Part 633

JOSEPH, King of Portugal, A. D. 1750-1777.

Joseph I., King of Hungary, 1687-1711; King of Bohemia and Germanic Emperor, 1705-1711.

Joseph II., King of Hungary and Bohemia, and Germanic Emperor, 1765-1790.

Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples, 1806-1808; King of Spain, 1808-1812.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805-1806 (DECEMBER-SEPTEMBER); and SPAIN: A. D. 1808 (MAY-SEPTEMBER), to 1812-1814.

JOSEPHINE, Empress, Napoleon's divorce from.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1810-1812.

JOTAPATA, Siege of.

The Jewish city of Jotapata, defended by the historian Josephus, was besieged by Vespasian for forty-seven days, A. D. 67, and taken.

_Josephus, Jewish War, book 3, chapter 7-8._

JOUBERT, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D.1796-1797(OCTOBER-APRIL); 1798-1799; 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

JOURDAN, Campaigns of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793(JULY-DECEMBER); 1794 (MARCH-JULY); 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER); 1796 (APRIL-OCTOBER); 1798-1799 (AUGUST-APRIL).

JOUST.

See TOURNEY.

JOVIAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 363-364.

JOVIANS AND HERCULIANS.

See PRÆTORIAN GUARDS: A. D. 312.

JOYOUS ENTRY OF BRABANT, The.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D.1559-1562.

JUAN.

See JOHN.

JUAREZ, The Mexican government of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1848-1861, to 1867-1888.

JUBILEE, Papal institution of the.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1294-1348.

JUDAH, Kingdom of.

See JEWS: THE KINGDOMS OF ISRAEL, AND JUDAH, and after.

JUDAS MACCABÆUS.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

JUDGES OF ISRAEL.

See JEWS: ISRAEL UNDER THE JUDGES.

JUDGMENT OF GOD.

See ORDEAL; also, WAGER OF BATTLE.

{1934}

JUDICIAL COMBAT.

See WAGER OF BATTLE.

JUGANTES, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES.

JUGERUM.

"A Roman jugerum [of land] was somewhat less than two-thirds of a statute acre."

_W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 2, chapter 7, footnote (volume 1)._

JUGURTHINE WAR, The.

See NUMIDIA: B. C. 118-104.

JULIAN (called The Apostate), Roman Emperor, A. D. 361-363. Restorer of Paganism.

See ROME: A. D. 361-363.

JULIAN CALENDAR. JULIAN ERA.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

JULIAN FAMILY, The.

"The Julian Family is that of the dictator Cæsar; his name was transmitted, by adoption, out of the direct line, but always within the circle of his kindred, to the five first heads of the Roman empire; Augustus reigned from the year 30 B. C. to the year 14 of our era; Tiberius, from 14 to 37 A. D.; Caligula, from 37 to 41; Claudius, from 41 to 54; Nero, from 54 to 68."

_J. C. L. Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 2._

JULIAN LAW, The.

See ROME: B. C. 90-88.

JULIAN LAWS, The.

"Cæsar [during his year of consulship, B. C. 59, before he went to Gaul] carried, with the help of the people, the body of admirable laws which are known to jurists as the 'Leges Juliæ,' and mark an epoch in Roman history. … There was a law declaring the inviolability of the persons of magistrates during their term of authority, reflecting back on the murder of Saturninus, and touching by implication the killing of Lentulus and his companions. There was a law for the punishment of adultery, most disinterestedly singular if the popular accounts of Cæsar's habits had any grain of truth in them. There were laws for the protection of the subject from violence, public or private; and laws disabling persons who had laid hands illegally on Roman citizens from holding office in the Commonwealth. There was a law, intended at last to be effective, to deal with judges who allowed themselves to be bribed. There were laws against defrauders of the revenue; laws against debasing the coin; laws against sacrilege; laws against corrupt State contracts; laws against bribery at elections. Finally, there was a law, carefully framed, 'De repetundis.' to exact retribution from pro-consuls or pro-prætors of the type of Verres, who had plundered the provinces."

_J. A. Froude, Cæsar, chapter 13._

JULIAN LINE, The.

See ROME: A. D. 68-96.

JULIANUS.

See JULIAN.

Julianus, Didius, Roman Emperor, A. D. 193.

JÜLICH-CLEVE CONTEST, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1608-1618; and FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

JULIOMAGUS. Modern Angers.

See VENETI OF WESTERN GAUL.

JULIUS II., Pope, A. D. 1503-1513.

