Part 1181

ZINZENDORF, Count, and the Moravian Brethren.

See MORAVIAN OR BOHEMIAN BRETHREN.

ZION.

See JERUSALEM: CONQUEST AND OCCUPATION BY DAVID.

ZNAIM, Armistice of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

ZOAN. TANIS. SAN.

These are the names which, at different periods, have been given to an ancient city near the northeastern borders of Egypt, the ruins of which have been identified and are being explored, on the east bank of the canal that was formerly the Tanitic branch of the Nile. Both in Egyptian history and Biblical history Zoan was an important place. "The whole period of the Hebrew sojourn is closely interwoven with the history of Zoan. Here ruled the king in whose name Egypt was governed by the Hebrew, who was no less than regent; here ruled those who still favoured the people of Israel. Under the great Oppression, Zoan was a royal residence."

_R. S. Poole, Cities of Egypt, chapter 5._

ALSO IN: _W. M. F. Petrie, Tanis (2d Mem., Egypt Expl. Fund)._

See, also, JEWS: THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL IN EGYPT.

ZOBAH, Kingdom of.

A kingdom of brief importance, extending from the Orontes to the Euphrates, which appears among the allies of the Ammonites, in their war with David King of Israel.

_H. Ewald, Lectures on the History of Israel, volume 3, pages 150-152._

ZOE AND THEODORA, Empresses in the East (Byzantine, or Greek). A. D. 1042.

ZOHAR, The.

See CABALA.

ZOHARITES, The.

A singular Jewish sect which sprang up in Poland during the seventeenth century, taking its name from the Zohar, one of the books of the Cabala, on which it founded its faith.

_H. H. Milman, History of the Jews. book 28._

ZOLLPARLAMENT, The.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866-1870.

ZOLLVEREIN, The German.

See TARIFF LEGISLATION AND CONVENTIONS (GERMANY): A. D. 1833. Also (in Supplement) GERMANY: A. D. 1815-1848.

ZOQUES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZAPOTECS. etc.

ZORNDORF, Battle or.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1758.

ZOROASTRIANS. MAGIANS. PARSEES.

