Part 672

Meantime, "the body of Alexander lay unburied and neglected, and it was not until two years after his death that his remains were consigned to the tomb. But his followers still shewed their respect for his memory by retaining the feeble Arrhidæus on the throne, and preventing the marriage of Perdiccas with Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip; a union which manifestly was projected to open a way to the throne. But while this project of marriage occupied the attention of the regent, a league had secretly been formed for his destruction; and the storm burst forth from a quarter whence it was least expected. … The barbarous tribes of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians … asserted their independence after the death of Alexander, and chose Ariarathes for their leader. Perdiccas sent against them Eumenes, who had hitherto fulfilled the peaceful duties of a secretary; and sent orders to Antigonus and Leonatns, the governors of Western Asia, to join the expedition with all their forces. These commands were disobeyed; and Perdiccas was forced to march with the royal army against the insurgents. He easily defeated these undisciplined troops, but sullied his victory by unnecessary cruelty. {2061} On his return he summoned the satraps of Western Asia to appear before his tribunal, and answer for their disobedience. Antigonus, seeing his danger, entered into a league with Ptolemy the satrap of Egypt, Antipater the governor of Macedon, and several other noblemen, to crush the regency. Perdiccas, on the other hand, leaving Eumenes to guard Lower Asia, marched with the choicest divisions of the royal army against Ptolemy, whose craft and ability he dreaded even more than his power. Antipater and Craterus were early in the field; they crossed the Hellespont with the army that had been left for the defence of Macedon. … Seduced by … false information, they divided their forces; Antipater hastening through Phrygia in pursuit of Perdiccas, while Craterus and Neoptolemus marched against Eumenes. They encountered him in the Trojan plain, and were completely defeated. … Eumenes sent intelligence of his success to Perdiccas; but two days before the messenger reached the royal camp the regent was no more. His army, wearied by the long siege of Pelusium, became dissatisfied; their mutinous dispositions were secretly encouraged by the emissaries of Ptolemy … and Perdiccas was murdered in his tent (B. C. 321). … In the meantime a brief struggle for independence had taken place in Greece, which is commonly called the Lamian war [see GREECE: B. C. 323-322]. … As soon as Ptolemy had been informed of the murder of Perdiccas, he came to the royal army with a large supply of wine and provisions. His kindness and courteous manners so won upon these turbulent soldiers, that they unanimously offered him the regency; but he had the prudence to decline so dangerous an office. On his refusal, the feeble Arrhidæus and the traitor Python were appointed to the regency, just as the news arrived of the recent victory of Eumenes. This intelligence filled the royal army with indignation. … They hastily passed a vote proclaiming Eumenes and his adherents public enemies. … The advance of an army to give effect to these decrees was delayed by a new revolution. Eurydice, the wife of Arrhidæus, a woman of great ambition and considerable talent for intrigue, wrested the regency from her feeble husband and Python, but was stripped of power on the arrival of Antipater, who reproached the Macedonians for submitting to the government of a woman; and, being ably supported by Antigonus and Seleucus, obtained for himself the office of regent. No sooner had Antipater been invested with supreme power than he sent Arrhidæus and Eurydice prisoners to Pella, and entrusted the conduct of the war against Eumenes to the crafty and ambitious Antigonus. … Eumenes was unable to cope with the forces sent against him; having been defeated in the open field, he took shelter in Nora, a Cappadocian city, and maintained a vigorous defence, rejecting the many tempting offers by which Antigonus endeavoured to win him to the support of his designs (B. C. 318). The death of Antipater produced a new revolution in the empire; and Eumenes in the meantime escaped from Nora, accompanied by his principal friends. … Antipater, at his death, bequeathed the regency to Polysperchon, excluding his son Cassander from power on account of his criminal intrigues with the wicked and ambitious Eurydice. Though a brave general, Polysperchon had not the qualifications of a statesman; he provoked the powerful resentment of Antigonus by entering into a close alliance with Eumenes; and he permitted Cassander to strengthen himself in southern Greece, where he seized the strong fortress of Munychia. … Polysperchon, unable to drive Cassander from Attica, entered the Peloponnesus to punish the Arcadians, and engaged in a fruitless siege of Megalopolis. In the meantime Olympias, to whom he had confided the government of Macedon, seized Arrhidæus and Eurydice, whom she had murdered in prison. Cassander hasted, at the head of all his forces, to avenge the death of his mistress: Olympias, unable to meet him in the field, fled to Pydna; but the city was forced to surrender after a brief defence, and Olympias was immediately put to death. Among the captives were Roxana the widow, Alexander Ægus the posthumous son, and Thessalonica the youngest daughter, of Alexander the Great. Cassander sought and obtained the hand of the latter princess, and thus consoled himself for the loss of his beloved Eurydice. By this marriage he acquired such influence, that Polysperchon did not venture to return home, but continued in the Peloponnesus, where he retained for some time a shadow of authority over the few Macedonians who still clung to the family of Alexander. In Asia, Eumenes maintained the royal cause against Antigonus, though deserted by all the satraps, and harassed by the mutinous dispositions of his troops, especially the Argyraspides, a body of guards that Alexander had raised to attend his own person, and presented with the silver shields from which they derived their name. After a long struggle, both armies joined in a decisive engagement; the Argyraspides broke the hostile infantry, but learning that their baggage had in the meantime been captured by the light troops of the enemy, they mutinied in the very moment of victory, and delivered their leader, bound with his own sash, into the hands of his merciless enemy (B. C. 315). The faithful Eumenes was put to death by the traitorous Antigonus; but he punished the Argyraspides for their treachery."