Julius III., Pope, 1550-1555.

Julius Nepos, Roman Emperor (Western), 474-475.

JULY FIRST. Dominion Day.

See CANADA: A. D. 1867.

JULY FOURTH, Independence Day.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1776 (JULY).

JULY MONARCHY, The.

The reign of Louis Philippe, which was brought about by the revolution of July, 1830 (see FRANCE: A.D. 1815-1830, and 1830-1840), is commonly known in France as the July Monarchy.

JUNIN, Battle of (1824).

See PERU: A. D. 1820-1826.

JUNIUS LETTERS, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1769-1772.

JUNONIA.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 44.

JUNTA.

A Spanish word signifying council, assembly, association.

JUNTA, The Apostolic.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1814-1827.

JURISFIRMA, The process of.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

JUROIPACH, Fortress of.

A fortress in the pass of Derbend, between the last spurs of the Caucasus and the Caspian, which the Persians and the Romans undertook at one time to maintain jointly. "This fortress, known as Juroipach or Biraparach, commanded the usual passage by which the hordes of the north were accustomed to issue from their vast arid steppes upon the rich and populous regions of the south for the purpose of plundering raids, if not of actual conquests. Their incursions threatened almost equally Roman and Persian territory, and it was felt that the two nations were alike interested in preventing them."

_G. Rawlinson, Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chapter 19._

JURY, Trial by.

"The fabric of our judicial legislation commences with the Assize of Clarendon.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

… In the provisions of this assize for the repression of crime we find the origin of trial by jury, so often attributed to earlier times. Twelve lawful men of each hundred, with four from each township, were sworn to present those who were known or reputed as criminals within their district for trial by ordeal. The jurors were thus not merely witnesses, but sworn to act as judges also in determining the value of the charge; and it is this double character of Henry's [Henry II.] jurors that has descended to our 'grand jury.' … Two later steps brought the jury to its modern condition. Under Edward I. witnesses acquainted with the particular fact in question were added in each case to the general jury, and by the separation of these two classes of jurors at a later time the last became simply 'witnesses,' without any judicial power, while the first ceased to be witnesses at all, and became our modern jurors, who are only judges of the testimony given."

_J. R. Green, Short History of English People, chapter 2, section 8._

See LAW.

ALSO IN: _W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, chapter 13, section 164._

_W. Forsyth, History of Trial by Jury._

JUSTICIAR.

The chief minister of the Norman kings of England. At first the Justiciar was the lieutenant or viceroy of the king during the absence of the latter from the kingdom; afterward a permanent minister of justice and finance.

_W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, volume 1, page 346._

JUSTIN I., Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 518-527.

Justin II., Roman Emperor (Eastern), 565-578.

JUSTINIAN I., Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 527-565.

Justinian II. (called Rhinotmetus), Roman Emperor (Eastern), A. D. 685-695, and 704-711.

JUSTINIAN, The Institutes, Pandects and Novels of.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

{1935}

JUSTIZA, OR JUSTICIARY, of Aragon.

See CORTES, THE EARLY SPANISH.

JÜTERBOGK, OR DENNEWITZ, Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

JUTES, The.

See ANGLES AND JUTES; also, ENGLAND: A. D. 449-473.

JUTHUNGI, The.

See ALEMANNI, FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE.

JUVAVIUM.

See SALZBURG.

JUVENAL IA, The.

This was a festival instituted by Nero, to commemorate his attainment of the age of manhood. "His beard was clipped, and the first tender down of his cheek and chin enclosed in a golden casket and dedicated to Jupiter in the Capitol. This ceremony was followed by music and acting," in which the emperor, himself, performed.

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 53._

JUVERNA.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

KAABA, OR CAABA, at Mecca, The.

See CAABA.

KABALA, OR CABALA, The.

See CABALA.

KABALA, Battle of.

See SICILY: B. C. 383.

KABELJAUWS.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1345-1354; also, 1482-1493.

KABYLES, The.

See LIBYANS; also, AMORITES.

KADESH.

A strong fortress of the ancient Hittites on the Orontes. The name signifies "the holy city."

KADESH-BARNEA.

An important locality in Biblical history. "It looms up as the objective point of the Israelites in their movement from Sinai to the Promised Land. It is the place of their testing, of their failure, of their judging, and of their dispersion. It is their rallying centre for the forty-years of their wandering, and the place of their re-assembling for their final move into the land of their longings."

