Part 670

The Lusitani or Lusitanians were the people who resisted the Roman conquest of Spain most obstinately—with even more resolution than their neighbors and kinsmen, the Celtiberians. In 153 B. C. they defeated a Roman army, which lost 6,000 men. The following year they inflicted another defeat, on the prætor Mummius, who lost 9,000 of his soldiers. Again, in 151, the prætor Galba suffered a loss of 7,000 men at their hands. But, in 150, Galba ravaged the Lusitanian country so effectually that they sued for peace. Pretending to arrange terms of friendship with them, this infamous Roman persuaded three large bands of the Lusitanians to lay down their arms, which being done he surrounded them with his troops and massacred them in cold blood. One of the few who escaped was a man named Viriathus, who became thenceforth the leader of his surviving countrymen in a guerrilla warfare which lasted for ten years, and which cost the Romans thousands of men. In the end they could not vanquish Viriathus, but basely bribed some traitors in his own camp to murder him. The Roman province which was afterwards formed out of the country of the Lusitanians, and which took their name, has been mistakenly identified with the modern kingdom of Portugal, which it coincided with only in part.

_W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 5, chapter 6 (volume 3)._

ALSO IN: _H. M. Stephens, The Story of Portugal, chapter 1._

See PORTUGAL: EARLY HISTORY.

On the settlement of the Alans,

See SPAIN: A. D. 409-414.

LUSTRUM.

After the [Roman] Censors had concluded the various duties committed to their charge, they proceeded in the last place to offer up, on behalf of the whole Roman people, the great expiatory sacrifice called Lustrum, and this being offered up once only in the space of five years, the term Lustrum is frequently employed to denote that space of time. … On the day fixed, the whole body of the people were summoned to assemble in the Campus Martius in martial order (exercitus) ranked according to their Classes and Centuries, horse and foot. The victims, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, whence the sacrifice was termed Suovetaurilia, before being led to the altar, were carried thrice round the multitude, who were then held to be purified and absolved from sin, and while the immolation took place the Censor recited a set form of prayer for the preservation and aggrandizement of the Roman State."

_W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 5._

LUTETIA, LUKETIA, LUCOTECIA.

The beginning of the great city of Paris was represented by a small town named as above—the stronghold of the Gallic people called the Parisii—built on one of the islands in the Seine which Paris now covers and surrounds.

See PARIS, BEGINNING OF.

LUTHER, Martin, and the Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517, 1517, 1517-1521, 1521-1522, 1522-1525, 1525-1529, 1530-1531; also, GERMANY: A. D. 1530-1532.

LUTHER: On Education.

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE: GERMANY.

LUTTER, Battle of (1626).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1624-1626.

LÜTZEN, Battle of (1632). Death of Gustavus Adolphus.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

LÜTZEN, OR GROSS GÖRSCHEN, Battle of (1813).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (APRIL-MAY).

LUXEMBURG, The House of: Its aggrandizement in the Empire, in Bohemia, Hungary, and Brandenburg.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1308-1313, and 1347-1493; also, HUNGARY: A. D. 1301-1442; and BRANDENBURG: A. D. 1168=1417.

LUXEMBURG: Start--------

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LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714.

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1795. Siege and capture by the French.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

LUXEMBURG: A. D. 1867. Separated from Germany and formed into a neutral state.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

LUXEMBURG: End--------

LUZZARA, Battle of (1702).

See ITALY: A. D. 1701-1713.

LYCEUM, The Athenian.

See ACADEMY, THE ATHENIAN; and GYMNASIA, GREEK; also, relative to the suppression of the Lyceum, see ATHENS: A. D. 529.

LYCIAN LEAGUE, The.

"Probably the best constructed Federal Government that the ancient world beheld. The account given by Strabo, our sole authority, is so full, clear, and brief, that I cannot do better than translate it. The 'ancestral constitution of the Lykian League' is described by the great geographer in these words: 'There are three and twenty cities which have a share in the suffrage, and they come together from each city in the common Federal Assembly, choosing for their place of meeting any city which they think best. And, among the cities, the greatest are possessed of three votes apiece, the middle ones of two, and the rest of one; and in the same proportion they pay taxes, and take their share of other public burthens. … And, in the Federal Assembly, first the Lykiarch is chosen and then the other Magistrates of the League, and bodies of Federal Judges are appointed; and formerly they used to consult about war, and peace, and alliance; this now, of course, they cannot do, but these things must needs rest with the Romans.' … On the practical working of this constitution Strabo bestows the highest praise. Lykia was, in his day, a Roman dependency, but it retained its own laws and internal government."

_E. A. Freeman, History of Federal Government, chapter 4, section 4._

LYCIANS, The.

