Part 1185

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1789. Exploring journey of Alexander Mackenzie, for the Northwest Company, and discovery of the great river flowing into the Polar Sea, which bears his name.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1806. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to latitude 81° 30' and longitude 19° east.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Unsatisfactory voyage of Commander John Ross to Baffin Bay and into Lancaster Sound.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1818. Voyage of Captain Buchan towards the North Pole, reaching the northern part of Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1820. First voyage of Lieutenant Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, through Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, Lancaster Sound, and Barrow Strait, to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1822. Journey of Captain (afterwards Sir John) Franklin, Dr. Richardson, and Captain (afterwards Sir George) Back, from Fort York, on the western coast of Hudson Bay, by the way of Lake Athabasca, Great Slave Lake, and Coppermine River, to Coronation Gulf, opening into the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1819-1824. Russian expeditions for the survey of Nova Zembla.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1820-1824. Russian surveys of the Siberian Polar region by Wrangel and Anjou.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1823. Second voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage to the Pacific Ocean, through Hudson Strait and Fox Channel, discovering the Fury-and-Hecla Strait, the northern outlet of the Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1821-1824. Russian surveying expedition to Nova Zembla, under Lieutenant Lutke.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822. Whaling voyage of Captain Scoresby to the eastern coast of Greenland, which was considerably traced and mapped by him.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1822-1823. Scientific expedition of Captain Sabine, with Commander Clavering, to Spitzbergen and the eastern coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1824-1825. Third voyage of Captain Parry, exploring for a northwest passage, by way of Davis Strait, Baffin Bay, and Lancaster Sound, to Prince Regent Inlet, where one of his ships was wrecked.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1825-1827. Second journey of Franklin, Richardson, and Back, from Canada to the Arctic Ocean; Franklin and Back by the Mackenzie River and westward along the coast to longitude 149° 37'; Richardson by the Mackenzie River and the Arctic coast eastward to Coppermine River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1826. Voyage of Captain Beechey through Behring Strait and eastward along the Arctic coast as far as Point Barrow.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1827. Fourth voyage of Captain Parry, attempting to reach the North Pole, by ship to Spitzbergen and by boats to 82° 45' north latitude.

