Volume 3, page 1044

(Macmillan Co., New York, 1908)._

A full account of the arbitration with the correspondence preceding it, and the opinions written by the arbitrators severally, is given in the British Parliamentary

_Papers by Command (United States, Number 1, 1904), Cd. 1877._

ALASKA: A. D. 1906. Convention to provide for final establishment of the boundary line.

Final proceedings for establishing the boundary line of Alaska were provided for in a Convention between the United States and Great Britain, signed April 21, 1906. The need and object of the Convention were set forth in its preamble as follows:

{10}

"Whereas by a treaty between the United States of America and His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias, for the cession of the Russian possessions in North America to the United States, concluded March 30, 1867, the most northerly part of the boundary line between the said Russian possessions and those of His Britannic Majesty, as established by the prior convention between Russia and Great Britain, of February 28/16 [sic] 1825, is defined as following the 141st degree of longitude west from Greenwich, beginning at the point of intersection of the said 141st degree of west longitude with a certain line drawn parallel with the coast, and thence continuing from the said point of intersection, upon the said meridian of the 141st degree in its prolongation as far as the Frozen Ocean.

"And whereas, the location of said meridian of the 141st degree of west longitude between the terminal points thereof defined in said treaty is dependent upon the scientific ascertainment of convenient points along the said meridian and the survey of the country intermediate between such points, involving no question of interpretation of the aforesaid treaties but merely the determination of such points and their connecting lines by the ordinary processes of observation and survey conducted by competent astronomers, engineers and surveyors;

"And whereas such determination has not hitherto been made by a joint survey as is requisite in order to give complete effect to said treaties."

To make such determination it was agreed that each Government should "appoint one Commissioner, with whom may be associated such surveyors, astronomers and other assistants as each Government may elect."

ALASKA: A. D. 1906. Election of a delegate to Congress.

An Act to authorize the election of a Delegate to Congress from the Territory of Alaska was approved by the President May 7, 1906.

ALASKA COAL FIELDS.

See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: UNITED STATES.

ALASKA-YUKON-PACIFIC EXPOSITION.

See (in this Volume) SEATTLE: A. D. 1909.

ALBANIA: A. D. 1904. Hostility to the Mürzsteg programme.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1903-1904.

ALBERT, King of Belgium.

See (in this Volume) BELGIUM; A. D. 1909 (DECEMBER).

ALBERT, Marcellin: Leader of the winegrowers revolt in France.

See (in this Volume) FRANCE: A. D. 1907 (MAY-JULY).

ALBERTA: Organized as a province of the Dominion of Canada.

See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1905.

ALCOHOL PROBLEM.

ALCOHOL: Austria: A. D. 1903. Resolution of the National Convention of the Social Democratic Party against alcoholic drinks.

At a convention of the Social Democracy of the Austrian Empire, held at Vienna, in November, 1903, Dr. Richard Frohlich read an elaborate report against the use of intoxicating liquors, concluding with an earnest appeal, in these words; "We want to create a new social order: to give the world a new face! To lay the foundations for the new society is the task of political and industrial organization— and there is no greater deterrent to the accomplishment of that task than alcohol. In building the new mansion of the future we think also of the men who are to dwell in it. Does it not bring a blush of shame to our cheeks merely to imagine that the men of the future society will be contented because they are _intoxicated!_ Contentment in that new order will arise from a sound brain and the satisfaction of the rational desires which proceed from it. We have enough retarding forces to contend with in our struggle for this ideal of the future generation. One such force we are able to-day to overcome if we will. That is alcoholism, the last refuge of philistinism and stupid conservatism. If we really want the new world, we must provide the new men to make it. The program of total abstinence does not set new ideals for us, but it gives us a new weapon, sharp and effective for the conquest of our old ideals. The responsibility is upon us to use this weapon. Let us do it!"

In response, the Convention adopted the following resolution:

"The convention of the party recognizes in alcohol a serious detriment to the physical and mental power of the working man, and a great hindrance to all efforts of organization in the social democracy. Every means should be employed to remove the evils which have come from it.

"The first aim in this struggle must be the economic betterment of the proletariat. And that must be accomplished by a clear teaching of the effects of alcohol, and by the removal of the common toleration of drinking.

"The convention of the party, therefore, recommends that all the party groups and brotherhoods lend their support to the crusade against alcohol, and declares that the first step in this direction must be the abolishment of compulsory drinking in all of the meetings of the organization. Members of the party who are converted to total abstinence are recommended to form total abstinence clubs, to continue the propaganda and to see to it that their members are true to the political and economic duties of the party organization."

ALCOHOL: CANADA: A. D. 1906-1908. The Canada Temperance Act.

Under what was known as the Scott Act, of 1878, the privilege of local option had been given to counties and cities in Canada, and had been brought into exercise by nine cities and seventy-three counties, which prohibited the sale of intoxicating liquors within their limits; but in most of these the supporters of the law were gradually overcome and the prohibition removed. In all the provinces except Quebec, a referendum vote taken in 1898 showed majorities in favor of a Dominion Prohibition Law; but the vote cast was so light and the adverse majorities in cities was so large that the government did not feel warranted in bringing forward a Bill. In 1906, however, the demand for local option in the matter of permitting alcoholic liquors to be sold had become strong enough to extort from Parliament the desired legislation. As amended in 1908, Part II. of this Canada Temperance Act (Part I. having prescribed the proceedings for bringing Part II. into force) provides that "from the day on which this Part comes into force and takes effect in any county or city, and for so long thereafter as, and while the same continues or is in force therein, no person shall, except as in this Part specially provided, by himself, his clerk, servant or agent,— {11} (a) expose or keep for sale, within such county or city, any intoxicating liquor; or, ( b ) directly or indirectly on any pretense or upon any device, within any such county or city, sell or barter, or, in consideration of the purchase of any other property, give to any other person any intoxicating liquor; or, (c) send, ship, bring or carry or cause to be sent, shipped, brought, or carried to or into any such county or city, any intoxicating liquor; or, (d) deliver to any consignee or other person, or store, warehouse, or keep for delivery, any intoxicating liquor so sent, shipped, brought or carried."

