Part 46

"The tumult which had been caused by the irruption of the Thesprotians into Thessaly and the displacement of the population of Greece [see GREECE: THE MIGRATION, &c.] did not subside within the limits of the peninsula. From the north and the south those inhabitants who were unable to maintain their ground against the incursions of the Thessalians, Arnaeans, or Dorians, and preferred exile to submission, sought new homes in the islands of the Aegean and on the western coast of Asia Minor. The migrations continued for several generations. When at length they came to an end, and the Anatolian coast from Mount Ida to the Triopian headland, with the adjacent islands, was in the possession of the Greeks, three great divisions or tribes were distinguished in the new settlements: Dorians, Ionians, and Aeolians. In spite of the presence of some alien elements, the Dorians and Ionians of Asia Minor were the same tribes as the Dorians and Ionians of Greece. The Aeolians, on the other hand, were a composite tribe, as their name implies. … Of these three divisions the Aeolians lay farthest to the north. The precise limits of their territory were differently fixed by different authorities. … The Aeolic cities fell into two groups: a northern, of which Lesbos was the centre, and a southern, composed of the cities in the immediate neighbourhood of the Hermus, and founded from Cyme.—The northern group included the islands of Tenedos and Lesbos. In the latter there were originally six cities: Methymna, Mytilene, Pyrrha, Eresus, Arisba, and Antissa, but Arisba was subsequently conquered and enslaved by Mytilene. … The second great stream of migration proceeded from Athens [after the death of Codrus—see ATHENS: FROM THE DORIAN MIGRATION TO B. C. 683—according to Greek tradition, the younger sons of Codrus leading these Ionian colonists across the Aegean, first to the Carian city of Miletus—see MILETUS,—which they captured, and then to the conquest of Ephesus and the island of Samos]. … The colonies spread until a dodecapolis was established, similar to the union which the Ionians had founded in their old settlements on the northern shore of Peloponnesus. In some cities the Ionian population formed a minority. … The colonisation of Ionia was undoubtedly, in the main, an achievement of emigrants from Attica, but it was not accomplished by a single family, or in the space of one life-time. … The two most famous of the Ionian cities were Miletus and Ephesus. The first was a Carian city previously known as Anactoria. … Ephesus was originally in the hands of the Leleges and the Lydians, who were driven out by the Ionians under Androclus. The ancient sanctuary of the tutelary goddess of the place was transformed by the Greeks into a temple of Artemis, who was here worshipped as the goddess of birth and productivity in accordance with Oriental rather than Hellenic ideas." The remaining Ionic cities and islands were Myus (named from the mosquitoes which infested it, and which finally drove the colony to abandon it), Priene, Erythrae, Clazomenæ, Teos, Phocaea, Colophon, Lebedus, Samos and Chios. "Chios was first inhabited by Cretans … and subsequently by Carians. … Of the manner in which Chios became connected with the Ionians the Chians could give no clear account. … The southern part of the Anatolian coast, and the southern-most islands in the Aegean were colonised by the Dorians, who wrested them from the Phoenician or Carian occupants. Of the islands, Crete is the most important. … Crete was one of the oldest centres of civilisation in the Aegean [see CRETE]. … The Dorian colony in Rhodes, like that in Crete, was ascribed to the band which left Argos under the command of Althaemenes. … Other islands colonised by the Dorians were Thera, … Melos, … Carpathus, Calydnae, Nisyrus, and Cos. … From the islands, the Dorians spread to the mainland. The peninsula of Cnidus was perhaps the first settlement. … Halicarnassus was founded from Troezen, and the Ionian element must have been considerable. … Of the Dorian cities, six united in the common worship of Apollo on the headland of Triopium. These were Lindus, Ialysus, and Camirus in Rhodes, Cos, and, on the mainland, Halicarnassus and Cnidus. … The territory which the Aeolians acquired is described by Herodotus as more fertile than that occupied by the Ionians, but of a less excellent climate. It was inhabited by a number of tribes, among which the Troes or Teucri were the chief. … In Homer the inhabitants of the city of the Troad are Dardani or Troes, and the name Teucri does not occur. In historical times the Gergithes, who dwelt in the town of the same name … near Lampsacus, and also formed the subject population of Miletus, were the only remnants of this once famous nation. {140} But their former greatness was attested by the Homeric poems, and the occurrence of the name Gergithians at various places in the Troad [see TROJA]. To this tribe belonged the Troy of the Grecian epic, the site of which, so far as it represents any historical city, is fixed at Hissarlik. In the Iliad the Trojan empire extends from the Aesepus to the Caicus; it was divided—or, at least, later historians speak of it as divided—into principalities which recognised Priam as their chief. But the Homeric descriptions of the city and its eminence are not to be taken as historically true. Whatever the power and civilisation of the ancient stronghold exhumed by Dr. Schliemann may have been, it was necessary for the epic poet to represent Priam and his nation as a dangerous rival in wealth and arms to the great kings of Mycenae and Sparta. … The traditional dates fix these colonies [of the Greeks in Asia Minor] in the generations which followed the Trojan war. … We may suppose that the colonisation of the Aegean and of Asia Minor by the Greeks was coincident with the expulsion of the Phoenicians. The greatest extension of the Phoenician power in the Aegean seems to fall in the 15th century B. C. From the 13th it was gradually on the decline, and the Greeks were enabled to secure the trade for themselves. … By 1100 B. C. Asia Minor may have been in the hands of the Greeks, though the Phoenicians still maintained themselves in Rhodes and Cyprus. But all attempts at chronology are illusory."