"The Iranians were in ancient times the dominant race throughout the entire tract lying between the Suliman mountains and the Pamir steppe on the one hand, and the great Mesopotamian valley on the other. … At a time which it is difficult to date, but which those best skilled in Iranian antiquities are inclined to place before the birth of Moses, there grew up, in the region whereof we are speaking, a form of religion marked by very special and unusual features. … Ancient tradition associates this religion with the name of Zoroaster. Zoroaster, or Zarathrustra, according to the native spelling, was, by one account, a Median king who conquered Babylon about B. C. 2458. By another, which is more probable, and which rests, moreover, on better authority, he was a Bactrian, who, at a date not quite so remote, came forward in the broad plain of the middle Oxus to instil into the minds of his countrymen the doctrines and precepts of a new religion. … His religion gradually spread from 'happy Bactra,' 'Bactra of the lofty banner,' first to the neighbouring countries, and then to all the numerous tribes of the Iranians, until at last it became the established religion of the mighty empire of Persia, which, in the middle of the 6th century before our era, established itself on the ruins of the Assyrian and Babylonian kingdoms, and shortly afterwards overran and subdued the ancient monarchy of the Pharaohs. In Persia it maintained its ground, despite the shocks of Grecian and Parthian conquest, until Mohammedan intolerance drove it out at the point of the sword, and forced it to seek a refuge further east, in the peninsula of Hindustan. Here it still continues, in Guzerat and in Bombay, the creed of that ingenious and intelligent people known to Anglo-Indians—and may we not say to Englishmen generally?—as Parsees [see PARSEES]. The religion of the Parsees is contained in a volume of some size, which has received the name of 'the Zendavesta.' … 'Anquetil Duperron introduced the sacred book of the Parsees to the knowledge of Europeans under this name; and the word thus introduced can scarcely be now displaced. {3667} Otherwise, 'Avesta-Zend' might be recommended as the more proper title. 'Avesta' means 'text,' and Zend means 'comment.' 'Avesta u Zend,' or 'Text and Comment,' is the proper title, which is then contracted into 'Avesta-Zend.' … Subjected for the last fifty years to the searching analysis of first-rate orientalists—Burnouf, Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug, Windischmann, Hübschmann,—this work has been found to belong in its various parts to very different dates, and to admit of being so dissected as to reveal to us, not only what are the tenets of the modern Parsees, but what was the earliest form of that religion whereof theirs is the remote and degenerate descendant. Signs of a great antiquity are found to attach to the language of certain rhythmical compositions called Gâthâs or hymns; and the religious ideas contained in these are found to be at once harmonious, and also of a simpler and more primitive character than those contained in the rest of the volume. From the Gâthâs chiefly, but also to some extent from other, apparently very ancient, portions of the Zendavesta, the characteristics of the early Iranian religion have been drawn out by various scholars, particularly by Dr. Martin Haug. … The most striking feature of the religion, and that which is generally allowed to be its leading characteristic, is the assertion of Dualism. By Dualism we mean the belief in two original uncreated principles, a principle of good and a principle of evil. … Both principles were real persons, possessed of will, intelligence, power, consciousness, and other personal qualities. To the one they gave the name of Ahura-Mazda, to the other that of Angro-Mainyus. … The names themselves sufficiently indicated to those who first used them the nature of the two beings. Ahura-Mazda was the 'all-bountiful, all-wise, living being' or 'spirit,' who stood at the head of all that was good and lovely, beautiful and delightful. Angro-Mainyus was the 'dark and gloomy intelligence' that had from the first been Ahura-Mazda's enemy, and was bent on thwarting and vexing him. And with these fundamental notions agreed all that the sacred books taught concerning either being. … The two great beings who thus divided between them the empire of the universe were neither of them content to be solitary. Each had called into existence a number of inferior spirits, who acknowledged their sovereignty, fought on their side, and sought to execute their behests. At the head of the good spirits subject to Ahura-Mazda stood a band of six dignified with the title of Amesha-Spentas, or 'Immortal Holy Ones.' … In direct antithesis to these stood the band, likewise one of six, which formed the council and chief support of Angro-Mainyus. … Besides these leading spirits there was marshalled on either side an innumerable host of lesser and subordinate ones, called respectively 'ahuras' and 'devas,' who constituted the armies or attendants of the two great powers, and were employed by them to work out their purposes. The leader of the angelic hosts, or 'ahuras' was a glorious being, called Sraosha or Serosh—'the good, tall, fair Serosh,' who stood in the Zoroastrian system where Michael the Archangel stands in the Christian. … Neither Ahura-Mazda nor the Amesha-Spentas were represented by the early Iranians under any material forms. The Zoroastrian system was markedly anti-idolatrous: and the utmost that was allowed the worshipper was an emblematic representation of the Supreme Being by means of a winged circle, with which was occasionally combined an incomplete human figure, robed and wearing a tiara. … The position of man in the cosmic scheme was determined by the fact that he was among the creations of Ahura-Mazda. Formed and placed on earth by the Good Being, he was bound to render him implicit obedience, and to oppose to the utmost Angro-Mainyus and his creatures. His duties might be summed up under the four heads of piety, purity, industry, and veracity. Piety was to be shown by an acknowledgment of Ahura-Mazda as the One True God, by a reverential regard for the Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower angels, by the frequent offering of prayers, praises, and thanksgivings, the recitation of hymns, the occasional sacrifice of animals, and the performance from time to time of a curious ceremony known as that of the Haoma or Homa [see SOMA.—HAOMA). … The purity required of the Iranians was inward as well as outward. … The duty of veracity was inculcated perhaps more strenuously than any other. … If it be asked what opinions were entertained by the Zoroastrians concerning man's ultimate destiny, the answer would seem to be, that they were devout and earnest believers in the immortality of the soul, and a conscious future existence. … The religion of the early Iranians became corrupted after a time by an admixture of foreign superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster, as they spread themselves from their original seat upon the Oxus over the regions lying south and south-west of the Caspian Sea, were brought into contact with a form of faith considerably different from that to which they had previously been attached, yet well adapted for blending with it. This was Magism, or the worship of the elements [see MAGIANS). The early inhabitants of Armenia, Cappadocia, and the Zagros mountain-range, had, under circumstances that are unknown to us, developed this form of religion, and had associated with its tenets a priest-caste. … The four elements, fire, air, earth, and water, were recognised as the only proper objects of human reverence. … When the Zoroastrians came into contact with Magism, it impressed them favourably. … The result was that, without giving up any part of their previous creed, the Iranians adopted and added on to it an the principal points of the Magian belief, and all the more remarkable of the Magian religious usages. This religious fusion seems first to have taken place in Media. The Magi became a Median tribe, and were adopted as the priest-caste of the "Median nation." This "produced an amalgam that has shown a surprising vitality, having lasted above 2,000 years—from the time of Xerxes, the son of Darius Hystaspis (B. C. 485-465) to the present day."