The people who occupied in ancient times the extreme southern peninsula of Asia Minor. "The ancients knew of no unmixed population in this district. The Phœnicians explored the Lycian Taurus as well as the Cilician; and by land also Semitic tribes seem to have immigrated out of Syria and Cilicia; and these tribes formed the tribe of the Solymi. Another influx of population was conducted to this coast by means of the Rhodian chain of islands: men of Crete came across, who called themselves Termili or Trameli, and venerated Sarpedon as their Hero. After an arduous struggle, they gradually made themselves masters of the land encircled by sea and rock. … From the mouth of the Xanthus the Cretans entered the land. There Leto had first found a hospitable reception; in Patara, near by, arose the first great temple of Apollo, the god of light, or Lycius, with the worship of whom the inhabitants of the land became subsequently to such a degree identified as to receive themselves from the Greeks on whose coasts they landed the same name as the god, viz., Lycians. … We know that the Lycians, in courage and knowledge of the sea fully the equals of the most seafaring nation of the Archipelago, from a desire of an orderly political life, renounced at an early period the public practice of piracy, which their neighbours in Pisidia and Cilicia never relinquished. Their patriotism they proved in heroic struggles, and in the quiet of home developed a greater refinement of manners, to which the special honour in which they held the female sex bears marked testimony."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

LYCURGUS, Constitution of.

See SPARTA: THE CONSTITUTION.

LYDIANS, The.

"On the western coast of Asia Minor the nation of the Lydians, which possessed the vallies of the Hermus and Mæander, had early arrived at a monarchy and a point of civilization far in advance of the stages of primitive life. … When the Greeks forced the Phenicians from the islands of the Ægean sea, and then, about the end of the eleventh and beginning of the tenth century, B. C., landed on the western coast of Asia Minor, the Lydians were not able any more than the Teucrians and Mysians in the North, or the Carians in the South, to prevent the establishment of the Greeks on their coasts, the loss of the ancient native sanctuaries at Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus, and the founding of Greek cities in their land on the mouths of the Lydian rivers, the Hermus and the Cayster, though the Greek emigrants came in isolated expeditions over the sea. It was on the Lydian coasts that the most important Greek cities rose: Cyme, Phocæa, Smyrna, Colophon, Ephesus. Priene, Myus, and Miletus were on the land of the Carians."

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 4, chapter 17._

"On the basis of a population related to the Phrygians and Armenians arose the nation of the Lydians, which through its original ancestor, Lud, would appear in Eastern tradition also to be reckoned as a member of the Semitic family. As long as we remain unacquainted with the spoken and written language of the Lydians, it will be impossible to define with any accuracy the mixture of peoples which here took place. But, speaking generally, there is no doubt of the double relationship of this people, and of its consequent important place in civilization among the groups of the nations of Asia Minor. The Lydians became on land, as the Phœnicians by sea, the mediators between Hellas and Anterior Asia. … The Lydians are the first among the nations of Asia Minor of whom we have any intimate knowledge as a political community."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

The first, perhaps legendary, dynasty of Lydia, called the Atyadæ, was followed by one called the Herakleidæ by the Greeks, which is said to have ruled over 500 years. The last king of that family, Kandaules, was murdered, about B. C. 715, by Gyges, who founded the dynasty of the Mermnadæ, under whom the Lydian dominion was extended over most of Asia Minor, and its kings contended on fairly equal terms with the power of the Medes. But their monarchy was overthrown by Cyrus, B. C. 546, and the famous Crœsus, last of their line, ended his days as an attendant and counselor of the Persian king.

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapters 17 and 32._

Recent discoveries tend to the conclusion that the primitive inhabitants of Lydia were of a race to which the Hittites belonged.

_A. H. Sayce, editor, Ancient Empires of the East, appendix 4._

See, also, ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539; and PERSIA: B. C. 549-521.

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LYGIANS, The.

"Of all the invaders of Gaul [in the reign of Probus, A. D.277] the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and Silesia. In the Lygian nation the Arii held the first rank by their numbers and fierceness. 'The Arii' (it is thus that they are described by the energy of Tacitus) 'study to improve by art and circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are black, their bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the darkest hour of the night.' … Yet the arms and discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, fell alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an honourable capitulation and permitted them to return in safety to their native country. But the losses which they suffered in the march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the nation; nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the empire."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 12._

"Lygii appears to have been the generic name of the Slavonians on the Vistula. They are the same people as those called Lekhs by Nestor, the Russian chronicler of the twelfth century. These Lekhs are the ancestors of the Poles."

See _Latham, The Germania of Tacitus, page 158._

_W. Smith, Note to above, from Gibbon_.

"The Ligii were a widely-spread tribe, comprehending several clans. Tacitus names the Harii [or Arii], Helvecones, Manimi, Elisii, and Nahanarvali. Their territory was between the Oder and Vistula, and would include the greater part of Poland, and probably a portion of Silesia."