But these last two subsections are not to "apply to any intoxicating liquor sent, shipped, brought or carried to any person or persons for his or their personal or family use, except it be so sent, shipped, brought or carried to be paid for in such county or city to the person delivering the same, his clerk, servant, or agent, or his master or principal, if the person delivering it is himself a servant or agent."

To bring Part II. of the Act into force in any county or city, not less than one-fourth of the total number of electors therein must petition the Governor in Council for a poll of votes on the question, and when the vote is taken there must be an affirmative majority; failing which no similar petition can be put to vote in the same community for three years.

On the 2d of May, 1909, the following announcement of the operation of the law in the province of Ontario was made: "May Day, 1909, will long be remembered by the advocates of local option in Ontario. One hundred and forty-two bars passed out of existence yesterday, and of the 807 municipalities in the province 334 are now without a single license in force. The Toronto commissioners have cut off 40 licenses, leaving only 110 in a city of nearly 400,000 people."

ALCOHOL: Casual occurrences of saloon suppression, showing what goes with it.

Communities in which the liquor traffic is ordinarily favored are sometimes compelled by exigencies of circumstance to suppress it temporarily, and are forced then to see how much of crime and disorder goes with it. During the weeks in which military authority cleared saloons from San Francisco, after the calamity of 1906, every observer made note of the conspicuous freedom of the city "from all kinds of violence and crime," though the whole organization of life was upset. One trustworthy journal reported conditions six months after the calamity as follows: "During the two months and a half after April 18 San Francisco was probably the most orderly large city in the United States. Violence and crime were practically unknown. During that time the saloons and liquor stores of the city were closed tight. About the middle of July the saloons were permitted to open again. This action of the city government was accompanied by the expectation on the part of many citizens of an outbreak of violence and disorder. Clergymen, and it is said even the police, advised men and women to carry firearms for their own protection. For the past three months San Francisco has been living under a reign of m. In eighty days eighty-three murders, robberies, and assaults were registered on the police records. A despatch to Ridgway’s, the new weekly periodical, reports the sale in San Francisco during one week in October of over six thousand revolvers."

When Stockholm, in the summer of 1909, was undergoing the trials of the great general strike, and by general consent of all concerned the sale of liquors was stopped, the same report went out, that magistrates and police had little to do. And that is the standing account of things from the Panama Canal Zone, about which an English visitor, Sir Harry Johnston, wrote in April, 1909:

"The whole of the canal zone (ten miles on either side of the canal banks) is ‘teetotal,’ except in the actual towns of Panama and Colon. No alcohol is sold by the Canal Commission at its hotels or boarding-houses. And the general result of these stern measures—the improvement in health and the absence of crime—amply justifies this anti-alcohol policy. … There is singularly little serious crime throughout the canal zone. One has the sensation of being perfectly safe anywhere at any time of day or night. Petty dishonesty among the lower classes is common, especially at the railway stations, where one is liable to lose small articles of baggage if they are left unguarded. Panama in this respect is worse than the other towns of the Isthmus, new or old. But there is no open shock to any one’s prejudices or sentiments in the way of flagrant immorality (as at New Orleans, for example)."

So easily can communities solve half, at least, of their most troublesome problems, and cure half, at least, of their worst social maladies, if they will!

ALCOHOL: ENGLAND: A. D. 1902 . Passage of an amended licensing law. A moderate reform.

A Licensing Bill, moderately in the interest of temperance reform, was discussed and passed in Parliament during the summer of 1902. It made publicans more strictly responsible for drunkenness incurred on their premises; strengthened the prohibition of liquor-selling to habitual drunkards; improved measures for the suppression of public drunkenness; subjected licenses to tradesmen for the sale of liquors off their premises to the unqualified discretion of justices, and facilitated the separation of husbands and wives from a drunken mate.

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1904. Passing of a new Licensing Bill, providing compensation for the withdrawal of licenses on grounds of public policy.

An agitation in Great Britain which almost equalled for a time that produced in the same period by Mr. Chamberlain’s campaign for a preferential tariff was stirred up by a new Licensing Bill, introduced as a Government measure on the 20th of April, 1904. The bill provided for compensation to be made, at the expense of the liquor trade, for the taking of a license away from any public house, on grounds of public policy, no matter how briefly the license had been held. A fund for the compensations was to be raised by assessment on all engaged in the trade. Authority to refuse the renewal or transfer of licenses on any ground other than ill conduct or character was withdrawn from local magistrates and exercised by the courts of quarter sessions (composed of the justices of the peace in each county) only. When a public house was thought to be superfluous by local magistrates they were required to report the case to quarter sessions, where a hearing upon it would be given. {12} If the Bench of quarter sessions decided to extinguish the license, it must specify the grounds of its decision in writing, and award a compensation, based on the estimated difference between the value of the licensed premises and the value of the same premises without a license. If no agreement on this basis could be reached, the Inland Revenue Commissioners should determine the sum.