_H. C. Trumbull, Kadesh-Barnea, part 1._

Mr. Trumbull identifies the site with the oasis of Ayn Qadees, in the Wilderness of Zin.

KADIASKERS.

See SUBLIME PORTE.

KADISIYEH, Battle of.

See CADESIA.

KADMEIA, The.

See GREECE: B. C. 383.

KADMEIANS, OR CADMEIANS.

See BŒOTIA.

KADMONITES, The.

See SARACENS.

KAFIRS. KAFIR WARS.

See SOUTH AFRICA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS, and A. D. 1811-1868; also, AFRICA: THE INHABITING RACES.

KAGHUL, Battle of (1770).

See TURKS: A. D. 1768-1774.

KAH-KWAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: HURONS, &c.

KAINARDJI, OR KUTSCHUK KAINARDJI, Treaty of (1774).

See TURKS: A. D. 1768-1774.

KAIRWAN, The founding of.

Acbah, the first of the Moslem conquerors of Northern Africa who penetrated as far westward as the domain of ancient Carthage, but who did not take that city, secured his footing in the region [A. D. 670-675] by founding a new city, thirty-three leagues southeast of Carthage and twelve leagues from the sea. The site chosen was a wild, thickly wooded valley, in the midst of which the Arab leader is said to have cleared a space, erected walls around it, and then, planting his lance in the center, cried to his followers: "This is your Caravan." Hence the name, Kairwan or Caerwan, or Cairoan. Fixing his seat of government at Kairwan, building mosques and opening markets, Acbah and his successors soon made the new city a populous and important capital.

_W. Irving, Mahomet and his Successors, volume 2, chapter 44._

ALSO IN: _E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 51._

_A. A. Boddy, Kairwan the Holy._

KAISAR-I-HIND.

See INDIA: A. D. 1877.

KAISER, Origin of the title.

See CÆSAR, THE TITLE.

KAISERSLAUTERN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

KALAPOOIAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: KALAPOOIAN FAMILY.

KALB, Baron De, and the War of the American Revolution.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1780 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).

KALEVALA, KALEWALA, The.

"To a certain class of modern philologists, no poem in the world is more familiar than the Kalewala, the long epic, which is to the mythology and traditional lore of the Finns what the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer are to the heroic story of ancient Greece. It is the source from which nearly all the information connected with the religious creed, the moral notions, the customs, and the domestic details of a most remarkable race is to be obtained. If we would know how the Greeks of the heroic age prayed, fought, eat, drank, sported, and clothed themselves, we turn to the pages of Homer. If we would obtain similar knowledge on the subject of the Finns, we consult the Kalewala. Though the traditions of the Finnish heroes are possibly as old as those of Achilles and Ajax, the arrangement of them into a continuous poem is a work of very recent date. No Wolfian controversy will arise respecting the construction of the Kalewala, for it is not more than twenty-five years since the Peisistratid who first put together the isolated songs, or Runes, published the result of his labours. Fragments of Finnish poetry, collected from the oral traditions of the people, had already made their appearance, though even the first important collection of these, which was made by Dr. Zacharias Topelius, dates no further back than 1822. … But it is with Dr. Lönnrot that the existence of the epic as an epic, with the title 'Kalewala,' begins. He published it in thirty-two Runes,—that is to say, books or cantos, for the word, which previously denoted an independent poem, now sinks into little more than a sign of division, though here and there, it must be confessed, an abrupt transition occurs, to which a parallel would not be found in the Iliad or the Odyssey. In 1849 a second edition of the Kalewala was published, likewise under the superintendence of Dr. Lönnrot, containing fifty cantos and nearly 23,000 lines."