_W. C. Taylor, The Student's Manual of Ancient History, chapter 11, section 3._

ALSO IN: _P. Smith, History of the World: Ancient, chapter 17 (volume 2)._

_G. Grote, History of Greece, chapter 96 (volume 12)._

See, also, GREECE: B. C. 321-312.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 315-310. The first league and war against Antigonus. Extermination of the heirs of Alexander.

"Antigonus was now unquestionably the most powerful of the successors of Alexander the Great. As master of Asia, he ruled over those vast and rich lands that extended from India to the Mediterranean Sea. … Although nearly seventy years old, and blind in one eye, he still preserved the vigor of his forces. … He was fortunate in being assisted by a son, the famous Demetrius, who, though possessed of a very passionate nature, yet from early youth displayed wonderful military ability. Above all, the prominent representatives of the royal family had disappeared, and there remained only the youthful Alexander, Herakles, the illegitimate son of Alexander the Great, who had no lawful claim whatever to the sovereignty, and two daughters of Philip, Kleopatra, who lived at Sardis, and Thessalonike, whom Kassander had recently married—none of whom were sufficiently strong to assert their rights to the throne. {2062} Thus Antigonus seemed indeed destined to become vicar and master of the entire Alexandrian kingdom, and to restore the unity of the empire. But not only was this union not realized, but even the great realm which Antigonus had established in Asia was doomed to inevitable destruction. The generals who possessed the various satrapies of the empire could not bear his supremacy, and accordingly entered into a convention, which gradually ripened into an active alliance against him. The principal organ of this movement was Seleukus, who, having escaped to Ptolemy of Egypt, first of all persuaded the latter to form an alliance—which Kassander of Macedonia and Lysimachus of Thrace readily joined—against the formidable power of Antigonus. The war lasted for four years, and was carried on in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Its fortunes were various [the most noteworthy event being a bloody defeat inflicted upon Demetrius the son of Antigonus, by Ptolemy, at Gaza, in 312], but the result was not decisive. … In 311 B. C. a compact was made between Antigonus on one side, and Kassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus on the other, whereby 'the supreme command in Europe was guaranteed to Kassander, until the maturity of Alexander, son of Roxana; Thrace being at the same time assured to Lysimachus, Egypt to Ptolemy, and the whole of Asia to Antigonus. It was at the same time covenanted by all that the Hellenic cities should be free.' Evidently this peace contained the seeds of new disputes and increasing jealousies. The first act of Kassander was to cause the death of Roxana and her child in the fortress of Amphipolis, where they had been confined; and thus disappeared forever the only link which apparently maintained the union of the empire, and a ready career now lay open to the ambition of the successors. Again, the name of Seleukus was not even mentioned in the peace, while it was well known at the time it was concluded that he had firmly established his rule over the eastern satrapies of Asia. … The troops also of Antigonus, notwithstanding the treaty, still remained in Hellas, under command of his nephew Ptolemy. Ptolemy of Egypt, therefore, accusing Antigonus of having contravened the treaty by garrisoning various Hellenic cities, renewed the war and the triple alliance against him." A series of assassinations soon followed, which put out of the way the young prince Herakles, bastard son of Alexander the Great, and Kleopatra, the sister of Alexander, who was preparing to wed Ptolemy of Egypt when Antigonus brought about her murder, to prevent the marriage. Another victim of the jealousies that were rife among the Diadochi was Antigonus' nephew Ptolemy, who had deserted his uncle's side, but who was killed by the Egyptian Ptolemy. "For more than ten years … Antigonus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Kassander successively promised to leave the Greeks independent, free, and unguarded; but the latter never ceased to be guarded, taxed, and ruled by Macedonian despots. We may, indeed, say that the cities of Hellas never before had suffered so much as during the time when such great promises were made about their liberty. The Ætolians alone still possessed their independence. Rough, courageous, warlike, and fond of freedom, they continued fighting against the Macedonian rule."