The Bill was advocated in the interest of temperance, as being calculated to reduce the number of public houses, and to raise their character. Mr. Balfour upheld it as "a great temperance measure." It should be the aim of Government, he argued, to "encourage respectable persons to keep public houses, and with that object they should make the trade secure." On the other side it was opposed with exceeding bitterness as a measure that had the backing and was in the interest of the brewers and the whole liquor trade; that created vested interests in the trade, rooting it to a new depth; that tended to add value to the low class of public houses, and obstructed future temperance reform. Repeated attempts to introduce a limit of years after which the awarding of compensation for the withdrawal of license would cease were defeated, and the Bill passed both Houses in August, substantially as it came into Parliament four months before.

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1907. Drink in its relation to crime. Testimony of judges.

"The following is from a newspaper report of a speech by Judge Rentoul, delivered in the Guildhall, Cambridge, on the 15th of October, 1907. He happened to be one of the judges of the chief criminal courts of this country, and he said to them on that platform that 90 per cent. of the cases that came to the Central Criminal Court of England came directly through drink. The late Lord Brampton, formerly Sir Henry Hawkins, perhaps the greatest criminal judge during the past century, had also put the figures at 90 per cent. Lord Coleridge, speaking at one Assizes, said, ‘Every single case in my present list comes from the use of strong drink.’ ‘If it were not,’ said his Honour, ‘for alcohol, three fourths of our criminal courts would be closed in this country and closed forever.’"

_H. A. Giles, Opium and Alcohol in China (Nineteenth Century, December, 1907)._

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1908. Passage of a new Licensing Bill by the Commons and its rejection by the Lords.

Nothing contributed more to the defeat of the Conservative Ministry in the British Parliamentary elections of 1905 than the moral repugnance of the country to the Licensing Bill of 1904 (described above); and the Liberal Government came to power with no commission from the people more positive than was in the demand for an amendment of that law. In 1908 it brought into Parliament and passed through the House of Commons a Bill which answered the demand, asserting the right and the need and the power in Government to put limitations on the granting of licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors, without treating them as vested interests under a sacred guard. The limitation, in fact, was made definite and mandatory by the first provision of the Bill, which declared; "Licensing justices shall, in accordance with this Act, reduce the number of on-licenses in their district so that at the end of a period of fourteen years from the fifth day of April nineteen hundred and nine the number of those licenses in any rural parish or urban area in their district shall not exceed the scale set out in the First Schedule to this Act as applied to that parish or area under the provisions of that schedule." The schedule referred to was as follows:

Persons per acre.

2 or less Exceeding 2 but not exceeding 25 Exceeding 25 but not exceeding 50 Exceeding 50 but not exceeding 75 Exceeding 75 but not exceeding 100 Exceeding 100 but not exceeding 200 Exceeding 200

Number of on-licenses.

1 to 400 persons or part of 400 1 to 500 persons or part of 500 1 to 600 persons or part of 600 1 to 700 persons or part of 700 1 to 800 persons or part of 800 1 to 900 persons or part of 900 1 to 1,000 persons or part of 1,000

The Bill provided further for local option in the matter of granting new licenses, permitting a majority of voters in any licensing district to prohibit further grants; and introduced other changes of law in the interest of temperance, but not going to any extreme. When the measure went to the House of Lords it suffered there the same fate that had been meted out to the Education Bill of 1906. How serious an issue between the Commons and the Lords was raised by that occurrence is intimated in one passage of a speech made by the Liberal Prime Minister, Mr. Asquith, in July, 1909. He was reviewing some of the significant incidents of recent political history, and when he came to the Licensing Bill there was more feeling in his remarks than he had shown before. "That," he said, "was a Bill, as you know, which was debated for weeks and for months and passed through the House of Commons with sustained and unexampled majorities. When it reached ‘another place,’ what was its fate? It was rejected without even any pretence of consideration of its details, it was rejected in pursuance of a preconcerted party resolution, it was rejected with every circumstance of contumely and contempt. I will not pause to dwell upon, certainly not to praise, the provisions of the Licensing Bill, which, I may say, was to some extent my own handiwork. But in regard to its rejection I will say that it has made two things—that rejection and the circumstances preceding, following, and attending it have made two things—abundantly plain. The first is that it has ruined the prospects of any really effective temperance reform on anything like a large and comprehensive scale during the lifetime of the present Parliament. I will say next the circumstances of that rejection have brought into greater prominence than ever before the fact that our constitutional system is not, or at least that it can be made not to be, the embodiment, but the caricature of a representative and responsible Government. And the question of the relations between the two Houses of Parliament must be for us Liberals, at any rate, as I described it at the time, the dominant issue in our programme."

{13}

The requirement of the Act of 1904 that compensation should be paid to every license-holder whose license was withdrawn for public reasons, put so narrow a limit on the reductions made, that the 138,011 licensed houses in England and Wales in 1904 had only been diminished by about 3000 in 1908; whereas the country demanded a great cutting down of the excessive number.

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1908. Provisions of The Children Act for the Protection of Children.

See (in this Volume) CHILDREN, UNDER THE LAW: AS DEPENDENTS, &C.

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1909. Taxation of the Liquor Trade proposed in the Budget.

See (in this Volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1909 (APRIL-DECEMBER).

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1909. The Decreased Consumption of Whiskey caused by increased tax.

