Part 1006

Tolosa, modern Toulouse, was the chief town of the Volcæ Tectosages (see VOLCÆ, THE), a Gallic tribe which occupied the upper basin of the Garonne, between the western prolongation of the Cevennes and the eastern Pyrenees. Some time before 106 B. C. the Romans had formed an alliance with the Tectosages which enabled them to place a garrison in Tolosa; but the people had tired of the arrangement, had risen against the garrison and had put the soldiers in chains. On that provocation, Q. Servilius Cæpio, one of the consuls of the year 106, advanced upon the town, found traitors to admit him within its gates, and sacked it as a Roman general knew how to do. He found a great treasure of gold in Tolosa, the origin of which has been the subject of much dispute. The treasure was sent off under escort to Massilia, but disappeared on the way, its escort being attacked and slain. Consul Cæpio was accused of the robbery; there was a great scandal and prosecution at Rome, and "Aurum Tolosanum"—"the gold of Toulouse"—became a proverbial expression, applied to ill-gotten wealth.

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 2, chapter 1._

TOULOUSE: A. D. 410-509. The Gothic kingdom.

See GOTHS (VISIGOTHS): A. D. 410-419, and after.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 721. Repulse of the Moslems.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 781. Made a county of Aquitaine.

See AQUITAINE: A. D. 781.

TOULOUSE: 10-11th Centuries. The rise of the Counts.

The counts of Toulouse "represented an earlier line of dukes of Aquitaine, successors of the dukes of Gothia or Septimania, under whom the capital of southern Gaul had been not Poitiers but Toulouse, Poitou itself counting as a mere underfief. In the latter half of the tenth century these dukes of Gothia or Aquitania Prima, as the Latin chroniclers sometimes called them from the Old Roman name of their country, had seen their ducal title transferred to the Poitevin lords of Aquitania Secunda—the dukes of Aquitaine with whom we have had to deal. But the Poitevin overlordship was never fully acknowledged by the house of Toulouse; and this latter in the course of the following century again rose to great importance and distinction, which reached its height in the person of Count Raymond IV., better known as Raymond of St. Gilles, from the name of the little county which had been his earliest possession. From that small centre his rule gradually spread over the whole territory of the ancient dukes of Septimania. In the year of the Norman conquest of England [1066] Rouergue, which was held by a younger branch of the house of Toulouse, lapsed to the elder line; in [1088] the year after the Conqueror's death Raymond came into possession of Toulouse itself; in 1094 he became, in right of his wife, owner of half the Burgundian county of Provence. His territorial influence was doubled by that of his personal fame; he was one of the chief heroes of the first Crusade; and when he died in 1105 he left to his son Bertrand, over and above his Aquitanian heritage, the Syrian county of Tripoli. On Bertrand's death in 1112 these possessions were divided, his son Pontius succeeding him as count of Tripoli, and surrendering his claims upon Toulouse to his uncle Alfonso Jordan, a younger son of Raymond of St. Gilles. Those claims, however, were disputed. Raymond's elder brother, Count William IV., had left an only daughter who, after a childless marriage with King Sancho Ramirez of Aragon, became the wife of Count William VIII. of Poitou. From that time forth it became a moot point whether the lord of St. Gilles or the lord of Poitiers was the rightful count of Toulouse. … With all these shiftings and changes of ownership the kings of France had never tried to interfere. Southern Gaul—'Aquitaine' in the wider sense—was a land whose internal concerns they found it wise to leave as far as possible untouched."

_K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, volume I, chapter 10._

See, also, BURGUNDY: A. D. 1032.

TOULOUSE: 12th Century. The joyous court.

See PROVENCE: A. D. 1179-1207.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1209. The beginning of the Albigensian Crusades.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1209.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1213. Conquest by Simon de Montfort and his crusaders.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1210-1213.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1229-1271. End of the reign of the Counts.

See ALBIGENSES: A. D. 1217-1229.