_T. T. Timayenis, History of Greece, part 9, chapter 5 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN: _J. P. Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, chapters 5-6._

[Image: Four maps of the Empire of Alexander the Great and his successors.]

MACEDONIA: B. C. 310-301. Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens. His siege of Rhodes. The last combination against Antigonus. His defeat and death at Ipsus. Partition of his dominions.

After the war which was renewed in 310 B. C. had lasted three years, "Antigonus' resolved to make a vigorous effort to wrest Greece from the hands of Cassander and Ptolemy, who held all the principal towns in it. Accordingly, in the summer of 307 B. C., he despatched his son Demetrius from Ephesus to Athens, with a fleet of 250 sail, and 5,000 talents in money. Demetrius, who afterwards obtained the surname of 'Poliorcetes,' or 'Besieger of Cities,' was a young man of ardent temperament and great abilities. Upon arriving at the Piræus, he immediately proclaimed the object of his expedition to be the liberation of Athens and the expulsion of the Macedonian garrison. Supported by the Macedonians, Demetrius the Phalerean had now ruled Athens for a period of more than ten years. … During the first period of his administration he appears to have governed wisely and equitably, to have improved the Athenian laws, and to have adorned the city with useful buildings. But in spite of his pretensions to philosophy, the possession of uncontrolled power soon altered his character for the worse, and he became remarkable for luxury, ostentation, und sensuality. Hence he gradually lost the popularity which he had once enjoyed. … The Athenians heard with pleasure the proclamations of the son of Antigonus; his namesake, the Phalerean, was obliged to surrender the city to him, and to close his political career by retiring to Thebes. … Demetrius Poliorcetes then formally announced to the Athenian assembly the restoration of their ancient constitution, and promised them a large donative of corn and ship-timber. This munificence was repaid by the Athenians with the basest and most abject flattery

See GREECE: B. C. 307-197.

… Demetrius Poliorcetes did not remain long at Athens. Early in 306 B. C. he was recalled by his father, and, sailing to Cyprus, undertook the siege of Salamis. Ptolemy hastened to its relief with 140 vessels and 10,000 troops. The battle that ensued was one of the most memorable in the annals of ancient naval warfare, more particularly on account of the vast size of the vessels engaged. Ptolemy was completely defeated; and so important was the victory deemed by Antigonus, that on the strength of it he assumed the title of king, which he also conferred upon his son. This example was followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. Encouraged by their success at Cyprus, Antigonus and Demetrius made a vain attempt upon Egypt, which, however, proved a disastrous failure. By way of revenge, Demetrius undertook an expedition against Rhodes, which had refused its aid in the attack upon Ptolemy. It was from the memorable siege of Rhodes that Demetrius obtained his name of Poliorcetes. … After a year spent in the vain attempt to take the town, Demetrius was forced to retire and grant the Rhodians peace.