Speaking in Parliament of the increased whiskey tax in his Budget, on the 29th of October, some months after it had gone into effect and its yield was being shown, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Lloyd-George, acknowledged that he had greatly overestimated the revenue it would produce. He said: "The whole point was to what extent would an addition of a halfpenny a glass deter a man from taking his usual share of drink. I could no more estimate that than any other member of the House. I made a very liberal allowance for decrease in consumption, so liberal that nobody either in or out of the House agreed with it. Many said it was absurd. … I assumed that people who could afford it would not regard the halfpenny at all; that they would buy exactly the same quantity of whisky as before. The working classes I assumed would probably purchase a smaller quantity. Supposing a man says, I spend 2s. 6d. on drink; he would not spend more; therefore he would consume less.

"I made a rough calculation upon such information as I had how that would affect the consumption of whisky as a whole, but I find the change has gone beyond that, and my information now is not merely that there are thousands of people who drink a percentage which is, in proportion to the increase, less, but some of them drop it altogether. Some of them are barely drinking half what they were before. Altogether a most extraordinary effect has been produced upon the habits of the people. I am not here to apologize for that at all. In some districts, I am told, the drinking of spirits has gone down by 70 percent, in Ireland, I think. I hear that there are districts in Scotland where it has gone down 50 per cent. I have a communication in regard to the whisky distillers of Glasgow saying that the decrease in Glasgow during September has been 36 per cent.

"People have not even been driven to the consumption of beer. It is really almost unaccountable. People have not been driven from one form of alcohol to another, but have been driven from alcohol altogether. The fact is very extraordinary, and has gone beyond anything I have anticipated. … Our anticipations now are that the consumption of spirits, both of foreign and home manufacture, will go down by something between 20 and 25 per cent. That means that a smaller quantity of spirits will be consumed in this country during this year by eight or nine million gallons.’’

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1909. Organization of "The True Temperance Association." Its aim and appeal.

Under the name of "The True Temperance Association," a London organization headed by Lord Halsbury made the following appeal to the English public, in May, 1909: "Let us take what is to hand—the publichouse; the regulated refreshment house of the people. Let us transform that out of its present condition of a mere drink-shop into a house of general, reasonable, and reputable entertainment—a place where there will be other things to consume besides beer and whisky, and other forms of recreation besides mere drink. We should imitate the model of the Continental café and German _bierhaus;_ the White City and other exhibitions have shown us that they would not be exotics in this country; and those exhibitions with their wonderful record of sobriety also show us that there is every ground to expect that England, with transformed publichouses, would be as sober, and withal as bright as are Continental countries."

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1900: England, United States, France, and Germany. Comparative statement of the consumption of alcoholic drink.

"The consumption of alcoholic drink in the above countries, per ten of population, was in the year 1900 as follows:

Drink-consumption per 10 of population.

Country. Beer, spirits, Beer. Spirits. Wine. and wine. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. France 336 62 20 254 United Kingdom 332 317 11 4 Germany 309 275 19 15 United States 147 133 11 3

"Some years agone, the late P. G. Hamerton in his book _French and English_ mentioned the increase of drinking in France, and we see that French drink-consumption per head is now greater than British consumption. The French drink more spirits, more wine, and have a larger total consumption per head than any of these three other nations.

"The most striking fact in the above statement is the low drink-consumption per head in the United States. The American total per head is less than one-half of the total consumption per head in any of the three other countries. The superior sobriety of the American workman as compared with the Englishman has often been noticed, and observation in social grades higher than that of the artizan tends to show that American superiority in this respect is a general superiority not confined to workmen only. The developed alertness and prompt energy of the American may, it is quite likely, be due in some part to this relative abstinence from alcoholic drink which is now illustrated.

"Looking back over the fifteen years 1886-1900, for the purpose of observing the increase or the decrease in drink-consumption per head of population, the following results have been obtained;—

Country. Average yearly drink-consumption, per head of population, during

1886-1890. 1891-1895. 1890-1900. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. France 26.5 31.5 32.3 United Kingdom. 29.4 31.1 33.1 Germany 24.4 26.6 29.9 United States 11.8 14.3 14.2

The drink-consumption per The drink-consumption per head during 1886-1890 head during 1896-1900 was being taken at 100 per cent. per cent. France 100 122 United Kingdom. 100 113 Germany 100 123 United States 100 120

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"In each country the drink-consumption per head of population has increased since 1886-1890, and, with the exception of the United States, there has been an increase during each five-yearly period observed,

"Comparing the period 1896-1900 with the period 1886-1890, we see that the percentage of increase per head of population in drink-consumption was smaller in the United Kingdom than in any of the three other countries. Germany and France have had the largest relative increases per head of population.

"In the United States, the increase of 20 per cent in the drink-consumption per head of population is due to an increase in beer-drinking—the consumption per head of wine and of spirits has declined."

_J. H. Schooling, Drink: in England, the United States, France, and Germany (Fortnightly Review, January, 1902)._

ALCOHOL: France: A. D. 1907. Revolt of the Wine Growers of Southern France against wine adulteration.

See (in this Volume ) FRANCE: A. D. 1907 (MAY-JULY).

ALCOHOL: Germany: Temperance requisite in railway employees.

The dangers to the traveling public that are attendant on the use of alcoholic stimulants by railway employees were discussed very seriously not long since by a writer in the _Deutsche Monatsschrift_. "The constantly growing demands upon transit service for safety and speed," he observed, "call for an increasingly higher efficiency of the personnel, not only as regards prudence, judgment, decision, and clearsightedness, but a sense of duty, all which qualities are, it has been proved, vitiated by nothing so readily and to such a degree as by indulgence in alcoholic drinks. The chief danger, moreover, consists not so much in excessive drink resulting in drunkenness, which is easily recognized, as in the more moderate but habitual use of liquor, which is harder to control, and the after-effects of heavy drinking. Scientific investigation has established the fact that even a moderate use of alcoholic beverages impairs the acuteness of sight and hearing, including the power of distinguishing colors. Most of the violations of discipline and duty in the German transportation service are due to indulgence in drink, besides leading to misery and want in the home."