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ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1829-1833. Expedition under Captain Ross, fitted out by Mr. Felix Booth, to seek a northwest passage, resulting in the discovery of the position of the north magnetic pole, southwest of Boothia, not far from which Ross' ship was ice-bound for three years. Abandoning the vessel at last, the explorers made their way to Baffin Bay and were rescued by a whale-ship.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1833-1835. Journey of Captain Back from Canada, via Great Slave Lake, to the river which he discovered and which bears his name, flowing to the Polar Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1836-1837. Voyage of Captain Back for surveying the straits and channels in the northern extremity of Hudson Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1837-1839. Expeditions of Dease and Simpson, in the service of the Hudson Bay Company, determining the Arctic coast line as far east as Boothia.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1845. Departure from England of the government expedition under Sir John Franklin, in two bomb-vessels, the Erebus and the Terror, which entered Baffin Bay in July and were never seen afterward.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848. Expedition of Sir John Richardson and Mr. John Rae down the Mackenzie River, searching for traces of Sir John Franklin and his crews.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1849. Expedition under Sir James Clarke Ross to Baffin Bay and westward as far as Leopold Island, searching for Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1848-1851. Searching expedition of the Herald and the Plover, under Captain Kellett and Commander Moore, through Behring Strait and westward to Coppermine River, learning nothing of the fate of the Franklin party.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850. Searching expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain Forsyth, for the examination of Prince Regent Inlet.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. United States Grinnell Expedition, sent to assist the search for Sir John Franklin and his crew, consisting of two ships, the Advance and the Rescue, furnished by Mr. Henry Grinnell and officered and manned by the U. S. Government, Lieutenant De Haven commanding and Dr. Kane surgeon. Frozen into the ice in Wellington Channel, in September, 1850, the vessels drifted helplessly northward until Grinnell Land was seen and named, then southward and westward until the next June, when they escaped in Baffin Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Franklin search expedition, sent out by the British Government, under Captain Penny, who explored Wellington Channel and Cornwallis Island by sledge journeys.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1851. Discovery of traces of Franklin and his men at Cape Riley and Beechey Island, by Captain Ommaney and Captain Austin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1852. Franklin search expedition under Captain Collinson, through Behring Strait and eastward into Prince of Wales Strait, sending sledge parties to Melville Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1850-1854. Franklin search expedition under Captain McClure, through Behring Strait and westward, between Banks Land and Prince Albert Land, attaining a point within 25 miles of Melville Sound, already reached from the East; thus demonstrating the existence of a northwest passage, though not accomplishing the navigation of it. McClure received knighthood, and a reward of £10,000 was distributed to the officers and crew of the expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851. Expedition of Dr. Rae, sent by the British Government to descend the Coppermine River and search the southern coast of Wollaston Land, which he did, exploring farther along the coast of the continent eastward to a point opposite King William's Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1851-1852. Franklin search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin under Captain Kennedy, for a further examination of Prince Regent Inlet and the surrounding region.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1852-1854. Franklin search expedition of five ships sent out by the British Government under Sir Edward Belcher, with Captains McClintock, Kellett, and Sherard Osborn under his command. Belcher and Osborn, going up Wellington Channel to Northumberland Sound, were frozen fast; McClintock and Kellett experienced the same misfortune near Melville Island, where they had received Captain McClure and his crew, escaping from their abandoned ship. Finally all the ships of Belcher's fleet except one were abandoned. One, the Resolute, drifted out into Davis Strait in 1855, was rescued, bought by the United States Government and presented to Queen Victoria.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1854. Hudson Bay Company expedition by Dr. Rae, to Repulse Bay and Pelly Bay, on the Gulf of Boothia, where Dr. Rae found Eskimos in possession of articles which had belonged to Sir John Franklin, and his men, and was told that in the winter of 1850 they saw white men near King William's Land, traveling southward, dragging sledges and a boat, and, afterwards saw dead bodies and graves on the mainland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1853-1855. Grinnell expedition, under Dr. Kane, proceeding straight northward through Baffin Bay, Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, nearly to the 79th degree of latitude, where the vessel was locked in ice and remained fast until abandoned in the spring of 1855, the party escaping to Greenland and being rescued by an expedition under Lieutenant Hartstein which the American Government had sent to their relief.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Cruise of the U. S. ship Vincennes, Lieutenant John Rodgers commanding, in the Arctic Sea, via Behring Strait to Wrangel Land.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1855. Expedition of Mr. Anderson, of the Hudson Bay Company, down the Great Fish River to Point Ogle at its mouth, seeking traces of the party of Sir John Franklin.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1857-1859. Search expedition sent out by Lady Franklin, under Captain McClintock, which became ice-bound in Melville Bay, August, 1857, and drifted helplessly for eight months, over 1,200 miles; escaped from the ice in April, 1858; refitted in Greenland and returned into Prince Regent Inlet, whence Captain McClintock searched the neighboring regions by sledge journeys, discovering, at last, In King William's Land, not only remains but records of the lost explorers, learning that they were caught in the ice somewhere in or about Peel Sound, September, 1846; that Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of the following June; that the ships were deserted on the 22d of April, 1848, on the northwest coast of King William's Land, and that the survivors, 105 in number, set out for Back or Great Fish River. They perished probably one by one on the way.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1861. Expedition of Dr. Hayes to Smith Sound; wintering on the Greenland side at latitude 78° 17'; crossing the Sound with sledges and tracing Grinnell Land to about 82° 45'.