TOULOUSE: A. D. 1814. The last battle of the Peninsular War. Occupation of the city by the English.

See SPAIN: A. D. 1812-1814.

TOURCOIGN, Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

TOURNAY: A. D. 1513. Capture by the English.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1513-1515.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1581. Siege and capture by the Spaniards.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1581-1584.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1583. Submission to Spain.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1584-1585.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1667. Taken by the French.

See NETHERLANDS (THE SPANISH PROVINCES): A. D. 1667.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1668. Ceded to France.

See NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1668.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1709. Siege and reduction by Marlborough and Prince Eugene.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1708-1709.

{3119}

TOURNAY: A. D. 1713. Ceded to Holland.

See UTRECHT: A. D. 1712-1714; and NETHERLANDS (HOLLAND): A. D. 1713-1715.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1745-1748. Siege. Battle of Fontenoy and surrender to the French. Restoration at the Peace.

See NETHERLANDS (AUSTRIAN PROVINCES): A. D. 1745; and AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, THE CONGRESS.

TOURNAY: A. D. 1794. Battles near the city. Surrender to the French.

FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY).

TOURNAY: End--------

TOURNEY. TOURNAMENT. JOUST.

"The word tourney, sometimes tournament, and in Latin 'torneamentum,' clearly indicates both the French origin of these games and the principal end of that exercise, the art of manœuvring, of turning ('tournoyer') his horse skilfully, to strike his adversary and shield himself at the same time from his blows. The combats, especially those of the nobility, were always fought on horseback, with the lance and sharp sword; the knight presented himself, clothed in armour which covered his whole body, and which, while it preserved him from wounds, bent to every movement and retarded those of his war horse. It was important, therefore, that constant exercise should accustom the knight's limbs to the enormous weight which he must carry, and the horse to the agility which was expected of him. In a 'passage' or 'pass of arms' ('passage' or 'pas d'armes') the generic name of all those games, this exercise was composed of two parts: the joust, which was a single combat of knight against knight, both clothed in all their arms, and the tourney, which was the image of a general battle, or the encounter and evolutions of two troops of cavalry equal in number."

_J. C. L. de Sismondi, France under the Feudal System (Translated by W. Bellingham), chapter 8._

TOURS: A. D. 732. Defeat of the Moors by Charles Martel.

See MAHOMETAN CONQUEST: A. D. 715-732; also, FRANKS: A. D. 511-752.

TOURS: A. D. 1870. Seat of a part of the provisional Government of National Defense.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1870 (SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER).

TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, The career of.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1632-1803.

TOWER AND SWORD, The Order of the.

This was an order of knighthood founded in Portugal by Alfonso V., who reigned from 1438 to 1481. "The institution of the order related to a sword reputed to be carefully guarded in a tower of the city of Fez: respecting it there was a prophecy that it must one day come into the possession of a Christian king; in other words, that the Mohammedan empire of northwestern Africa would be subverted by the Christians. Alfonso seemed to believe that he was the destined conqueror."

_S. A. Dunham. History of Spain and Portugal, volume 3, page 225 (American edition)._

TOWER OF LONDON, The.

"Built originally by the Conqueror to curb London, afterwards the fortress-palace of his descendants, and in the end the State prison, from which a long procession of the ill-starred great went forth to lay their heads on the block on Tower Hill; while State murders, like those of Henry VI. and the two young sons of Edward IV., were done in the dark chambers of the Tower itself."

_Goldwin Smith, A Trip to England, page 56._

"Even as to length of days, the Tower has no rival among palaces and prisons. … Old writers date it from the days of Caesar; a legend taken up by Shakspeare and the poets in favour of which the name of Caesar's Tower remains in popular use to this very day. A Roman wall can even yet be traced near some parts of the ditch. The Tower is mentioned in the Saxon Chronicle, in a way not incompatible with the fact of a Saxon stronghold having stood upon the spot. The buildings as we have them now in block and plan were commenced by William the Conqueror; and the series of apartments in Caesar's Tower [the great Norman keep now called the White Tower]—hall, gallery, council chamber, chapel—were built in the early Norman reigns and used as a royal residence by all our Norman kings."