_J. Oxenford, Kalewala (Temple Bar, December, 1860)._

{1936}

"Besides its fresh and simple beauty of style, its worth as a storehouse of every kind of primitive folk-lore, being as it is the production of an Urvolk, a nation that has undergone no violent revolution in language or institutions—the Kalevala has the peculiar interest of occupying a position between the two kinds of primitive poetry, the ballad and the epic. … Sixty years ago, it may be said, no one was aware that Finland possessed a national poem at all. Her people—who claim affinity with the Magyars of Hungary, but are possibly a back-wave of an earlier tide of population—had remained untouched by foreign influences since their conquest by Sweden, and their somewhat lax and wholesale conversion to Christianity: events which took place gradually between the middle of the twelfth and the end of the thirteenth centuries. … The annexation of Finland by Russia, in 1809, awakened national feeling, and stimulated research into the songs and customs which were the heirlooms of the people. … From the north of Norway to the slopes of the Altai, ardent explorers sought out the fragments of unwritten early poetry. These runes, or runots, were sung chiefly by old men called Runoias, to beguile the weariness of the long dark winters. The custom was for two champions to engage in a contest of memory, clasping each other's hands, and reciting in turn till he whose memory first gave in slackened his hold. The Kalevala contains an instance of this practice, where it is said that no one was so hardy as to clasp hands with Wäinämöinen, who is at once the Orpheus and the Prometheus of Finnish mythology. These Runoias, or rhapsodists, complain, of course, of the degeneracy of human memory; they notice how any foreign influence, in religion or politics, is destructive to the native songs of a race. 'As for the lays of old time, a thousand have been scattered to the wind, a thousand buried in the snow. … As for those which the Munks (the Teutonic knights) swept away, and the prayer of the priest over-whelmed, a thousand tongues were not able to recount them.' In spite of the losses thus caused, and in spite of the suspicious character of the Finns, which often made the task of collection a dangerous one, enough materials remained to furnish Dr. Lönnrot, the most noted explorer, with thirty-five Runots, or cantos. These were published in 1835, but later research produced the fifteen cantos which make up the symmetrical fifty of the Kalevala. In the task of arranging and uniting these, Dr. Lönnrot played the part generally ascribed to Pisistratus in relation to the Iliad and Odyssey. He is said to have handled with singular fidelity the materials which now come before us as one poem, not without a certain unity and continuous thread of narrative. It is this unity which gives the Kalevala a claim to the title of epic, although the element of permanence which is most obvious in the Greek epics, and in the earliest Hebrew records, is here conspicuously absent. … Among the Finns we find no trace of an aristocracy; there is scarcely a mention of kings, or priests; the heroes of the poem are really popular heroes, fishers, smiths, husbandmen, 'medicine-men' or wizards; exaggerated shadows of the people, pursuing on a heroic scale, not war, but the common daily business of primitive and peaceful men. In recording their adventures, the Kalevala, like the shield of Achilles, reflects all the life of a race, the feasts, the funerals, the rites of seed-time and harvest, of marriage and death, the hymn, and the magical incantation. Were this all, the epic would only have the value of an exhaustive collection of the popular ballads which, as we have seen, are a poetical record of all the intenser moments in the existence of unsophisticated tribes. But it is distinguished from such a collection, by presenting the ballads as they are produced by the events of a continuous narrative, and thus it takes a distinct place between the aristocratic epics of Greece, or of the Franks, and the scattered songs which have been collected in Scotland, Sweden, Denmark, Greece, and Italy. Besides the interest of its unique position as a popular epic, the Kalevala is very precious, both for its literary beauties and for the confused mass of folk-lore which it contains. … What is to be understood by the word 'Kalevala'? The affix 'la' signifies 'abode.' Thus, 'Tuonela' is 'the abode of Tuoni,' the god of the lower world; and as 'kaleva' means 'heroic,' 'magnificent,' 'Kalevala' is 'The Home of Heroes,' like the Indian 'Beerbhoom,' or 'Virbhûmi.' The poem is the record of the adventures of the people of Kalevala—of their strife with the men of Pohjola, the place of the world's end."

_A. Lang, Kalevala (Fraser's May, June, 1872)._

A complete translation of the Kalevala into English verse, by John Martin Crawford, was published in New York, in 1888.

_Project Gutenberg Kalevala: the Epic Poem of Finland— Complete by Lönnrot and Crawford https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5186_

KALISCH, Battle of (1706).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1701-1707.

KALISCH, OR CALISCH, Treaty of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1812-1813.

KALMUKS, The.

See TARTARS.

KAMBALU, CAMBALU.

See CHINA: A. D. 1259-1294.

KAMBULA, Battle of (1879).

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1877-1879.

KAMI, OR KHEMI, OR KEM.

See EGYPT: ITS NAMES.

KANAKAS.

See HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

KANAWHA, Battle of the Great.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1774.

KANAWHA, The proposed State of.

See WEST VIRGINIA: A. D. 1862 (APRIL-DECEMBER).

KANAWHAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

KANDHS, The.

See INDIA: THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS.

KANSAS: Start--------

KANSAS: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY, and PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

KANSAS: A. D. 1803. Mostly embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

KANSAS: A. D. 1854. Territorial organization. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1854.

KANSAS: A. D. 1854-1859. The battle-ground of the struggle against Slavery-extension. Border-ruffians and Free State settlers.