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ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1860-1862. Expedition of Captain Hall on the whaling ship George Henry, and discovery of relics of Frobisher.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1864-1869. Residence of Captain Hall among the Eskimos on the north side of Hudson Strait and search for further relics of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Tracing of the southern coast of Wrangel Land by Captains Long and Raynor, of the whaling ships Nile and Reindeer.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1867. Transfer of the territory, privileges and rights of the Hudson Bay Company to the Dominion of Canada.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1868. Swedish Polar expedition, directed by Professor Nordenskiöld, attaining latitude 81° 42', on the 18th meridian of east longitude.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869. Yacht voyage of Dr. Hayes to the Greenland coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1869-1870. German Polar expedition, under Captain Koldewey, one vessel of which was crushed, the crew escaping to an ice floe and drifting 1,100 miles, reaching finally a Danish settlement on the Greenland coast, while the other explored the east coast of Greenland to latitude 77°.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1871-1872. Voyage of the steamer Polaris, fitted out by the U. S. Government, under Captain Hall; passing from Baffin Bay, through Smith Sound and Kennedy Channel, into what Kane and Hayes had supposed to be open sea, but which proved to be the widening of a strait, called Robeson Strait by Captain Hall, thus going beyond the most northerly point that had previously been reached in Arctic exploration. Wintering in latitude 81° 38' (where Captain Hall died), the Polaris was turned homeward the following August. During a storm, when the ship was threatened with destruction by the ice, seventeen of her crew and party were left helplessly on a floe, which drifted with them for 1,500 miles, until they were rescued by a passing vessel. Those on the Polaris fared little better. Forced to run their sinking ship ashore, they wintered in huts and made their way south in the spring, until they met whale-ships which took them on board.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1872-1874. Austro-Hungarian expedition, under Captain Weyprecht and Lieutenant Payer, seeking the northeast passage, with the result of discovering and naming Franz Josef Land, Crown Prince Rudolf Land and Petermann Land, the latter (seen, not visited) estimated to be beyond latitude 83°. The explorers were obliged to abandon their ice-locked steamer, and make their way by sledges and boats to Nova Zembla, where they were picked up.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875. Voyage of Captain Young, attempting to navigate the northwest passage through Lancaster Sound, Barrow Strait and Peel Strait, but being turned back by ice in the latter.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1875-1876. English expedition under Captain Nares, in the Alert, and the Discovery, attaining by ship the high latitude of 82° 27', in Smith Sound, and advancing by sledges to 83° 20' 26", while exploring the northern shore of Grinnell Land and the northwest coast of Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1876-1878. Norwegian North-Atlantic expedition, for a scientific exploration of the sea between Norway, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878. Discovery of the island named "Einsamkeit," in latitude 77° 40' North and longitude 860 East, by Captain Johannesen, of the Norwegian schooner Nordland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1879. Final achievement of the long-sought, often attempted northeast passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by the Swedish geographer and explorer, Baron Nordenskiöld, on the steamer Vega, which made the voyage from Gothenburg to Yokohama, Japan, through the Arctic Sea, coasting the Russian and Siberian shores.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1878-1883. Six annual expeditions to the Arctic Seas of the ship Willem Barentz, sent out by the Dutch Arctic Committee.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879. Cruise of Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain Markham, R. N., in the cutter Isbjorn to Nova Zembla and in Barentz Sea and the Kara Sea.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1880. Journey of Lieutenant Schwatka from Hudson Bay to King William Island, and exploration of the western and southern shores of the latter, searching for the journals and logs of the Franklin expedition.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1879-1882. Polar voyage of the Jeannette, fitted out by the proprietor of the New York Herald and commanded by Commander De Long, United States Navy. The course taken by the Jeannette was through Behring Strait towards Wrangel Land, and then northerly, until she became ice-bound when she drifted helplessly for nearly two years, only to be crushed at last. The officers and crew escaped in three boats, one of which was lost in a storm; the occupants of the other two boats reached different mouths of the river Lena. One of these two boats, commanded by Engineer Melville, was fortunate enough to find a settlement and obtain speedy relief. The other, which contained commander De Long, landed in a region of desolation, and all but two of its occupants perished of starvation and cold.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. First and second cruises of the United States Revenue Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean, via Behring Strait, to Wrangel Land seeking information concerning the Jeannette and searching for two missing whaling ships.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1880-1882. Two voyages of Mr. Leigh Smith to Franz Josef Land, in his yacht Eira, in the first of which a considerable exploration of the southern coast was made, while the second resulted in the loss of the ship and a perilous escape of the party in boats to Nova Zembla, where they were rescued.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Expedition of the steamer Rodgers to search for the missing explorers of the Jeannette; entering the Arctic Sea through Behring Strait, but abruptly stopped by the burning of the Rodgers, on the 30th of November, in St. Lawrence Bay.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881. Cruise of the United States Alliance, Commander Wadleigh, via Spitzbergen, to 79° 3' 36" north latitude, searching for the Jeannette.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1881-1884. International undertaking of expeditions to establish Arctic stations for simultaneous meteorological and magnetic observations: by the United States at Smith Sound and Point Barrow; by Great Britain at Fort Rae; by Russia at the mouth of the Lena and in Nova Zembla; by Denmark at Godhaab, in Greenland; by Holland at Dickson's Haven, near the mouth of the Yenisei; by Germany in Cumberland Sound, Davis Strait; by Austro-Hungary on Jan Mayen Island; by Sweden at Mussel Bay in Spitzbergen. The United States expedition to Smith Sound, under Lieutenant Greeley, established its station on Discovery Bay. Exploring parties sent out attained the highest latitude ever reached, namely 83° 24'. After remaining two winters and failing to receive expected supplies, which had been intercepted by the ice, Greeley and his men, twenty-five in number, started southward, and all but seven perished on the way. The survivors were rescued, in the last stages of starvation, by a vessel sent to their relief under Captain Schley, United States Navy.

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ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1882-1883. Danish Arctic expedition of the Dijmphna, under Lieutenant Hovgaard; finding the Varna of the Dutch Meteorological Expedition beset in the ice at 69° 42' North latitude and 64° 45' East longitude; both vessels becoming frozen in together and drifting for nearly twelve months, being carried to 71° North; the Dijmphna taking the crew of the Varna, which succumbed to the ice pressure and went down; the Danish ship finally being liberated, August 1, 1893, and regaining Vardo, Norway, in October of that year.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Lieutenant Ray, United States Navy, from Point Barrow, on the Arctic Ocean, to Meade River.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883. Expedition of Baron Nordenskiöld to Greenland, making important explorations in the interior, but failing to find the temperate central valleys which the Baron's theoretical studies had led him to expect.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1883-1885. East Greenland expedition of Captain Holm and Lieutenant Garde, surveying and mapping the coast from 59° 49' to 68° 45' North latitude, and studying its geology, meteorology and natural history.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1884. Second cruise of the U. S. Revenue Marine Steamer Corwin in the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1886. Reconnoissance of the Greenland inland ice by Civil Engineer R. E. Peary, United States Navy, "to gain a practical knowledge of the obstacles and ice conditions of the interior," and "to put to the test of actual use certain methods and details of equipment."