_W. H. Dixon, Her Majesty's Tower, chapter 1._

"We are informed by the 'Textus Roffensis' that the present Great or White Tower was constructed by Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, under the direction of King William I., who was suspicious of the fidelity of the citizens. The date assigned by Stow is 1078."

_J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, Memoirs of the Tower of London, chapter 1._

ALSO IN: _Lord de Ros, Memorials of the Tower._

TOWN.

"Burh, burgh, borough, in its various spellings and various shades of meaning, is our native word for urbes of every kind from Rome downward: It is curious that this word should in ordinary speech have been so largely displaced by the vaguer word tun, town, which means an enclosure of any kind, and in some English dialects is still applied to a single house and its surroundings."

_E. A. Freeman, City and Borough (Macmillan's Magazine, May, 1889)._

See, also, TOWNSHIP; BOROUGH; GUILDS; and COMMUNE.

TOWNSHEND MEASURES, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1766-1767.

TOWNSHIP.

"In recent historical writing dealing with Anglo-Saxon conditions, a great place has been occupied by the 'township.' The example was set sixty years ago by Palgrave; but it does not seem to have been generally followed until in 1874 Dr. Stubbs gave the word a prominent place in his 'Constitutional History.' With Dr. Stubbs the 'township' was 'the unit of the constitutional machinery or local administration'; and since then most writers on constitutional and legal history have followed in the same direction. … The language commonly used in this connection need not, perhaps, necessarily be understood as meaning that the phenomenon which the writers have in mind was actually known to the Saxons themselves as a 'township' ('tunscipe'). It may be said that 'township' is merely a modern name which it is convenient to apply to it. Yet, certainly, that language usually suggests that it was under that name that the Saxons knew it. … It is therefore of some interest, at least for historical terminology,—and possibly for other and more important reasons,—to point out that there is no good foundation in Anglo-Saxon sources for such a use of the term; that 'tunscipe' in the few places where it does appear does not mean an area of land, an extent of territory, or even the material houses and crofts of a village; that it is probably nothing more than a loose general term for 'the villagers.' … {3120} Only three passages in Anglo-Saxon literature have as yet been found in which the word 'tunscipe' appears,—the Saxon translation of Bede's 'Ecclesiastical History,' volume 10, the laws of Edgar, iv. 8, and the 'Saxon Chronicle,' s. a 1137. … The later history of the word 'township' would probably repay investigation. It is certainly not a common word in literature until comparatively recent times; and, where it does appear, its old meaning seems often to cling to it. … There is a good deal to make one believe that 'town ' [see, above, TOWN] continued to be the common popular term for what we may describe in general language as a rural centre of population even into the 18th century. … The far more general use of the word 'town' than of 'township' in early New England is most naturally explained by supposing that it was the word ordinarily employed in England at the time of the migration,—at any rate, in East Anglia. … It might very naturally be said that the effect of the foregoing argument is no more than to replace 'township' by town, and that such a change is immaterial,—that it is a difference between tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee. I cannot help thinking, however, that the adoption of a more correct terminology will be of scientific advantage; and for this reason. So long as we speak of the Anglo-Saxon 'township' we can hardly help attaching to the word somewhat of the meaning which it has borne since the sixteenth century. We think of it as an area inhabited by freemen with an administrative machinery in the hands of an assembly of those inhabitants and of officers chosen by them. We start, therefore, with a sort of unconscious presumption that the 'township' was what we call 'free.' … Now, it is this question as to the position of the body of the population in the earliest Anglo-Saxon times that is just now at issue; and no student would say that at present the question is settled."

_W. J. Ashley, The Anglo-Saxon "Township" (Quarterly Journal of Economics, April, 1894)._

TOWNSHIP AND TOWN-MEETING, The New England.

