Part 34

"The non-nomadic semi-civilized town and agricultural peoples of New Mexico and Arizona … I call the Pueblos, or Townspeople, from pueblo, town, population, people, a name given by the Spaniards to such inhabitants of this region as were found, when first discovered, permanently located in comparatively well-built towns. Strictly speaking, the term Pueblos applies only to the villagers settled along the banks of the Rio Grande del Norte and its tributaries between latitudes 34° 45' and 36° 30', and although the name is employed as a general appellation for this division, it will be used, for the most part, only in its narrower and popular sense. In this division, besides the before mentioned Pueblos proper, are embraced the Moquis, or villagers of eastern Arizona, and the non-nomadic agricultural nations of the lower Gila river,—the Pimas, Maricopas, Papagos, and cognate tribes. The country of the Townspeople, if we may credit Lieutenant Simpson, is one of 'almost universal barrenness,' yet interspersed with fertile spots; that of the agricultural nations, though dry, is more generally productive. The fame of this so-called civilization reached Mexico at an early day … in exaggerated rumors of great cities to the north, which prompted the expeditions of Marco de Niza in 1539, of Coronado in 1540, and of Espejo in 1586 [1583]. These adventurers visited the north in quest of the fabulous kingdoms of Quivira, Tontonteac, Marata and others, in which great riches were said to exist. The name of Quivira was afterwards applied by them to one or more of the pueblo cities. The name Cibola, from 'Cibolo,' Mexican bull, 'bos bison,' or wild ox of New Mexico, where the Spaniards first encountered buffalo, was given to seven of the towns which were afterwards known as the Seven Cities of Cibola. But most of the villages known at the present day were mentioned in the reports of the early expeditions by their present names. {100} … The towns of the Pueblos are essentially unique, and are the dominant feature of these aboriginals. Some of them are situated in valleys, others on mesas; sometimes they are planted on elevations almost inaccessible, reached only by artificial grades, or by steps cut in the solid rock. Some of the towns are of an elliptical shape, while others are square, a town being frequently but a block of buildings. Thus a Pueblo consists of one or more squares, each enclosed by three or four buildings of from 300 to 400 feet in length, and about 150 feet in width at the base, and from two to seven stories of from eight to nine feet each in height. … The stories are built in a series of gradations or retreating surfaces, decreasing in size as they rise, thus forming a succession of terraces. In some of the towns these terraces are on both sides of the building; in others they face only towards the outside; while again in others they are on the inside. These terraces are about six feet wide, and extend around the three or four sides of the square, forming a walk for the occupants of the story resting upon it, and a roof for the story beneath; so with the stories above. As there is no inner communication with one another, the only means of mounting to them is by ladders which stand at convenient distances along the several rows of terraces, and they may be drawn up at pleasure, thus cutting off all unwelcome intrusion. The outside walls of one or more of the lower stories are entirely solid, having no openings of any kind, with the exception of, in some towns, a few loopholes. … To enter the rooms on the ground floor from the outside, one must mount the ladder to the first balcony or terrace, then descend through a trap door in the floor by another ladder on the inside. … The several stories of these huge structures are divided into multitudinous compartments of greater or less size, which are apportioned to the several families of the tribe."

_H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapter 5._

"There can be no doubt that Cibola is to be looked for in New Mexico. … We cannot … refuse to adopt the views of General Simpson and of Mr. W. W. H. Davis, and to look at the pueblo of Zuni as occupying, if not the actual site, at least one of the sites within the tribal area of the Seven Cities of Cibola. Nor can we refuse to identify Tusayan with the Moqui district, and Acuco with Acoma."

_A. F. Bandelier, Historical Introduction to Studies among the Sedentary Indians of North Mexico (Papers of the Archœolog. Institute of America: American Series, volume 1)._

ALSO IN _J. H. Simpson, The March of Coronado._

_L. H. Morgan, Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines (Contributions to North American Ethnology, volume 4), chapter 6._

_F. H. Cushing, My Adventures in Zuñi (Century, volume 3-4)_.

_F. H. Cushing, Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (1882-83), pages 473-480._

_F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest, chapter 10._

See, also, AMERICA, PREHISTORIC, and above: PIMAN FAMILY and KERESAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Pujunan Family.

"The following tribes were placed in this group by Latham: Pujuni, Secumne, Tsamak of Hale, and the Cushna of Schoolcraft. The name adopted for the family is the name of a tribe given by Hale. This was one of the two races into which, upon the information of Captain Sutter as derived by Mr. Dana, all the Sacramento tribes were believed to be divided. 'These races resembled one another in every respect but language.' … The tribes of this family have been carefully studied by Powers, to whom we are indebted for most all we know of their distribution. They occupied the eastern bank of the Sacramento in California, beginning some 80 or 100 miles from its mouth, and extended northward to within a short distance of Pit River."

