratus, the chief of the League, B. C. 226, and occupied by an Achæan garrison; then recaptured by Cleomenes, and his partisans, B. C. 224, and finally, B. C. 222, stormed by Antigonus, king of Macedonia, acting in the name of the League, and given up to pillage. Its citizens were sold into slavery. "The dispeopled city was placed by the conqueror at the disposal of Argos, which decreed that a colony should be sent to take possession of it under the auspices of Aratus. The occasion enabled him to pay another courtly compliment to the king of Macedonia. On his proposal, the name of the 'lovely Mantinea'—as it was described in the Homeric catalogue—was exchanged for that of Antigonea, a symbol of its ruin and of the humiliation of Greece."

_C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 62 (volume 8)._

MANTINEA: B. C. 207. Defeat of the Lacedæmonians.

In the wars of the Achæan League, the Lacedæmonians were defeated under the walls of Mantinea with great slaughter, by the forces of the League, ably marshalled by Philopœmen, and the Lacedaemonian king Machanidas was slain. "It was the third great battle fought on the same, or nearly the same, ground. Here, in the interval between the two parts of the Peloponnesian War, had Agis restored the glory of Sparta after her humiliation at Sphakteria; here Epameinôndas had fallen in the moment of victory; here now [B. C. 207] was to be fought the last great battle of independent Greece."

_E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, chapter 8, section 2._

MANTINEA: End----------

MANTUA: 11-12th Centuries. Rise and acquisition of republican independence.

See ITALY: A. D. 1056-1152.

MANTUA: A. D. 1077-1115. In the dominions of the Countess Matilda.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1077-1102.

MANTUA: A. D. 1328-1708. The house of Gonzaga.

See GONZAGA.

MANTUA: A. D. 1627-1631. War of France, Spain and the Empire over the disputed succession to the duchy. Siege and capture of the city by the Imperialists. Rights of the Duke de Nevers established.

See ITALY: A. D. 1627-1631.

MANTUA: A. D. 1635. Alliance with France against Spain.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

MANTUA: A. D. 1796-1797. Siege and reduction by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); and 1796-1797 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

MANTUA: A. D. 1797. Ceded by Austria to the Cisalpine Republic.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1797 (MAY-OCTOBER).

MANTUA: A. D. 1799. Siege and capture by Suwarrow.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

MANTUA: A. D. 1814. Restoration to Austria.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1814 (APRIL-JUNE).

MANTUA: A. D. 1866.

The Austrians retained Mantua until their final withdrawal from the peninsula, in 1866, when it was absorbed in the new kingdom of Italy.

MANU, Laws of.

"The Indians [of Hindostan] possess a series of books of law, which, like that called after Manu, bear the name of a saint or seer of antiquity, or of a god. One is named after Gautama, another after Vasishtha, a third after Apastamba, a fourth after Yajnavalkya; others after Bandhayana and Vishnu. According to the tradition of the Indians the law of Manu is the oldest and most honourable. … The conclusion is … inevitable that the decisive precepts which we find in the collection must have been put together and written down about the year 600 [B. C.]."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 5, chapter 6._

"The name, 'Laws of Manu,' somewhat resembles a 'pious fraud'; for the 'Laws' are merely the laws or customs of a school or association of Hindus, called the Manavas, who lived in the country rendered holy by the divine river Saraswati. In this district the Hindus first felt themselves a settled people, and in this neighbourhood they established colleges and hermitages, or 'asramas,' from some of which we may suppose Brahmanas, Upanishads, and other religious compositions may have issued; and under such influences we may imagine the Code of Manu to have been composed."

_Mrs. Manning, Ancient and Mediæval India, volume 1, page 276._

MANUAL TRAINING.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &C.: A. D. 1865-1886.

MANUEL I. (Comnenus), Emperor in the East (Byzantine, or Greek), A. D. 1143-1181.

Manuel II. (Palæologus), Greek Emperor of Constantinople, 1391-1425.

MANX KINGDOM, The.

The Isle of Man in the Irish Sea gets its English name, Man, by an abbreviation of the native name, Mannin, the origin of which is unknown. The language, called Manx (now little used), and the inhabitants, called Manxmen, are both of Gaelic, or Irish derivation. From the sixth to the tenth century the island was successively ruled by the Scots (Irish), the Welsh and the Norwegians, finally becoming a separate petty kingdom, with Norwegian claims upon it. In the thirteenth century the little kingdom was annexed to Scotland. Subsequently, after various vicissitudes, it passed under English control and was granted by Henry IV. to Sir John Stanley. The Stanleys, after some generations, found a dignity which they esteemed higher, in the earldom of Derby, and relinquished the title of King of Man. This was done by the second Earl of Derby, 1505. In 1765 the sovereignty and revenues of the island were purchased by the British government; but its independent form of government has undergone little change. It enjoys "home rule" to perfection. It has its own legislature, called the Court of Tynwald, consisting of a council, or upper chamber, and a representative body called the House of Keys. Acts of the imperial parliament do not apply to the Isle of Man unless it is specifically named in them. It has its own courts, with judges called deemsters (who are the successors of the ancient Druidical priests), and its own governor, appointed by the crown. The divisions of the island, corresponding to English counties, are called sheadings.

_S. Walpole, The Land of Home Rule._

ALSO IN: _H. I. Jenkinson, Guide to Isle of Man._

_Hall Caine, The Little Manx Nation. Our Own Country, volume 5._

See MONAPIA: and NORMANS: 8TH-9TH CENTURIES.

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MANZIKERT, Battle of (1071).

See TURKS: A. D. 1063-1073.

MAONITES, The.