The writer alludes to an association of German railway officials started by himself, whose object it is to enlighten the public regarding the worthlessness of alcoholic drinks as a tonic and how they may be dispensed with as a means of refreshment. This society, he states, has been most encouragingly successful in its efforts. He adds the important statement that the Prussian Government, owing to recent serious accidents, has issued an order prohibiting all railway employees from taking any beverage containing alcohol while on duty.

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1902. Resolution of Socialist Congress. The subject in Prussian schools.

The German Socialist Congress, sitting at Munich in September, 1902, adopted a resolution which warned the working classes against the dangers from immoderate indulgence in alcoholic drinks, but declined to make total abstinence a condition of party membership. In the previous March the Prussian minister of education had given instructions to the school authorities mm of the kingdom which aimed at the enlightening of the people as to the deleterious effects, both physical and economical, of an excessive use of alcoholic liquors. The same subject had been agitated in the Prussian parliament, and there was discussion of measures of more strict regulation of public houses.

ALCOHOL: International Congress on Alcoholism.

For twenty-four years an International Congress on Alcoholism has held biennial meetings in different European cities, beginning at Antwerp in 1885, steadily demonstrating a growth of opposition—especially of scientific opposition—even in Continental Europe, to the use of alcoholic liquors. The meeting of 1905 was at Budapest; that of 1907 at Stockholm; that of 1909 at London. The delegates to the latter numbered about 1300, coming from nearly every European country, and from the United States, Canada, and South Africa. Of the strong character of the discussions at the London meeting the New York _Evening Post_ said after its adjournment:

"Men and women from every country, representing varying conditions of society, offered evidence tending to show, by actual figures of loss, the bad effects of drinking. From the standpoint of education, science, medicine, society, economics, efficiency, and law, the speakers all reached the same conclusion, bringing strong testimony in support. Efficiency was the keynote of papers representing public service on the part of the post office, the railroad, the navy, and the army of Great Britain."

An interesting figure at the Congress, it was said by an American newspaper correspondent, was Judge William J. Pollard, of St. Louis, who went as a representative of the United States Government, and who was known widely as the originator of the pledge instead of prison method of dealing with drunkards. When he spoke on that subject he was given a double allowance of time, on the motion of a delegate from France, and, although under the constitution of the congress no resolution could be put, a declaration in favor of the plan was signed by practically every delegate in the hall. The declaration reads as follows:

"We, the undersigned members and delegates attending the International Congress on Alcoholism assembled in Loudon, July, 1909, desire to record our gratification at the recognition in statute law by Great Britain, Vermont, United States of America, and Victoria (Australia) of the principle of reforming drunkards by the probation on pledge method, commonly known as the Pollard plan. The possibilities of this wise and beneficent policy are so great that we desire to commend its adoption throughout the world."

"Judge Pollard’s plan, established in the Saint Louis police court nine years ago, consists in giving the drunkards a chance of reform. Instead of sentencing them to prison or fining them, Judge Pollard requires persons charged before him with drunkenness to take the pledge. If they do so he suspends sentence on them, and if the pledge is kept for a certain period they hear no more about the matter. If it is broken the fine or sentence is enforced."

One of the results of the Congress was the organization of a "World’s Prohibition Confederation," "to better amalgamate the forces in various countries working along their respective lines towards the one common aim of the total suppression of the liquor traffic."

{15}

Two sessions were held and the Conference finally decided by unanimous vote upon the following outline of the purposes and methods of the new Confederation:

"(1) Name— The name of this association shall be 'The International Prohibition Confederation (Confederation Prohibitioniste Internationale—Internationaler Verbaud fuer Alkoholverbot).'

"(2) Object— (a) To amalgamate the forces in various countries working along their respective lines towards the one common aim of the total suppression of the liquor traffic,

(b) To obtain notes of progress, information, and news from all parts of the world, and send such information to all organizations joining the Confederation and other applicants.

"(3) Membership— The membership shall consist of representatives of temperance organizations in all countries approving of the objects and such officers as may be elected by the Confederation.

"(4) Finances— The financial support shall be gained from such contributions as the various affiliated societies and individual associate members may subscribe."

ALCOHOL: New Zealand: A. D. 1896-1908. Twelve years of Local Option. Increasing majorities against the liquor traffic. The vote of women.

Under the operation of a local option law since 1896, New Zealand has been steadily narrowing the liquor traffic, with what seems to be a fair prospect of extinguishing it entirely. The law provides for the taking of a vote in each parliamentary electoral district once in three years on three propositions, as follows:

"1. That the number of licensed houses existing in the district shall continue.

"2. That the number shall be reduced.

"3. That no licenses whatever shall be granted.

"Electors may vote for one of these proposals or for two of them. The prohibitionists strike out the top line, and thus vote for a reduction of the number of licenses, and also for total prohibition in their district. Those who oppose prohibition usually strike out the second and third lines, so as to vote for the continuance of existing licensed houses; while there are others, again, who strike out the first and third issues, with a view simply to a reduction in the number of licensed houses. An absolute majority of the votes carries reduction; but it requires a three-fifths majority to carry 'no-license.' If reduction is carried the licensing committee must then reduce the publicans’ licenses in the district by not less than 5 per cent. or more than 25 per cent, of the total number existing."