_J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pages 99-100._

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Puncas, or Ponkas.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY: and above: PAWNEE (CADDOAN) FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Purumancians.

See CHILE: A. D. 1450-1724.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quapaws.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quelches.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Querandis, or Pehuelches, or Puelts.

See above: PAMPAS TRIBES.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quiches. Cakchiquels.

"Of the ancient races of America, those which approached the nearest to a civilized condition spoke related dialects of a tongue, which from its principal members has been called the Maya Quiche linguistic stock. Even to-day, it is estimated that half a million persons use these dialects. They are scattered over Yucatan, Guatemala, and the adjacent territory, and one branch formerly occupied the hot lowlands on the Gulf of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz. The so-called 'metropolitan' dialects are those spoken relatively near the city of Guatemala, and include the Cakchiquel, the Quiche, the Pokonchi and the Tzutuhill. They are quite closely allied, and are mutually intelligible, resembling each other about as much as did in ancient Greece the Attic, Ionic and Doric dialects. … The civilization of these people was such that they used various mnemonic signs, approaching our alphabet, to record and recall their mythology and history. Fragments, more or less complete, of these traditions have been preserved. The most notable of them is the national legend of the Quiches of Guatemala, the so-called Popol Vuh. It was written at an unknown date in the Quiche dialect, by a native who was familiar with the ancient records."

_D. G. Brinton, Essays of an Americanist, page 104._

ALSO IN, _D. G. Brinton, Annals of the Cakchiquels._

_H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, chapter 11._

See, also, above: MAYAS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quichuas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quijo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Quoratean Family.

"The tribes occupy both banks of the lower Klamath from a range of hills a little above Happy Camp to the junction of the Trinity, and the Salmon River from its mouth to its sources. On the north, Quoratean tribes extended to the Athapascan territory near the Oregon line."

_J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 101._

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rapid Indians.

A name applied by various writers to the Arapahoes, and other tribes.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Raritans.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Remo.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rogue River Indians.

See above: MODOCS, ETC.

See Note, Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Rucanas.

See PERU.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sabaja.

See above: GUCK OR COCO GROUP.

{101}

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sacs (Sauks), Foxes, etc.

"The Sauks or Saukies (White Clay), and Foxes or Outagamies, so called by the Europeans and Algonkins, but whose true name is Musquakkiuk (Red Clay), are in fact but one nation. The French missionaries on coming first in contact with them, in the year 1665, at once found that they spoke the same language, and that it differed from the Algonkin, though belonging to the same stock; and also that this language was common to the Kickapoos, and to those Indians they called Maskontens. This last nation, if it ever had an existence as a distinct tribe, has entirely disappeared. But we are informed by Charlevoix, and Mr. Schoolcraft corroborates the fact, that the word 'Mascontenck' means a country without woods, a prairie. The name Mascontens was therefore used to designate 'prairie Indians.' And it appears that they consisted principally of Sauks and Kickapoos, with an occasional mixture of Potowotamies and Miamis, who probably came there to hunt the Buffalo. The country assigned to those Mascontens lay south of the Fox River of Lake Michigan and west of Illinois River. … When first discovered, the Sauks and Foxes had their seats toward the southern extremity of Green Bay, on Fox River, and generally farther east than the country which they lately occupied. … By the treaty of 1804, the Sauks and Foxes ceded to the United States all their lands east of … the Mississippi. … The Kickapoos by various treaties, 1809 to 1819, have also ceded all their lands to the United States. They claimed all the country between the Illinois River and the Wabash, north of the parallel of latitude passing by the mouth of the Illinois and south of the Kankakee River. … The territory claimed by the Miamis and Piankishaws may be generally stated as having been bounded eastwardly by the Maumee River of Lake Erie, and to have included all the country drained by the Wabash. The Piankishaws occupied the country bordering on the Ohio."

_A. Gallatin, Synopsis of the Indian Tribes (Archæologia Americana, volume 2), introduction, section 2._

The Mascontens, or Mascoutins, "seldom appear alone, but almost always in connection with their kindred, the Ottagamies or Foxes and the Kickapoos, and like them bear a character for treachery and deceit. The three tribes may have in earlier days formed the Fire-Nation [of the early French writers], but, as Gallatin observes in the Archæologia Americana, it is very doubtful whether the Mascoutins were ever a distinct tribe. If this be so, and there is no reason to reject it, the disappearance of the name will not be strange."

_J. G. Shea, Brief Researches Respecting the Mascoutins (Schoolcraft's Information Respecting Indian Tribes, part 4, page 245)_.

See above, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

For an account of the Black Hawk War

See Illinois, A. D. 1832.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sahaptins.