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1888. Journey of Dr. Nansen across South Greenland, from the icebound eastern coasts to the Danish settlements on the western.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, under G. Nordenskiöld and Baron Klinkowström.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Danish scientific explorations in North and South Greenland.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1890. Russian exploration of the Malo-Zemelskaya, or Timanskaya tundra, in the far north of European Russia, on the Arctic Ocean.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary, United States Navy, with a party of seven persons, including Mrs. Peary, establishing headquarters on McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison Sound, north west Greenland; thence making sledge journeys to the northeastern coast of Greenland, at Independence Bay and northward from it to latitude 82°, and following the coast southward to Cape Bismarck. The surveys of Lieutenant Peary have gone far toward proving Greenland to be an island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1892. Danish East Greenland expedition of Lieutenant Ryder, wintering on Denmark Island in Scoresby's Sound, from which boat journeys were made and the interior ramifications of the Sound surveyed and mapped.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1891-1893. Expeditions of Dr. Drygalski to Greenland for the study of the movement of the great glaciers.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. Swedish expedition of Bjorling and Kallstenius, the last records of which were found on one of the Cary Islands, in Baffin Bay, in the autumn of 1892.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1892. French expedition under M. Ribot to explore the islands of Spitzbergen and Jan Mayen.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Expedition of Dr. Nansen, who sailed June 24, in the Fram from Christiania, for the New Siberian Islands, thence aiming to enter a current which flows, in Dr. Nansen's belief, across the Arctic region to Greenland, touching the North Pole, or nearly, in its course.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Russian expedition, under Baron Toll, to the New Siberian Islands and the Siberian Arctic coasts.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893. Danish expedition to Greenland, under Lieutenant Garde, for a geographical survey of the coast and study of the inland ice.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Expedition of Lieutenant Peary and party (Mrs. Peary again of the number), landing in Bowdoin Bay, Inglefield Gulf, north of McCormick Harbor, in August, 1893; attempting in the following March a sledge journey with dogs to Independence Bay, but compelled to turn back when no more than a quarter of the distance had been traversed. An auxiliary expedition brought back most of the party to Philadelphia in September, 1894; but Lieutenant Peary with two men remained in Greenland to continue explorations.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1893-1894. Scientific journey of Mr. Frank Russell, under the auspices of the State University of Iowa, from Lake Winnipeg to the mouth of Mackenzie River and to Herschel Island.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Expedition of Mr. Walter Wellman, an American journalist, purposing to reach Spitzbergen via Norway, and to advance thence towards the Pole, with aluminum boats, weighing only 400 pounds each, and provided with runners for use on the ice. The party left Tromsoë May 1, but were arrested before the end of the month by the crushing of their vessel in the ice at Walden. They were picked up and brought back to Norway.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1894. Departure of what is known as the Jackson-Harmsworth North Polar Expedition, which sailed from Greenhithe, in England, July 11, under the command of Mr. F. G. Jackson, Mr. Harmsworth equipping the expedition at his personal cost. Its plan is to make Franz Josef Land a base of operations from which to advance carefully and persistently towards the Pole.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: 1895. Preparations of Herr Julius von Payer, the explorer of Franz Josef Land, for an artistic and scientific expedition to the east coast of Greenland, in which he will be accompanied by landscape and animal painters, photographers, and savants.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION: End--------

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, The Constitution of.

See CONSTITUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (page 511).

ARMENIA, Atrocities in.

See TURKS: A. D. 1895 (page 3157).

ARYAN NATIONS OF EUROPE.

See EUROPE (page 990, and after).

ASCHAM, Roger, and "The Scholemaster."

See EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE (page 708).

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ASCLEPIADÆ, The.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, GREEK (page 2124).

ASIA MINOR, Missionary journeys of St. Paul in.

See CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-100 (page 436).

ASOKA, and the rise of Buddhism.

See INDIA: B. C. 312 (page 1704).

ASSIGNATS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.

See MONEY AND BANKING: A. D. 1789-1796 (page 2212).

ASSYRIAN EDUCATION, Ancient.

See EDUCATION, ANCIENT (page 674).

ASSYRIAN LIBRARIES.

See LIBRARIES, ANCIENT (page 2000).