_E. Abbott, History of Greece, chapter 4 (volume 1)_.

ALSO IN: _E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 2, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapters 13-15._

_J. A. Cramer, Geography and Historical Description of Asia Minor, section 6 (volume 1)._

See, also, MILETUS, PHOCÆANS.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 724-539. Prosperity of the Greek Colonies. Their Submission to Crœsus, King of Lydia, and their conquest and annexation to the Persian Empire.

"The Grecian colonies on the coast of Asia early rose to wealth by means of trade and manufactures. Though we have not the means of tracing their commerce, we know that it was considerable, with the mother country, with Italy, and at length Spain, with Phœnicia and the interior of Asia, whence the productions of India passed to Greece. The Milesians, who had fine woolen manufactures, extended their commerce to the Euxine, on all sides of which they founded factories, and exchanged their manufactures and other goods with the Scythians and the neighbouring peoples, for slaves, wool, raw hides, bees-wax, flax, hemp, pitch, etc. There is even reason to suppose that, by means of caravans, their traders bartered their wares not far from the confines of China [see MILETUS]. … But while they were advancing in wealth and prosperity, a powerful monarchy formed itself in Lydia, of which the capital was Sardes, a city at the foot of Mount Tmolus." Gyges, the first of the Mermnad dynasty of Lydian kings (see LYDIANS), whose reign is supposed to have begun about B. C. 724, "turned his arms against the Ionian cities on the coast. During a century and a half the efforts of the Lydian monarchs to reduce these states were unavailing. At length (Ol. 55) [B. C. 568] the celebrated Crœsus mounted the throne of Lydia, and he made all Asia this side of the River Halys (Lycia and Cilicia excepted) acknowledge his dominion. The Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian cities of the coast all paid him tribute; but, according to the usual rule of eastern conquerors, he meddled not with their political institutions, and they might deem themselves fortunate in being insured against war by the payment of an annual sum of money. Crœsus, moreover, cultivated the friendship of the European Greeks." But Crœsus was overthrown, B. C. 554, by the conquering Cyrus and his kingdom of Lydia was swallowed up in the great Persian empire then taking form [see PERSIA: B. C. 549-521]. Cyrus, during his war with Crœsus, had tried to entice the Ionians away from the latter and win them to an alliance with himself. But they incurred his resentment by refusing. "They and the Æolians now sent ambassadors, praying to be received to submission on the same terms as those on which they had obeyed the Lydian monarch; but the Milesians alone found favour: the rest had to prepare for war. They repaired the walls of their towns, and sent to Sparta for aid. Aid, however, was refused; but Cyrus, being called away by the war with Babylon, neglected them for the present. Three years afterwards (Ol. 59, 2), Harpagus, who had saved Cyrus in his infancy from his grandfather, Astyages, came as governor of Lydia. He instantly prepared to reduce the cities of the coast. Town after town submitted. The Teians abandoned theirs, and retired to Abdera in Thrace; the Phocæans, getting on shipboard, and vowing never to return, sailed for Corsica, and being there harassed by the Carthagenians and Tyrrhenians, they went to Rhegion in Italy, and at length founded Massalia (Marseilles) on the coast of Gaul. The Grecian colonies thus became a part of the Persian empire."