See above: NEZ PERCÉS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Salinan Family.

This name is given by Major Powell to the San Antonio and San Miguel dialects spoken by two tribes on the Salinas River, Monterey County, California.

_J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 101._

See ESSELENIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Salishan Family.

See above: FLATHEADS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sanhikans, or Mincees.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sans Arcs.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES Santees.

See below: SIOUAN FAMILY.

See Note. Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sarcee (Tinneh).

See above: BLACKFEET.

See Note. Appendix E.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Sastean Family.

"The single tribe upon the language of which Hale based his name was located by him to the southwest of the Lutuami or Klamath tribes. … The former territory of the Sastean family is the region drained by the Klamath River and its tributaries from the western base of the Cascade range to the point where the Klamath flows through the ridge of hills east of Happy Camp, which forms the boundary between the Sastean and the Quoratean families. In addition to this region of the Klamath, the Shasta extended over the Siskiyou range northward as far as Ashland, Oregon:"

_J. W. Powell, Seventh Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, page 106._

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Savannahs.

See above: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Seminoles.

"The term 'semanóle,' or 'isti Simanóle,' signifies 'separatish' or 'runaway,' and as a tribal name points to the Indians who left the Creek, especially the Lower Creek settlements, for Florida, to live, hunt, and fish there in independence. The term does not mean 'wild,' 'savage,' as frequently stated; if applied now in this sense to animals, it is because of its original meaning, 'what has become a runaway.' … The Seminoles of modern times are a people compounded of the following elements: separatists from the Lower Creek and Hitchiti towns; remnants of tribes partly civilized by the Spaniards; Yamassi Indians, and some negroes. … The Seminoles were always regarded as a sort of outcasts by the Creek tribes from which they had seceded, and no doubt there were reasons for this. … These Indians showed, like the Creeks, hostile intentions towards the thirteen states during and after the Revolution, and conjointly with the Upper Creeks on Tallapoosa river concluded a treaty of friendship with the Spaniards at Pensacola in May, 1784. Although under Spanish control, the Seminoles entered into hostilities with the Americans in 1793 and 1812. In the latter year Payne míko ['King Payne'] was killed in a battle at Alachua, and his brother, the influential Bowlegs, died soon after. These unruly tribes surprised and massacred American settlers on the Satilla river, Georgia, in 1817, and another conflict began, which terminated in the destruction of the Mikasuki and Suwanee river towns of the Seminoles by General Jackson, in April, 1818. [See FLORIDA: A. D. 1816-1818.] After the cession of Florida, and its incorporation into the American Union (1819), the Seminoles gave up all their territory by the treaty of Fort Moultrie, Sept. 18th, 1823, receiving in exchange goods and annuities. When the government concluded to move these Indians west of the Mississippi river, a treaty of a conditional character was concluded with them at Payne's landing, in 1832. The larger portion were removed, but the more stubborn part dissented, and thus gave origin to one of the gravest conflicts which ever occurred between Indians and whites. The Seminole war began with the massacre of Major Dade's command near Wahoo swamp, December 28th, 1835, and continued with unabated fury for five years, entailing an immense expenditure of money and lives. [See FLORIDA: A. D. 1835-1843.] A number of Creek warriors joined the hostile Seminoles in 1836. A census of the Seminoles taken in 1822 gave a population of 3,899, with 800 negroes belonging to them. The population of the Seminoles in the Indian Territory amounted to 2,667 in 1881. … There are some Seminoles now in Mexico, who went there with their negro slaves."

_A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, volume 1, part 1, section 2._

{102}

"Ever since the first settlement of these Indians in Florida they have been engaged in a strife with the whites. … In the unanimous judgment of unprejudiced writers, the whites have ever been in the wrong."

_D. G. Brinton, Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, page 148._

"There were in Florida, October 1, 1880, of the Indians commonly known as Seminole, 208. They constituted 37 families, living in 22 camps, which were gathered into five widely separated groups or settlements. … This people our Government has never been able to conciliate or to conquer. … The Seminole have always lived within our borders as aliens. It is only of late years, and through natural necessities, that any friendly intercourse of white man and Indian has been secured. … The Indians have appropriated for their service some of the products of European civilization, such as weapons, implements, domestic utensils, fabrics for clothing, &c. Mentally, excepting a few religious ideas which they received long ago from the teaching of Spanish missionaries, and, in the southern settlements, excepting some few Spanish words, the Seminole have accepted and appropriated practically nothing from the white man."

_C. MacCauley, The Seminole Indians of Florida (Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1883-84), introduction and chapter 4._

ALSO IN _J. T. Sprague, The Florida War_.

_S. G. Drake, The Aboriginal Races of North America. book 4, chapter 6-21._

See, also, above: MUSKHOGEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Senecas; their name.