The local option vote has now been taken five times, with a slow but steady increase of majorities given against the liquor traffic, either to restrict or to end it,—as the following table shows:

Continuance. Reduction. No-license. Valid votes. 1896 139,500 94,500 98,300 259,800 1899 142,400 107,700 118,500 281,800 1902 148,400 132,200 151,500 318,800 1905 182,800 151,000 198,700 396,400 1908 186,300 161,800 209,100 410,100

The figures here entered of the vote in 1908 are not official, but are said to be close to accuracy.

The New Zealand correspondent of the London Times, from whose report the above is taken, adds these particulars: "The result of the local option poll taken in December, 1905, was to carry 'no license' in three new districts and reduction in four districts. In 36 of the other districts a majority of the votes polled was for ‘no license,’ though the three-fifths majority necessary to carry the proposal was not obtained. The results of the recent poll were very striking. In six new districts ‘no-license ’ was carried, and in some others ‘no-license’ and ‘reduction’ were only lost by narrow margins. The rapid advance made by the ‘no license’ party is certainly remarkable.

"While the proportion of votes cast for continuance is steadily declining, the proportion for ‘no-license’ is increasing at an accelerated rate. Already there is a bare majority of the total votes in favour of prohibition; while if we had national instead of local option the chances are that in a comparatively short period the necessary three-fifths majority to secure total prohibition in the country might be obtained. There are now indications that the ‘no-license’ party will make a bold bid, not only for a bare majority vote on the no-license issue, but also for national option. In this event they will alienate the sympathies of the great majority of the moderates who now vote with them, so that the ‘no-license’ cause may receive, at least, a temporary check.

"Three important suggestions have been made to save the trade—viz., reform from within, State control, and municipalization. Judging from past experience, the first idea seems hopeless. The trade has had its lessons, but has not taken sufficient heed. State control will scarcely be tolerated, since most people realize that the liquor trade in the hands of a Government might be a dangerous political engine, besides which there would always be the temptation ever present to a Government to use it for revenue purposes. Without very necessary reform from within, therefore, the only chance for the liquor trade would seem to lie in the direction of municipalization. Under municipal control, with the abolition of the open bar in favour of the cafe system, with better liquor, and with a thorough system of inspection and analysis, the liquor trade in New Zealand might obtain a new lease of life. Under the present system there is every indication that its doom is sealed."

The importance of the vote of women, on this question especially, appears in the following statements: "In 1902, 138,565 women, or 74.52 per cent. of those on the rolls, voted; in 1905, 175,046, or 82.23 per cent. of those on the rolls, voted. The proportion of females to males voting at successive general elections also shows a gradual increase from 69.57 per cent. in 1893 to 78.99 in 1905. Then there is the gradual increase in the proportion of females to males in the population of a young country to be considered. At the foundation of the colonies the males, naturally, largely outnumbered the females; but eventually the sexes will become more nearly equal in number. Thus, while in 1871 the proportion of females to males in the colony was only 70.52, in 1906 it was 88.65. Furthermore, women are taking a keener interest than ever in politics. They are beginning to appreciate the franchise and to exercise it intelligently in ever-increasing numbers."

{16}

The warning and alarming effect of the local option vote of December, 1908, on the New Zealand liquor dealers was made apparent by their action taken soon after, as reported in the following Press despatch from Wellington, January 18, 1909:

"As a result of the large 'moderate' vote cast at the recent poll on the question of total prohibition or reduction of facilities for obtaining drink, it was unanimously resolved to-day, at a meeting of the Auckland Brewers and Licensed Victuallers’ Association, representing all the wholesale and nearly every member of the retail trade, to abolish barmaids, to abolish private bars, and to raise the age-limit of youths who may be supplied with liquor from 18 to 20. No woman will be supplied with liquor for consumption on the premises unless she is boarding in the house.

"In an interview, the Mayor of Auckland, who is himself a brewer, stated that since the trade has to ask the public every three years for the continuance of its existence, it is necessary for it to be conducted on lines approved by the public at large."

ALCOHOL: United States: A. D. 1904-1909. The progress of State, County, and Town Prohibition in the five years.

The following exhibit of the status of state and local prohibition in every State of the United States, on the 1st of November, 1909, compared with the same in 1904, is reproduced, with permission, from the latest leaflet published at the time of this writing (January 1, 1910) by the Associated Prohibition Press, located at 92 La Salle Street, Chicago:

"The record at Prohibition National Headquarters, Chicago, shows that during the past four years the amount of Prohibition territory has been doubled and 20,000,000 people added to those living in Prohibition cities, counties and states, making an aggregate of over 40,000,000 now by their own choice in saloon-free districts.

"The figures below show that nearly two-thirds of the territory and nearly one-half of the people are under Prohibition protection:

"17,000,000 people in the South under Prohibition in 1904.

"25,000,000 people in the South under Prohibition in 1909.

"There are to-day 375 Prohibition cities in the United States, having a population of over 5,000 each, with a total population of more than three million and a half.

"In 1904 there were scarcely 100 Prohibition cities of 5,000 or over; there are now 90 Prohibition cities of 10,000 or over. There are fifty-five industrial centers in fourteen different states of 20,000 population and over, with an aggregate of 2,000,000 population, now under Prohibition law.

"The Prohibition party is organized and at work in practically every state in the Union.