See RHODES: B. C. 305-304.

{2063}

Whilst Demetrius was thus employed, Cassander had made great progress in reducing Greece. He had taken Corinth, and was besieging Athens, when Demetrius entered the Euripus. Cassander immediately raised the siege, and was subsequently defeated in an action near Thermopylae. When Demetrius entered Athens he was received as before with the most extravagant flatteries. He remained two or three years in Greece, during which his superiority over Cassander was decided, though no great battle was fought. In the spring of 301 B. C. he was recalled by his father Antigonus, who stood in need of his assistance against Lysimachus and Seleucus. In the course of the same year the struggle between Antigonus and his rivals was brought to a close by the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus was killed, and his army completely defeated. Antigonus had attained the age of 81 at the time of his death. Demetrius retreated with the remnant of the army to Ephesus, whence he sailed to Cyprus, and afterwards proposed to go to Athens; but the Athenians, alienated by his ill-fortune at Ipsus, refused to receive him."

_W. Smith, History of Greece, chapter 45._

"After the battle [of Ipsus] it remained for the conquerors to divide the spoil. The dominions of Antigonus were actually in the hands of Seleucus and Lysimachus, and they alone had achieved the victory. It does not appear that they consulted either of their allies on the partition, though it seems that they obtained the assent of Cassander. They agreed to share all that Antigonus had possessed between themselves. It is not clear on what principle the line of demarcation was drawn, nor is it possible to trace it. But the greater part of Asia Minor was given to Lysimachus. The portion of Seleucus included not only the whole country between the coast of Syria and the Euphrates, but also, it seems, a part of Phrygia and of Cappadocia. Cilicia was assigned to Cassander's brother Pleistarchus. With regard to Syria however a difficulty remained. The greater part of it had … been conquered by Ptolemy: Tyre and Sidon alone were still occupied by the garrisons of Antigonus. Ptolemy had at least as good a right as his ally to all that he possessed. … Seleucus however began to take possession of it, and when Ptolemy pressed his claims returned an answer, mild in sound, but threatening in its import … : and it appears that Ptolemy was induced to withdraw his opposition. There were however also some native princes [Ardoates in Armenia, and Mithridates, son of Ariobarzanes, in Pontus—see MITHRIDATIC WARS] who had taken advantage of the contests between the Macedonian chiefs to establish their authority over extensive territories in the west of Asia. … So far as regards Asia, the battle of Ipsus must be considered as a disastrous event. Not because it transferred the power of Antigonus into different hands, nor because it would have been more desirable that he should have triumphed over Seleucus. But the new distribution of territory led to calamitous consequences, which might perhaps otherwise have been averted. If the empire of Seleucus had remained confined between the Indus and the Euphrates, it might have subsisted much longer, at least, as a barrier against the inroads of the barbarians, who at last obliterated all the traces of European civilisation left there by Alexander and his successors. But shortly after his victory, Seleucus founded his new capital on the Orontes, called, after his father, Antiochia, peopling it with the inhabitants of Antigonia. It became the residence of his dynasty, and grew, while their vast empire dwindled into the Syrian monarchy. For the prospects of Greece, on the other hand, the fall of Antigonus must clearly be accounted an advantage, so far as the effect was to dismember his territory, and to distribute it so that the most powerful of his successors was at the greatest distance. It was a gain that Macedonia was left an independent kingdom, within its ancient limits, and bounded on the north by a state of superior strength. It does not appear that any compact was made between Cassander and his allies as to the possession of Greece. It was probably understood that he should keep whatever he might acquire there."

_C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, chapter 59 (volume 7)._

ALSO IN: _B. G. Niebuhr, Lectures on Ancient History, lectures 86-87 (volume 3)._

MACEDONIA: B. C. 297-280. Death of Casander. Intrigues of Ptolemy Keraunos. Overthrow and death of Lysimachus. Abdication and death of Ptolemy. Murder of Seleucus. Seizure of the Macedonian crown by Keraunos.