"When people from England first came to dwell in the wilderness of Massachusetts Bay, they settled in groups upon small irregular-shaped patches of land, which soon came to be known as townships. … This migration … was a movement, not of individuals or of separate families, but of church-congregations, and it continued to be so as the settlers made their way inland and westward. … A township would consist of about as many farms as could be disposed within convenient distance from the meeting-house, where all the inhabitants, young and old, gathered every Sunday, coming on horseback or afoot. The meeting-house was thus centrally situated, and near it was the town pasture or 'common,' with the school-house and the block-house, or rude fortress for defence against the Indians. … Around the meeting-house and common the dwellings gradually clustered into a village, and after a while the tavern, store, and town-house made their appearance. … Under these circumstances they developed a kind of government which we may describe in the present tense, for its methods are pretty much the same to-day that they were two centuries ago. In a New England township the people directly govern themselves; the government is the people, or, to speak with entire precision, it is all the male inhabitants of one-and-twenty years of age and upwards. The people tax themselves. Once each year, usually in March but sometimes as early as February or as late as April, a 'town-meeting' is held, at which all the grown men of the township are expected to be present and to vote, while anyone may introduce motions or take part in the discussion. … The town-meeting is held in the town-house, but at first it used to be held in the church, which was thus a 'meeting-house' for civil as well as ecclesiastical purposes. At the town-meeting measures relating to the administration of town affairs are discussed and adopted or rejected; appropriations are made for the public expenses of the town, or in other words the amount of the town taxes for the year is determined; and town officers are elected for the year. … The principal executive magistrates of the town are the selectmen. They are three, five, seven, or nine in number. … It [the town] was simply the English parish government brought into a new country and adapted to the new situation. Part of this new situation consisted in the fact that the lords of the manor were left behind. There was no longer any occasion to distinguish between the township as a manor and the township as a parish; and so, as the three names had all lived on together, side by side, in England, it was now the oldest and most generally descriptive name, 'township,' that survived, and has come into use throughout a great part of the United States. … New York had from the very beginning the rudiments of an excellent system of local self-government. The Dutch villages had their assemblies, which under the English rule were developed into town-meetings, though with less ample powers than those of New England. … The New York system is of especial interest, because it has powerfully influenced the development of local institutions throughout the Northwest."

_J. Fiske, Civil Government in the United States, chapters 2 and 4._

"The name town first occurs in the record of the second colonial meeting of the Court of Assistants [Massachusetts Bay, September 7, 1630], in connection with the naming of Boston, Charlestown and Watertown. … A rude pattern of a frame of town government was shaped by Dorchester, when, in place of the earlier practice of transacting business at meetings of the whole body of its freemen (the grants of land being certified by a committee consisting of the clergymen and deacons), it designated certain inhabitants, twelve in number, to meet weekly, and consult and determine upon public affairs,—without any authority, however, beyond other inhabitants who should choose to come and take part in their consultations and votes. About the same time, at Watertown, it was 'agreed by the consent of the freemen, that there should be three persons chosen for the ordering of the civil affairs.' In the fourth year from the settlement of Boston, at which time the earliest extant records were made, three persons were chosen 'to make up the ten to manage the affairs of the town.' The system of delegated town action was there perhaps the same which was defined in an 'Order made by the inhabitants of Charlestown, at a full meeting [February 10, 1635], for the government of the town by Selectmen,'—the name presently extended throughout New England to the municipal governors. … {3121} The towns have been, on the one hand, separate governments, and, on the other, the separate constituents of a common government. In Massachusetts, for two centuries and a quarter, the Deputies in the General Court—or Representatives, as they have been named under the State Constitution—continued to represent the municipal corporations. In New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut and Rhode Island, that basis of representation still subsists."