"In 1904 the National Liquor League of the United States was organized at Cincinnati, January 7th and 8th, to put the 'lid' on the apparent beginnings of a Prohibition renaissance. Five years of the 'National Liquor League of the United States' has resulted in 20,000,000 people being added to the Prohibition population of the country; 250 new Prohibition cities; 6 new Prohibition states, hundreds of new Prohibition counties, and thousands of new Prohibition towns and villages in all the rest of the country.

"One of the most striking contrasts between 1904 and 1909 is seen in the transformation which has been wrought in the attitude of the daily and secular press towards the Prohibition question. Since 1904 leading daily papers in all parts of the country have begun to exclude liquor advertising from their columns.

"The daily press of America is to-day giving ten times more attention to and far more friendly treatment of the Prohibition issue than was the case in 1904.

"On November 1st, 1909, the record of state and local Prohibition territory in the United States, at National Prohibition Headquarters, was as follows:

The Situation by States.

State. 1904. November 1, 1909.

Alabama 20 Prohibition State Prohibition; counties. enforcement legislation 11 Dispensary. enacted by Legislature, 35 License. August, 1909. Data shows business prospers, crime decreasing. Popular vote on Constitutional Prohibition November 29, 1909.

Arizona No Prohibition New county Prohibition law bare territory. two-thirds requirement. Two-thirds Four-fifths of Territory "dry" majority required. in 12 months is prediction.

Arkansas 44 Prohibition 57 Prohibition counties. counties. State certain in next 29 License. Legislature. 2 Partially license.

California 175 Prohibition 250 "dry" towns. towns. Sentiment rapidly growing for State Prohibition.

Colorado Few Prohibition towns. 100 towns "dry." No local-option law. Stricter law enforcement. Prohibition sentiment growing.

Connecticut Half of State Large increase in no-license local Prohibition. vote. Legislature passed several important restrictive measures.

Delaware Few small Two-thirds of State Prohibition. Prohibition towns.

{17}

District of Columbia Apathy dominant. New high license law. Sentiment for Prohibition organizing. Stricter enforcement.

Florida 30 Prohibition 35 counties "dry." counties. Popular vote State Prohibition November, 1910.

Georgia 104 Prohibition State Prohibition. counties out Supporting sentiment grows. of 134. Atlanta elects law-enforcement Large cities Mayor. Crime largely decreasing. all license.

Idaho No Prohibition County law passed. territory. Seven vote "dry." "Wide-open" State. State Prohibition campaign on.

Illinois 8 Prohibition 36 "dry" counties. counties. 2500 "dry" towns. 500 Prohibition 23 "dry" cities. towns. No license fight on in Chicago. "Wide open" Sunday.

Indiana 140 Prohibition 70 Counties "dry." townships. "Net Prohibition majority 67,025. Three-fourths of the State population under Prohibition. Sentiment for State Prohibition very active; 1,780,839 or 65 per cent of State population in "dry" territory; 32 "dry" cities (5,000 and over).

Iowa 25 License counties. Campaign for State Prohibition Lax enforcement developing great enthusiasm. of law.

Kansas STATE PROHIBITION. Legislature passed 1909 Lax enforcement. important additions to Law enforcement State law. crusade at Kansas The sale of alcohol in any City, Kan., form absolutely prohibited. a "fizzle." Strict enforcement the rule.

Kentucky 47 Prohibition 96 Prohibition counties; counties. 1,541,613 or 66 per cent of Legislature defeated total population in "dry" very moderate territory. local option bill. State Prohibition campaign launched in earnest.

Louisiana 20 Prohibition Prohibition sentiment grows. parishes out of 54. Local Prohibition proves notable success in 33 "dry" parishes.

Maine STATE PROHIBITION. Move for resubmission Lax enforcement. emphatically defeated by State Legislature. Sentiment for law enforcement growing steadily.

Maryland 15 Prohibition Some locals gains. counties. New high-license law for Baltimore.

Massachusetts. 250 Prohibition Some local gains. towns and cities. Twenty-five thousand State majority against license. Definite campaign for State Prohibition; 261 towns "dry" out of 321; 20 cities "dry" out of 33; 26,297 State majority against license.

Michigan 2 Prohibition Thirty Prohibition counties. counties. Important new restrictive 400 Prohibition towns. legislation took effect September 1, 1909. State Prohibition campaign on.

Minnesota 400 Prohibition 1,611 "dry" towns. towns. State wide union of Prohibition forces.

Mississippi 65 Prohibition Enforcement of State-wide counties. law passed February, 1908. Legislature defeated Governor Noel a vigorous State Prohibition prohibitionist. amendment.

Missouri 3 Prohibition 77 'dry' counties. counties 1905. State Prohibition campaign definitely under way. Vote November, 1910.

Montana No Prohibition Prohibition sentiment territory. growing with notable increase of party vote in several districts.

Nebraska 200 Prohibition 26 Prohibition counties. towns. Many local gains. State capital Lincoln, 50,000, voted "dry." State Prohibition campaign on; 48 "dry" county seats.

Nevada No Prohibition Sentiment against gambling territory. and liquor selling growing. State Prohibition of gambling effective October 1, 1910.

New Hampshire. State Prohibition 183 "dry" towns. repealed 1903.

New Jersey "Wide-open" State. Whole year of 1909 filled with agitation. Law-defying Atlantic City ring provokes widespread public sentiment. County option expected.

{18}

New Mexico Nothing. Prohibition forces very active at legislative session. Strong sentiment for State Prohibition growing.

New York 285 Prohibition towns. Few changes. Concerted State Cities all license wide campaign on in 300 local by State law. Prohibition contests.