_G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chapter 3._

"As the doctrines of Zoroaster bear in several points such a striking resemblance to those of Christianity, it is a question of grave importance to ascertain the age in which he lived. … Since there can be no doubt that … we must assign to Zarathustra Spitama a date prior to the Median conquest of Babylon by a Zoroastrian priest king, the only question remaining to be solved is, whether he lived only a short time, or long, before that event. {3668} I am inclined to believe that he lived only about 100 or 200 years before that time, and that the conquest of Babylon was one of the last consequences of the great religious enthusiasm kindled by him. He preached, like Moses, war and destruction to all idolaters and wicked men. … According to this investigation we cannot assign to Zarathustra Spitama a later date than about 2300 B. C. Thus he lived not only before Moses, but even, perhaps, before Abraham. … He was the first prophet of truth who appeared in the world, and kindled a fire which thousands of years could not entirely extinguish."

_M. Haug, Lectures on an Original Speech of Zoroaster (Yasna 45), pages 17, 26._

_M. Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings and Religion of the Parsees._

"Prof. Darmesteter has published a new translation [of the Zend Avesta] with a most ably written introduction, in which he maintains the thesis that not a line of our Avesta text is older than the time of Alexander's conquest, while the greater part belongs to a much later date. We may briefly remind our readers that, according to the traditional view, the old Zoroastrian books, which belong to the times of the Achæmenidæ, were destroyed at the Macedonian conquest, but that portions were preserved by the people, who retained the old faith, during the long period of the Arsacidan rule, though the Court favoured Greek civilization. … According to this view, we still possess the genuine remains of the old pre-Alexandrine literature, mutilated and corrupted during the period of Arsacidan indifference, but yet, so far as they go, a faithful representative of the sacred text of the Achæmenian time. … Professor Darmesteter, on the contrary, maintains that all our texts are post-Alexandrine in form and in substance. Some may belong to the 1st century B. C. or A. D., and some, as the legislative parts of the Vendidad, may be founded on older texts now lost; but a large portion was composed by the priests of Ardashir's Court in the 3d century. The Gâthâs, which till now have been generally considered as the ancient nucleus of the whole system and ascribed to Zoroaster himself, are, in the Professor's opinion, certainly modern, and are relegated to the 1st century of our era."

_The Athenæum, June 30, 1894_

ALSO IN: _W. Geiger, Civilization of the Eastern Iranians._

_W. Geiger, and F. von Spiegel, The Age of the Avesta._

_D. F. Karaka, History of the Parsis._

_S. Johnson, Oriental Religions: Persia._

ZOTTS.

See GYPSIES.

ZOUAVES, The.

During the wars of the French in Algeria, there arose a body of soldiers "who, both in the campaign in Algeria and in the contest in the Crimea, have acquired the very highest renown. The name of the Zouaves will never be forgotten as long as the story of the siege of Sebastopol endures. … They were originally intended to be regiments composed of Frenchmen who had settled in Algeria, or their descendants; but the intermixture of foreigners in their ranks ere long became so considerable, that when they were transported to the shores of the Crimea, though the majority were French, they were rather an aggregate of the 'Dare-devils' of all nations. In their ranks at Sebastopol were some that held Oxford degrees, many those of Göttingen and Paris, crowds who had been ruined at the gaming-table, not a few who had fled from justice, or sought escape from the consequences of an amorous adventure. Yet had this motley crowd, composed of the most daring and reckless of all nations, become, in the rude school of the wars in Algeria, an incomparable body of soldiers, second to none in the world in every military duty, perhaps superior to any in the vehemence and rush of an assault."

_Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1815-1852, chapter 45._

ZÜLPICH, Battle of (A. D. 496).

See ALEMANNI: A. D. 496-504; also FRANKS: A. D. 481-511.

ZULUS, AMAZULU. The Zulu War.

See SOUTH AFRICA: ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS: and SOUTH AFRICA, A. D. 1877-1879.

ZUÑI.

See AMERICA, PREHISTORIC; also AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ZUÑIAN FAMILY, and PUEBLOS.

ZURICH: A. D. 1519-1524. Beginning of the Swiss Reformation, under Zwingli.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZURICH: A. D. 1799. Battle of French and Russians. Carnage in the city.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (AUGUST-DECEMBER).

ZURICH, Treaty of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1572. Massacre by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1572-1573.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1586. Battle of English and Spaniards. Death of Sir Philip Sidney.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1585-1586.

ZUTPHEN: A. D. 1591. Capture by Prince Maurice.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1588-1593.

ZUYDERZEE, Naval battle on the (1573).

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1573-1574.

ZWINGLI, and the Swiss Reformation.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1519-1524; and SWITZERLAND: A. D. 1528-1531.

ZYP, Battle of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1799 (APRIL-SEPTEMBER).

{3669}

SUPPLEMENT.

This Supplement contains:

1. Some passages translated from German and French writings, touching matters less competently treated in the body of the work, where the compilation is restricted to "the literature of history in the English language," either originally or in published translations.

2. Some postscripts on recent events, and some excerpts from recent books.

3. Treatment of some topics that were omitted from their places in the body of the work, either intentionally or by accident, and which it seems best to include.

4. Some cross-references needed to complete the subject-indexing of the work throughout.

5. A complete series of chronological tables, by centuries.

6. A series of dynastic genealogies, in a form different from the usual plan of their construction, and which, it is hoped, may be found more easily intelligible.

7. Select bibliographies, partly annotated, of several of the more important fields of history.

8. A full list of the works quoted from in this compilation of "History for Ready Reference and Topical Reading," with the names of the publishers.

The selections and translations from the German, excepting Bismarck's speeches, have been made by Ernest F. Henderson, A. M., Ph. D., author of "A History of Germany in the Middle Ages." Mr. Henderson has also prepared and annotated the bibliography of German and French writings.

A --------

ABELARD AND THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL (page 692).

ABHORRERS.

Charles II. and his court, in England, were troubled about 1680 with numerous petitions for the calling of parliament. "As the king found no law by which he could punish those importunate, and, as he deemed them, undutiful solicitations, he was obliged to encounter them by popular applications of a contrary tendency. Wherever the church and court party prevailed, addresses were framed, containing expressions of the highest regard to his majesty, the most entire acquiescence in his wisdom, the most dutiful submission to his prerogative, and the deepest abhorrence of those who endeavoured to encroach upon it, by prescribing to him any time for assembling the parliament. Thus the nation came to be distinguished into 'petitioners' and 'abhorrers.'"

_D. Hume, History of England, chapter 68._

ACCAD. ACCADIANS.

See SEMITES: PRIMITIVE BABYLONIA (page 2888).

ADAIS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ADAIS (page 77).

ADAMS, John Quincy. His defense of the right of petition.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1842 (page 3378).

ADELBERT COLLEGE.

See EDUCATION (page 743).

ADMIRALTY LAW, History of.

See LAW (page 1955).

ADVENTURERS, Merchant.

See MERCHANT ADVENTURERS (page 2153).

AFRICA: Start--------

AFRICA. A chronological record of European Exploration, Missionary Settlement, Colonization and Occupation.

AFRICA: 1415. Conquest of Ceuta by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1434-1461. Portuguese explorations down the western coast, from Cape Bojador to Cape Mesurado, in Liberia, under the direction of Prince Henry, called the Navigator.

AFRICA: 1442. First African slaves brought into Europe by one of the ships of the Portuguese-Prince Henry.