_Church and Brodribb, Geographical Notes to the Germany of Tacitus._

"The Elysii are supposed to have given name to Silesia."

_Note to the Oxford Translation of Tacitus: Germany, chapter 43._

LYKIANS, The.

See LYCIANS.

LYMNE, in Roman times.

See PORTUS LEMANIS.

LYON, General Nathaniel: Campaign in Missouri, and death.

See MISSOURI; A. D. 1861 (FEBRUARY-JULY); and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-SEPTEMBER; MISSOURI).

LYONS: Start--------

LYONS: Under the Romans.

Minutius Plancus, Roman governor of Gallia Comata, or the Gaul of Cæsar's conquest, founded, B. C. 43, a city called Lugdunum, at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone. A few years later, under Augustus, it was made the capital of a province to which it gave its name—Lugdunensis—and which comprised the whole of central Gaul, between the Loire and the Seine with the Armorican peninsula. In time the name Lugdunum became softened and shorn to Lyons. "Lyons, which stood on the west side of the Rhone, not so near the confluence of the Sâone as now, appears to have been settled by fugitive Romans driven out of Vienne by another party. It grew with as marvelous a rapidity as some of our western cities, for in fifteen years it swelled from a simple colony into a metropolis of considerable splendor. … Lugdun appears to have been a Keltic designation, and, as the 'g' in that speech took the sound of 'y' and 'd' was silent, we can easily see how the name became Lyon."

_P. Godwin, History of France: Ancient Gaul, book 2, chapter 5, with foot-note._

"Not having originated out of a Celtic canton, and hence always with a territory of narrow limits, but from the outset composed of Italians and in possession of the full Roman franchise, it [Lyons] stood forth unique in its kind among the communities of the three Gauls—as respects its legal relations, in some measure resembling Washington in the North American federation. … Only the governor of the middle or Lugudunensian province had his seat there; but when emperors or princes stayed in Gaul they as a rule resided in Lyons. Lyons was, alongside of Carthage, the only city of the Latin half of the empire which obtained a standing garrison, after the model of that of the capital. The only mint for imperial money which we can point to with certainty, for the earlier period of the empire, is that of Lyons. Here was the headquarters of the transit-dues which embraced all Gaul; and to this as a centre the Gallic network of roads converged. … Thus Lugudunum rapidly rose into prosperity. … In the later period of the empire, no doubt, it fell behind Treves."

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 8, chapter 3._

LYONS: A. D. 500. Under the Burgundians.

See BURGUNDIANS: A. D. 500.

LYONS: 10th Century. In the kingdom of Aries.

See BURGUNDY: A. D. 843—933.

LYONS: 12th Century. The Poor Men of Lyons."

See WALDENSES.

LYONS: A. D. 1685-1698. Loss in the silk weaving industry by the Huguenot exodus.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1681-1698.

LYONS: A. D. 1793-1794. Revolt against the Revolutionary government at Paris. Siege and capture and fearful vengeance by the Terrorists.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JUNE), (JULY-DECEMBER); and 1793—1794 (OCTOBER-APRIL).

LYONS: A. D. 1795. Reaction against the Reign of Terror. The White Terror.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL).

LYONS: End----------

LYONS, Battle of (A. D. 197).

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

LYSIMACHUS, and the wars of the Diadochi.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 323-316, to 297-280.

LYTTON, Lord, The Indian administration of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1876, 1877; and AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

MAARMORS.

See MORMAERS.

MACÆ, The.

See LIBYANS.

McALLISTER, Fort, The storming of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (NOVEMBER-DECEMBER: GEORGIA).

MACALO, Battle of (1427).

See ITALY: A. D. 1412-1447.

MACBETH, King of Scotland: A. D. 1039-1054.

MACCABEES, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

MACCIOWICE, Battle of (1794).

See POLAND: A. D. 1793-1796.

McCLELLAN, General George B. Campaign in West Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JUNE-JULY: WEST VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Appointment to chief command. Organization of the Army of the Potomac.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER).

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McCLELLAN, General George B: Protracted inaction through the winter of 1861-62.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861-1862 (DECEMBER-MARCH: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Peninsular campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (MARCH-MAY: VIRGINIA), (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: During General Pope's campaign.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JULY-AUGUST: VIRGINIA), to (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER, VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Antietam Campaign, and removal from command.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER: MARYLAND); and (OCTOBER-DECEMBER: VIRGINIA).

McCLELLAN, General George B: Defeat in Presidential election.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-NOVEMBER).

MACDONALD, Marshal. Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL), 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER); GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER); 1813 (APRIL-MAY), (AUGUST), (OCTOBER), (OCTOBER-DECEMBER); and RUSSIA: A. D. 1812 (JUNE-SEPTEMBER).