"We must … regard them as a remnant of the Amorites, which, in later times, … spread to the west of Petra."

_H. Ewald, History of Israel, introduction, section 4._

MAORIS. MAORI WAR.

See NEW ZEALAND: THE ABORIGINES: A. D. 1853-1883; also, MALAYAN RACE.

MAPOCHINS, The.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

MAQUAHUITL, The.

This was a weapon in use among the Mexicans when the Spaniards found them. It "was a stout stick, three feet and a half long, and about four inches broad, armed on each side with a sort of razors of the stone itztli (obsidian), extraordinarily sharp, fixed and firmly fastened to the stick with gum lack. … The first stroke only was to be feared, for the razors became soon blunt."

_F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, book 7._

ALSO IN: _Sir A. Helps, The Spanish Conquest of America, book 10 (volume 2)._

MARACANDA.

The chief city of the ancient Sogdiani, in Central Asia—now Samarcand.

MARAGHA.

See PERSIA: A. D. 1258-1393.

MARAIS, OR PLAIN, The Party of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1792 (SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER).

MARANHA, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

MARANGA, Battle of.

One of the battles fought by the Romans with the Persians during the retreat from Julian's fatal expedition beyond the Tigris, A. D. 363. The Persians were repulsed.

_G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 10._

MARAPHIANS, The.

One of the tribes of the ancient Persians.

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 3._

MARAT AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1790, to 1793 (MARCH-JUNE).

Assassination by Charlotte Corday.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY).

MARATA.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PUEBLOS.

MARATHAS.

See MAHRATTAS.

MARATHON, Battle of.

See GREECE: B. C. 490.

MARAVEDIS.

See SPANISH COINS.

MARBURG CONFERENCE, The.

See SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

MARCEL, Etienne, and the States General of France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1356-1358.

MARCELLUS II., Pope, A. D. 1555, April to May.

MARCH. MARK.

The frontier or boundary of a territory; a border. Hence came the title of Marquis, which was originally that of an officer charged with the guarding of some March or border district of a kingdom. In Great Britain this title ranks second in the five orders of nobility, only the title of Duke being superior to it. The old English kingdom of Mercia was formed by the Angles who were first called the "Men of the March," having settled on the Welsh border, and that was the origin of its name. The kingdom of Prussia grew out of the "Mark of Brandenburg," which was originally a military border district formed on the skirts of the German empire to resist the Wends. Various other European states had the same origin.

See, also, MARGRAVE.

MARCH CLUB.

See CLUBS: THE OCTOBER AND THE MARCH.

MARCHFELD OR MARSCHFELD, Battle of the (1278).

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1246-1282.

(1809) (also called the battle of Aspern-Esslingen, or of Aspern).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

MARCIAN, Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 450-457.

MARCIANAPOLIS.

See GOTHS: A. D. 244-251.

MARCOMANNI AND QUADI: Start--------

MARCOMANNI AND QUADI, The.

"The Marcomanni [an ancient German people who dwelt, first, on the Rhine, but afterwards occupied southern Bohemia] stand first in strength and renown, and their very territory, from which the Boii were driven in a former age, was won by valour. Nor are the Narisci [settled in the region of modern Ratisbon] and Quadi [who probably occupied Moravia] inferior to them. This I may call the frontier of Germany, so far as it is completed by the Danube. The Marcomanni and Quadi have, up to our time, been ruled by kings of their own nation, descended from the noble stock of Maroboduus and Tudrus. They now submit even to foreigners; but the strength and power of the monarch depend on Roman influence."

_Tacitus, Germany, translated by Church and Brodribb, chapter 42._

"The Marcomanni cannot be demonstrated as a distinct people before Marbod. It is very possible that the word up to that point indicates nothing but what it etymologically signifies—the land or frontier guard."

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 7, foot-note._

See, also, AGRI DECUMATES.

MARCOMANNI AND QUADI: War with Tiberius.

See GERMANY: B. C. 8-A. D. 11.

MARCOMANNI AND QUADI: Wars with Marcus Aurelius.

See SARMATIAN AND MARCOMANNIAN WARS OF MARCUS AURELIUS.

MARCOMANNI AND QUADI: End--------

MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS, Roman Emperor, A. D. 161-180.

MARDIA, Battle of (A. D. 313).

See ROME: A. D. 305-323.

MARDIANS, The.

One of the tribes of the ancient Persians; also called Amardians.

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapter 3._

See, also, TAPURIANS.

MARDYCK: Start--------

MARDYCK: A. D. 1645-1646. Thrice taken and retaken by French and Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1645-1646.

MARDYCK: A. D. 1657. Siege and capture by the French. Delivery to the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1655-1658.

MARDYCK: End--------

MARENGO, Battle of (1800).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1800-1801 (MAY-FEBRUARY).

MARFEE, Battle of (1641).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1641-1642.

MARGARET, Queen of the North: Denmark and Norway, A. D. 1387-1412; Sweden, 1388-1412.

Margaret (called The Maid of Norway), Queen of Scotland, 1286-1290.

Margaret of Anjou, and the Wars of the Roses.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

Margaret of Navarre, or Marguerite d'Angouléme, and the Reformation in France.

See PAPACY: A.D. 1521-1535; and NAVARRE: A.D. 1528-1563.

Margaret of Parma and her Regency in the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1555-1559, and after.

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MARGHUSH.

See MARGIANA.

MARGIANA.

The ancient name of the valley of the Murghab or Moorghab (called the Margos). It is represented at the present day by the oasis now called Merv; was the Bactrian Mourn and the Marghush of the old Persians. It was inhabited by the Margiani.

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 7, chapter 1._

MARGRAVE. MARQUIS.