AFRICA: 1471-1482. Portuguese explorations carried beyond the Guinea Coast, and to the Gold Coast, where the first settlement was established, at El Mina.

AFRICA: 1482. Discovery of the mouth of the Zaire or Congo by the Portuguese explorer, Diogo Cao, or Diego Cam.

AFRICA: 1485-1596. Establishment of Roman Catholic missions on the western coast, and creation, by Pope Clement VIII., of the diocese of Mbazi (San Salvador), embracing Congo, Angola and Benguela.

AFRICA: 1486. Unconscious rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz.

AFRICA: 1490-1527. Visit to Abyssinia of Pedro da Covilhão, or Covilham, the Portuguese explorer.

AFRICA: 1497. Voyage of Vasco da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope to India.

{3670}

AFRICA: 1505-1508. Portuguese settlements and fortified stations' established on the eastern coast, from Sofala to Zanzibar.

AFRICA: 1506. Discovery of Madagascar by the Portuguese.

AFRICA: 1520-1527. Portuguese embassy to Abyssinia, narrated by Father Alvarez.

AFRICA: 1552-1553. Beginning of English voyages to the Guinea and Gold Coasts.

AFRICA: 1560. French trading to the Senegal and Gambia begun.

AFRICA: 1562. First slave-trading voyage of Sir John Hawkins to the Guinea Coast.

AFRICA: 1569. Expedition of Barreto up the Zambesi from its mouth to Sena and beyond.

AFRICA: 1578. Founding of St. Paul de Loando, the capital of the Portuguese possessions on the west coast.

AFRICA: 1582 (about). Founding of the French post, St. Louis, at the mouth of the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1588. First (English) African Company chartered by Queen Elizabeth.

AFRICA: 1595. Opening of trade on the western coast by the Dutch.

AFRICA: 1618-1621. Exploration of the River Gambia by George Thompson and Captain Richard Jobson, for the Royal Niger Company of England.

AFRICA: 1625. Jesuit mission of Father Lobo and his companions to Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1637. Visit of Claude Jannequin, Sieur de Rochfort, to the River Senegal.

AFRICA: 1644. Fort Dauphin founded by the French in the island of Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1652. Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope.

AFRICA: 1662. British African Company chartered by Charles II. and fort built on the Gambia.

AFRICA: 1664-1684. Wars of France with the Algerines.

AFRICA: 1681-1683. Brandenburg African Company formed by "the Great Elector"; settlements established and trade opened on the western coast.

AFRICA: 1694-1724. Explorations of the River Senegal and interior by André Brue, the French governor, for the Royal Senegal Company.

AFRICA: 1698. Arab conquests from the Portuguese on the eastern coast, breaking their ascendancy.

AFRICA: 1702-1717. Captivity of Robert Drury in Madagascar.

AFRICA: 1723. Exploration of the Gambia by Captain Bartholomew Stibbs, for the English Royal African Company.

AFRICA: 1736. Moravian Mission planted on the Gold Coast.

AFRICA: 1737. Moravian Mission planted by George Schmidt among the Hottentots; suppressed by the Dutch government in 1744, and revived in 1792.

AFRICA: 1754. Substantial beginning of the domination in Madagascar of the Hovas, a people of Malay origin.

AFRICA: 1758. British conquest of the French establishments on the Senegal.

AFRICA: 1761-1762. Dutch expedition from Cape Colony beyond the Orange River into Namaqualand.

AFRICA: 1768-1763. Journey of James Bruce to the fountains of the Blue Nile in Abyssinia.

AFRICA: 1774. Founding of a French colony in Madagascar by Count Benyowsky.

AFRICA: 1775-1776. Explorations of Andrew Sparrman from Cape Town to Great Fish River.

AFRICA: 1778. Cession by Portugal to Spain of the island of Fernando Po.

AFRICA: 1779. Recovery of Senegal from the English by the French.

AFRICA: 1781-1785. Travels of M. Le Vaillant from the Cape of Good Hope into the interior of South Africa, among the Hottentots and Kafirs.

AFRICA: 1787. Founding of the English settlement for freed slaves at Sierra Leone.