_T. Keightley, History of Greece, part 1, chapter 9._

ALSO IN: _Herodotus, History, translated and edited by G. Rawlinson, book 1, and appendix_

_M. Duncker, History of Antiquity, book 8, chapters 6-7 (volume 6)._

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 501-493. The Ionian revolt and its suppression.

See PERSIA: B. C. 521-493.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 479. Athens assumes the protection of Ionia.

See ATHENS: B. C.479-478.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 477. Formation of Confederacy of Delos.

See GREECE: B. C. 478-477.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 413. Tribute again demanded from the Greeks by the Persian King. Conspiracy against Athens.

See GREECE: B. C. 413.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 413-412. Revolt of the Greek cities from Athens. Intrigues of Alcibiades.

See GREECE: B. C. 413-412.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 412. Re-submission to Persia.

See PERSIA: B. C. 486-405.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 401-400. Expedition of Cyrus the Younger, and Retreat of the Ten Thousand.

See PERSIA: B. C.401-400.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 399-387. Spartan war with Persia in behalf of the Greek cities. Their abandonment by the Peace of Antalcidas.

See GREECE: B. C. 399-387.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 334. Conquest by Alexander the Great.

See MACEDONIA: B. C. 334-330.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 301. Mostly annexed to the Thracian Kingdom of Lysimachus.

See MACEDONIA, &c.: B. C. 310-301.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 281-224. Battle-ground of the warring monarchies of Syria and Egypt. Changes of masters.

See SELEUCIDÆ.

{141}

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 191. First Entrance of the Romans. Their defeat of Antiochus the Great. Their expansion of the kingdom of Pergamum and the Republic of Rhodes.

See SELEUCIDÆ B. C. 224-187.

ASIA MINOR: B. C. 120-65. Mithridates and his kingdom. Massacre of Italians. Futile revolt from Rome. Complete Roman Conquest.

See MITHRIDATIC WARS; also ROME: B. C.78-68. and 69-63.

ASIA MINOR: A. D. 292. Diocletian's seat of Empire established at Nicomedia.

See ROME: A. D. 284-305.

ASIA MINOR: A. D. 602-628. Persian invasions. Deliverance by Heraclius.

See ROME: A. D. 565-628.

ASIA MINOR: A. D. 1063-1092. Conquest and ruin by the Seljuk Turks.

See TURKS (SELJUKS): A. D. 1063-1073; and 1073-1092.

ASIA MINOR: A. D. 1097-1149. Wars of the Crusaders.

See CRUSADES: A. D. 1096-1099; and 1147-1149.

ASIA MINOR: A. D. 1204-1261. The Empire of Nicæa and the Empire of Trebizond.

See GREEK EMPIRE OF NICÆA.

ASIA MINOR: End----------

ASIENTO, OR ASSIENTO, The.

See SLAVERY: A. D. 1698-1776; UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714; AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS OF; ENGLAND: A. D. 1739-1741; and GEORGIA: A. D. 1738-1743.

ASKELON.

See PHILISTINES.

ASKLEPIADS.

"Throughout all the historical ages [of Greece] the descendants of Asklêpius [or Esculapius] were numerous and widely diffused. The many families or gentes called Asklêpiads, who devoted themselves to the study and practice of medicine, and who principally dwelt near the temples of Asklêpius, whither sick and suffering men came to obtain relief—all recognized the god, not merely as the object of their common worship, but also as their actual progenitor."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 1, chapter 9._

ASMONEANS, The.

See JEWS: B. C. 166-40.

ASOPIA.

See SICYON.

ASOV.

See AZOF.

ASPADAN.

The ancient name of which that of Ispahan is a corrupted form.