_J. G. Palfrey, History of New England, volume 1, chapter 9._

"Boston … is the largest community that ever maintained the town organization, probably the most generally able and intelligent. No other town ever played so conspicuous a part in connection with important events. It led Massachusetts, New England, the thirteen colonies, in the struggle for independence. Probably in the whole history of the Anglo-Saxon race, there has been no other so interesting manifestation of the activity of the Folk-mote. Of this town of towns, Samuel Adams was the son of sons. … One may almost call him the creature of the town-meeting."

_J. K. Hosmer, Samuel Adams, the Man of the Town-Meeting (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 4)._

ALSO IN: _E. Channing, Town and County Government in the English Colonies (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 2, number 10)._

See, also, NEW ENGLAND: A. D. 1640-1644; and SELECTMEN.

TOWTON, Battle of (A. D. 1461).

On Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461, two armies of Englishmen met on a "goodly plain," ten miles from the city of York, between the villages of Towton and Saxton, to fight out the contention of the parties of the "two roses,"—of Lancaster and York. The battle they fought is called the bloodiest that ever dyed English soil. It raged through an afternoon and 'a night until the following day, and the slain of the two sides has been variously reckoned by different historians at 20,000 to 38,000. No quarter was given by the victorious partisans of Edward IV. and the Lancastrians were utterly crushed. Henry VI. fled to Scotland and Queen Margaret repaired to France.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1455-1471.

_C. Ransome, Battle of Towton (English Historical Review, July, 1889)._

TOXANDRIA.

After Julian's successful campaigns against the Franks, A. D. 358, the latter were permitted to remain, as subjects of the Roman Empire, in "an extensive district of Brabant, which was then known by the appellation of Toxandria, and may deserve to be considered as the original seat of their Gallic monarchy. … This name seems to be derived from the 'Toxandri' of Pliny, and very frequently occurs in the histories of the middle age. Toxandria was a country of woods and morasses, which extended from the neighbourhood of Tongres to the conflux of the Vahal and the Rhine."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 19, with foot-note._

See, also, GAUL: A. D. 355-361.

TOXARCHI, The.

The commanders of the Athenian archers and of the city-watch (known as Scythians) were so called.

_A. Boeckh, Public Economy of Athens, book 2, chapter 11. _

TRACHIS. TRACHINIA.

See GREECE: B. C. 480 (THERMOPYLÆ).

TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT. TRACTS FOR THE TIMES. TRACT NINETY.

See OXFORD OR TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.

TRADES UNIONS.

See SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.

TRAFALGAR, Naval Battle of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1805 (MARCH-DECEMBER).

TRAJAN, Roman Emperor, A. D. 98-117.

TRAJAN'S WALL.

The Emperor Trajan "began a fortified line, afterwards completed, from the Rhine to the Danube. This great work was carried from Ratisbon to Mayence. It was known as Trajan's Wall. It may still be traced to some extent by the marks of a mound and a ditch."

_Church and Brodribb, Notes to the Germany of Tacitus, chapter 29._

TRAMELI, The.

See LYCIANS.

TRANSALPINE.

Beyond the Alps, looking from the Roman standpoint.

TRANSLEITHANIA.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1866-1867.

TRANSOXANIA.

See BOKHARA.

TRANSPADANE GAUL.

Cisalpine Gaul north of the Padus, or Po.

See PADUS.

TRANSRHENANE.

Beyond the Rhine,—looking from the Roman standpoint; that is, on the eastern and northern side of the Rhine.

TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, The.

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

TRANSYLVANIA: Early history.

See DACIA.

TRANSYLVANIA: The Huns in possession.

See HUNS: A. D. 433-453.

TRANSYLVANIA: 12th Century. Conquest by Hungary. Settlement of Germans.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1114-1301.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1526-1567. John Zapolya, the waivod, elected King of Hungary. His contest with Ferdinand of Austria. His appeal to the Turks. The Sultan assumes suzerainty of the country.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1526-1567.

TRANSYLVANIA: A. D. 1567-1660. Struggles between the Austrian and the Turk.