"How this name originated is a 'vexata quæstio' among Indo-antiquarians and etymologists. The least plausible supposition is, that the name has any reference to the moralist Seneca. Some have supposed it to be a corruption of the Dutch term for vermillion, cinebar, or cinnabar, under the assumption that the Senecas, being the most warlike of the Five Nations, used that pigment more than the others, and thus gave origin to the name. This hypothesis is supported by no authority. … The name 'Sennecas' first appears on a Dutch map of 1616, and again on Jean de Laet's map of 1633. … It is claimed by some that the word may be derived from 'Sinnekox,' the Algonquin name of a tribe of Indians spoken of in Wassenaer's History of Europe, on the authority of Peter Barentz, who traded with them about the year 1626. … Without assuming to solve the mystery, the writer contents himself with giving some data which may possibly aid others in arriving at a reliable conclusion. [Here follows a discussion of the various forms of name by which the Senecas designated themselves and were known to the Hurons, from whom the Jesuits first heard of them.] By dropping the neuter prefix O, the national title became 'Nan-do-wah-gaah,' or 'The great hill people,' as now used by the Senecas. … If the name Seneca can legitimately be derived from the Seneca word 'Nan-do-wah-gaah' … it can only be done by prefixing 'Son,' as was the custom of the Jesuits, and dropping all unnecessary letters. It would then form the word 'Son-non-do-wa-ga,' the first two and last syllables of which, if the French sounds of the letters are given, are almost identical in pronunciation with Seneca. The chief difficulty, however, would be in the disposal of the two superfluous syllables. They may have been dropped in the process of contraction so common in the composition of Indian words—a result which would be quite likely to occur to a Seneca name, in its transmission through two other languages, the Mohawk and the Dutch. The foregoing queries and suggestions are thrown out for what they are worth, in the absence of any more reliable theory."

_O. H. Marshall, Historical Writings, page 231_

See above: IROQUOIS CONFEDERACY, and HURONS, &c.

See, also, PONTIAC'S WAR.

For an account of Sullivan's expedition against the Senecas,

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1779 (AUGUST-SEPTEMBER).

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Shacaya.

See above: ANDESIANS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Shahaptian Family.

See above: NEZ PERCÉS.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES Shastas.

See above: SASTEAN FAMILY.

AMERICAN ABORIGINES: Shawanese, Shawnees, or Shawanoes.

"Adjacent to the Lenape [or Delawares—see above], and associated with them in some of the most notable passages of their history, dwelt the Shawanoes, the Chaouanons of the French, a tribe of bold, roving, and adventurous spirit. Their eccentric wanderings, their sudden appearances and disappearances, perplex the antiquary, and defy research; but from various scattered notices, we may gather that at an early period they occupied the valley of the Ohio; that, becoming embroiled with the Five Nations, they shared the defeat of the Andastes, and about the year 1672 fled to escape destruction. Some found an asylum in the country of the Lenape, where they lived tenants at will of the Five Nations; others sought refuge in the Carolinas and Florida, where, true to their native instincts, they soon came to blows with the owners of the soil. Again, turning northwards, they formed new settlements in the valley of the Ohio, where they were now suffered to dwell in peace, and where, at a later period, they were joined by such of their brethren as had found refuge among the Lenape."

_F. Parkman, The Conspiracy of Pontiac, chapter 1._

"The Shawnees were not found originally in Ohio, but migrated there after 1750. They were called Chaouanons by the French and Shawanoes by the English. The English name Shawano changed to Shawanee, and recently to Shawnee. Chaouanon and Shawano are obviously attempts to represent the same sound by the orthography of the two respective languages. … Much industry has been used by recent writers, especially by Dr. Brinton, to trace this nomadic tribe to its original home; but I think without success. … We first find the Shawano in actual history about the year 1660, and living along the Cumberland river, or the Cumberland and Tennessee. Among the conjectures as to their earlier history, the greatest probability lies for the present with the earliest account—the account given by Perrot, and apparently obtained by him from the Shawanoes themselves, about the year 1680—that they formerly lived by the lower lakes, and were driven thence by the Five Nations."

_M. F. Force, Some Early Notices of the Indians of Ohio._

"Their [the Shawnee's] dialect is more akin to the Mohegan than to the Delaware, and when, in 1692, they first appeared in the area of the Eastern Algonkin Confederacy, they came as the friends and relatives of the former. They were divided into four bands"—Piqua, properly Pikoweu, Mequachake, Kiscapokoke, Chilicothe. "Of these, that which settled in Pennsylvania was the Pikoweu, who occupied and gave their name to the Pequa valley in Lancaster county. According to ancient Mohegan tradition, the New England Pequods were members of this band."