_G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Media, chapter 1._

ASPERN-ESSLINGEN (OR THE MARCHFELD), Battle of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

ASPIS, The.

See PHALANX.

ASPROMONTE, Defeat of Garibaldi at (1862).

See ITALY: A. D. 1862-1866.

ASSAM, English Acquisition of.

See INDIA: A. D. 1823-1833.

ASSANDUN, Battle of.

The sixth and last battle, A. D. 1016, between Edmund Ironsides, the English King, and his Danish rival, Cnut, or Canute, for the Crown of England. The English were terribly defeated and the flower of their nobility perished on the field. The result was a division of the kingdom; but Edmund soon died, or was killed. Ashington, in Essex, was the battle-ground.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 979-1016.

ASSASSINATIONS, Notable. Abbas, Pasha of Egypt. See EGYPT: A. D. 1840-1869.

Alexander II. of Russia. See RUSSIA: A. D. 1879-1881.

Beatoun, Cardinal. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1546.

Becket, Thomas. See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170

Buckingham. See ENGLAND: A. D. 1628.

Cæsar. See ROME; B. C. 44.

Capo d'Istrea, Count, President of Greece. See GREECE: A. D. 1830-1862.

Cavendish, Lord Frederick, and Burke, Mr. See IRELAND: A. D. 1882.

Concini. See FRANCE: A. D. 1610-1619.

Danilo, Prince of Montenegro (1860). See MONTENEGRO.

Darnley. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

Francis of Guise. See FRANCE: A. D. 1560-1563.

Garfield, President. See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1881.

Gustavus III. of Sweden. See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (SWEDEN): A. D. 1720-1792.

Henry of Guise. See FRANCE: A. D. 1584-1589.

Henry III. of France. See FRANCE; A. D. 1584-1589.

Henry IV. of France. See FRANCE: A. D. 1599-1600.

Hipparchus. See ATHENS: B. C, 560-510.

John, Duke of Burgundy. See FRANCE: A. D. 1415-1419.

Kleber, General. See FRANCE; A. D. 1800 (JANUARY-JUNE).

Kotzebue. See GERMANY; A. D. 1817-1820.

Lincoln, President. See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1865 (APRIL 14TH).

Marat. See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY).

Mayo, Lord. See INDIA; A. D. 1862-1876.

Murray, The Regent. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

Omar, Caliph. See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST, &c.: A. D. 661.

Paul, Czar of Russia. See RUSSIA: A. D. 1801.

Perceval, Spencer. See ENGLAND; A. D. 1806-1812.

Peter III. See RUSSIA: A. D. 1761-1762.

Philip of Macedon. See GREECE: B. C. 357-336.

Prim, General (1870). See SPAIN. A. D. 1866-1843.

Rizzio. See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1561-1568.

Rossi, Count. See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

Wallenstein (1634). See GERMANY: A. D. 1632-1634.

William the Silent. See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

Witt, John and Cornelius de. See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1672-1674.

ASSASSINS, The.

"I must here speak with the brevity which my limits prescribe of that wonderful brotherhood of the Assassins, which during the 12th and 13th centuries spread such terror through all Asia, Mussulman and Christian. Their deeds should be studied in Von Hammer's history of their order, of which however there is an excellent analysis in Taylor's _History of Mohammedanism._ The word Assassin, it must be remembered, in its ordinary signification, is derived from this order, and not the reverse. The Assassins were not so called because they were murderers, but murderers are called assassins because the Assassins were murderers. The origin of the word Assassin has been much disputed by oriental scholars; but its application is sufficiently written upon the Asiatic history of the 12th century. The Assassins were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, but rather an order, like the Templars; only the office of Grand-Master, like the Caliphate, became hereditary. They were originally a branch of the Egyptian Ishmaelites [see MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 908-1171] and at first professed the principles of that sect. But there can be no doubt that their inner doctrine became at last a mere negation of all religion and all morality. 'To believe nothing and to dare everything' was the summary of their teaching. Their exoteric principle, addressed to the non-initiated members of the order, was simple blind obedience to the will of their superiors. If the Assassin was ordered to take off a Caliph or a Sultan by the dagger or the bowl, the deed was done; if he was ordered to throw himself from the ramparts, the deed was done likewise. … Their founder was Hassan Sabah, who, in 1090, shortly before the death of Malek Shah, seized the castle of Alamout—the Vulture's nest—in northern Persia, whence they extended their possessions over a whole chain of mountain fortresses in that country and in Syria. The Grand-Master was the Sheikh-al-Jebal, the famous Old Man of the Mountain, at whose name Europe and Asia shuddered."