MACDONOUGH, Commodore Thomas, and his victory on Lake Champlain.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1814 (SEPTEMBER).

McDOWELL, Battle at.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862. (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA).

MACE, as a symbol of authority, The.

"The club or mace, formed originally of hard wood, and the latter, subsequently either wholly or in part of metal, would naturally be adopted as one of the earliest weapons of primitive man, but it soon came to be regarded as a symbol of authority. … In the Middle Ages the mace was a common weapon with ecclesiastics, who, in consequence of their tenures, frequently took the field, but were, by a canon of the Church, forbidden to wield the sword. It strikes me as not improbable that in this custom we have the origin of the use of the mace as a symbol of authority by our cathedral and other ancient religious bodies. … In all probability its use by lay corporations may be traced to the corps of sergeants-at-mace, instituted as a body-guard both by Philip Augustus of France and our own Richard I., whilst with the Crusaders in Palestine. We learn that when the former monarch was in the Holy Land he found it necessary to secure his person from the emissaries of a sheik, called 'the Old Man of the Mountain,' who bound themselves to assassinate whomsoever he assigned. 'When the king,' says an ancient chronicler, 'heard of this he began to reflect seriously, and took counsel how he might best guard his person. He therefore instituted a guard of serjeants-à-maces who night and day were to be about his person in order to protect him.' These sergens-à-maces were 'afterwards called sergeants-at-arms, for Jean Bouteiller, … who lived in the time of Charles VI., that is, at the conclusion of the fourteenth century tells us, "The sergens d'armes are the mace-bearers that the king has to perform his duty, and who carry maces before the king; these are called sergeants-at-arms, because they are sergeants for the king's body.'" We learn further that Richard I. of England soon imitated the conduct of the French king, but he seems to have given his corps of sergeants-at-arms a more extensive power. Not only were they to watch round the king's tent in complete armour, with a mace, a sword, a bow and arrows, but were occasionally to arrest traitors and other offenders about the court, for which the mace was deemed a sufficient authority. … Hence, in all probability, was derived the custom of the chief magistrate of a municipality, who, as such, is the representative of the sovereign, being attended by his mace-bearer, as a symbol of the royal authority thus delegated to him."

_W. Kelly, The Great Mace (Royal Historical Society Transactions, volume 3)._

MACEDONIA: Start--------

MACEDONIA AND MACEDONIANS, The.

"The Macedonians of the fourth century B. C. acquired, from the ability and enterprise of two successive kings, a great perfection in Greek military organization, without any of the loftier Hellenic qualities. Their career in Greece is purely destructive, extinguishing the free movement of the separate cities, and disarming the citizen-soldier to make room for the foreign mercenary whose sword was unhallowed by any feelings of patriotism—yet totally incompetent to substitute any good system of central or pacific administration. But the Macedonians of the seventh and sixth centuries B. C. are an aggregate only of rude inland tribes, subdivided into distinct petty principalities, and separated from the Greeks by a wider ethnical difference even than the Epirots; since Herodotus, who considers the Epirotic Molossians and Thesprotians as children of Hellen, decidedly thinks the contrary respecting the Macedonians. In the main, however, they seem at this early period analogous to the Epirots in character and civilization. They had some few towns, but they were chiefly village residents, extremely brave and pugnacious. … The original seats of the Macedonians were in the regions east of the chain of Skardus (the northerly continuation of Pindus)—north of the chain called the Cambunian mountains, which connects Olympus with Pindus, and which forms the north-western boundary of Thessaly; but they did not reach so far eastward as the Thermaic Gulf. … The Macedonian language was different from Illyrian, from Thracian, and seemingly also from Pæonian. It was also different from Greek, yet apparently not more widely distinct than that of the Epirots; so that the acquisition of Greek was comparatively easy to the chiefs and people. … The large and comparatively productive region covered by the various sections of Macedonians, helps to explain that increase of ascendency which they successively acquired over all their neighbours. It was not however until a late period that they became united under one government. At first, each section—how many we do not know—had its own prince or chief. The Elymiots, or inhabitants of Elymeia, the southernmost portion of Macedonia, were thus originally distinct and independent; also the Orestæ, in mountain-seats somewhat north-west of the Elymiots. … The section of the Macedonian name who afterwards swallowed up all the rest and became known as 'The Macedonians' had their original centre at Ægæ or Edessa—the lofty, commanding and picturesque site of the modern Vodhena."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 25 (volume 3)._

MACEDONIA: B. C. 508. Subjection to Persia.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

MACEDONIA: B. C. 383-379. Overthrow of the Olynthian Confederacy by Sparta.

See GREECE: B. C. 383-379.

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MACEDONIA: B. C. 359-358. Accession and first proceedings of King Philip. His acquisition of Amphipolis.

See GREECE: B. C. 359-358.