_E. A. Freeman, History and Conquests of the Saracens, lecture 4._

{142}

"In the Fatimide Khalif of Egypt, they [the Assassins, or Ismailiens of Syria and Persia] beheld an incarnate deity. To kill his enemies, in whatever way they best could, was an action, the merit of which could not be disputed, and the reward for which was certain." Hasan Sabah, the founder of the Order, died at Alamout A. D. 1124. "From the day he entered Alamut until that of his death—a period of thirty-five years—he never emerged, but upon two occasions, from the seclusion of his house. Pitiless and inscrutable as Destiny, he watched the troubled world of Oriental politics, himself invisible, and whenever he perceived a formidable foe, caused a dagger to be driven into his heart." It was not until more than a century after the death of its founder that the fearful organization of the Assassins was extinguished (A. D. 1257) by the same flood of Mongol invasion which swept Bagdad and the Caliphate out of existence.

_R. D. Osborn, Islam under the Khalifs of Bagdad, part 3, chapter 3._

_W. C. Taylor, History of Mohammedanism and its Sects, chapter 9._

The Assassins were rooted out from all their strongholds in Kuhistan and the neighboring region, and were practically exterminated, in 1257, by the Mongols under Khulagu, or Houlagou, brother of Mongu Khan, the great sovereign of the Mongol Empire, then reigning. Alamut, the Vulture's Nest, was demolished.

_H. H. Howorth, History of the Mongols, part 1, page 193; and part 3, pages 91-108_.

See BAGDAD; A. D. 1258.

ASSAYE, Battle of (1803).

See INDIA; A. D. 1798-1803.

ASSEMBLY OF THE NOTABLES IN FRANCE (1787).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1774-1788.

ASSENISIPIA, The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

ASSIDEANS, The.

See CHASIDM, THE.

ASSIENTO, The.

See ASIENTO.

ASSIGNATS.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1789-1791; 1794-1795 (JULY-APRIL); 1795 (OCTOBER-DECEMBER).

ASSINARUS, Athenian defeat and surrender at the.

See SYRACUSE: B. C. 415-413.

ASSINIBOIA.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORIES OF CANADA.

ASSINIBOINS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SIOUAN FAMILY.

ASSIZE, The Bloody.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1685 (SEPTEMBER).

ASSIZE OF BREAD AND ALE.

The Assize of Bread and Ale was an English ordinance or enactment, dating back to the time of Henry III. in the 13th century, which fixed the price of those commodities by a scale regulated according to the market prices of wheat, barley and oats. "The Assize of bread was re-enacted so lately as the beginning of the last century and was only abolished in London and its neighbourhood about thirty years ago"—that is, early in the present century.

_G. L. Craik, History of British Commerce, volume 1, page 137._

ASSIZE OF CLARENDON, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1162-1170.

ASSIZE OF JERUSALEM, The.

"No sooner had Godfrey of Bouillon [elected King of Jerusalem, after the taking of the Holy City by the Crusaders, A. D. 1099] accepted the office of supreme magistrate than he solicited the public and private advice of the Latin pilgrims who were the best skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe. From these materials, with the counsel and approbation of the Patriarch and barons, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey composed the Assise of Jerusalem, a precious monument of feudal jurisprudence. The new code, attested by the seals of the King, the Patriarch, and the Viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in the holy sepulchre, enriched with the improvements of succeeding times, and respectfully consulted as often as any doubtful question arose in the tribunals of Palestine. With the kingdom and city all was lost; the fragments of the written law were preserved by jealous tradition and variable practice till the middle of the thirteenth century. The code was restored by the pen of John d'Ibelin, Count of Jaffa, one of the principal feudatories; and the final revision was accomplished in the year thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin kingdom of Cyprus."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25717_

ASSIZES.