North Carolina. Local-option passed 1903. Success of State Raleigh, capital, had Prohibition shown by dispensary run by church official statistics. deacons. In force January, 1908.

North Dakota STATE PROHIBITION. Same law. Sentiment Lax enforcement in back of Prohibition some sections. law overwhelming throughout State. Strong supplementary legislation passed 1909.

Ohio First State 61 counties "dry." local-option law Campaigns in largest passed. cities, and State Prohibition scheduled for near future. Net Prohibition majority in 70 county contests, 66,132.

Oklahoma Few Prohibition towns. Enforcement of State Prohibition law steadily growing success. Governor Haskell heartily supporting it. Prohibition Party organized September 27, 1909.

Oregon No Prohibition State Prohibition vote territory. November, 1910. No local-option law. 21 counties "dry."

Pennsylvania Prohibition sentiment County option defeated apathetic. 1909 but sentiment rapidly growing. Confident of advanced legislation at next session.

Rhode Island 20 Prohibition towns. Little change

South Carolina State dispensary. 37 Prohibition counties (Abolished 1908.) out of 42. Sweeping Prohibition victories August 17, 1909. State campaign definitely on.

South Dakota Scattering Prohibition Few local changes. towns. Sentiment for State Prohibition campaign developing.

Tennessee* 8 License cities. State Prohibition passed Liquor men threatened January, 1909. repeal of Adams Effective July 1, 1909. local-option law. Liquor manufacture prohibition. Law effective January 1, 1910. Remarkably beneficial effects of Prohibition immediately shown in Nashville and other cities.

* A proposal to embody state-wide prohibition in a constitutional amendment was voted down heavily in Tennessee on the 29th of November, 1909.

Texas 140 Prohibition 154 Prohibition counties. counties. State Prohibition referendum narrowly defeated by Legislature, only increased agitation for that object. Vote expected within two years.

Utah No Prohibition County Prohibition and territory. State referendum defeated in Legislature, expected at next session.

Vermont Prohibition 216 towns "dry." repealed 1903. Demand for resubmission 138 Prohibition of State Prohibition growing. towns out of Prohibition majority 240 in 1904. of 8,819 in whole State.

Virginia Local-option law 71 Prohibition counties. passed 1903. Democratic primary being fought out on Prohibition issue.

Washington Few Prohibition towns. Compromise local Prohibition law, passed Legislature, 1909. Prohibition sentiment growing. Alaska-Yukon Exposition, Seattle, first big "dry" exposition.

West Virginia. 40 out of 54 Some local gains. counties "dry" Charleston, state capital "dry" since July 1. Only three wholly "wet" counties. State campaign on.

Wisconsin 300 Prohibition towns 789 towns "dry." Prohibition sentiment growing rapidly; 4,000 business men cheer argument for Prohibition in great debate at Milwaukee March, 1909.

Wyoming No Prohibition New law effective territory. January, 1910, puts whole State under Prohibition outside of incorporated towns.

{19}

ALCOHOL: A. D. 1908-1909. Diminished consumption of whiskey and beer.

According to the annual report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1909, there were about 5,000,000 less gallons of whiskey contributing to the Federal revenue than in the fiscal year preceding, and something like 2,500,000 fewer barrels of beer and ale. "This seems clearly to mirror the effect of the prohibition movement which has lately gained such headway in certain sections of the South and West. Ordinarily, the consumption of spirits and malt liquor is fairly steady in times of depression; and when an industrial revival is under way, their use increases and reflects itself in larger revenue returns. The absolute shrinkage in consumption in the past fiscal year, therefore, is doubly significant."

----------ALCOHOL: End--------

ALCORTA, Jose Figueroa: President of Argentine Republic.

See (in this Volume) ACRE DISPUTES.

ALDERMAN, Edward Anderson: President of the University of Virginia.

See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1909.

ALDRICH, Nelson W.: Work on the Payne-Aldrich Tariff.

See (in this Volume) TARIFFS: UNITED STATES.

ALEXANDER, King of Servia: His murder.

See (in this Volume) BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: SERVIA.

ALEXEIEFF, Admiral: Appointed Viceroy in Manchuria, 1903.

See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1901-1904.

ALFARO, General Elroy: Made President of Ecuador by a revolution.

See (in this Volume) ECUADOR: A. D. 1905-1906.

ALFONSO XIII.: His Coronation.

See (in this Volume) SPAIN: A. D. 1901-1904.

ALFONSO XIII.: Marriage. Attempted assassination.

See (in this Volume) Spain: A. D. 1905-1906.

ALGECIRAS CONFERENCE, and Act.

See (in this Volume) EUROPE: A. D. 1905-1906, and MOROCCO: A. D. 1907-1909.

ALGIERS: A. D. 1896-1906. Encroachments on the Moroccan boundary.

See (in this Volume) MOROCCO: A. D. 1895-1906.

ALIENS ACT, The English.

See (in this Volume) IMMIGRATION: ENGLAND: A. D. 1905-1909.

ALIENS, Rights of: Pan-American Convention.

See (in this Volume) American Republics.

ALI RIZA PASHA.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY-MAY).

ALL INDIA MOSLEM LEAGUE.

See (in this Volume) INDIA: A. D. 1907 (DECEMBER), and 1907-1909.

ALLIANCES: Franco-Russian. Effect of Russo-Japanese War.

See (in this Volume) EUROPE: A. D. 1904-1909.

ALLIANCES: Great Britain with Japan.

See Japan: A. D. 1902, and 1905 (August).

ALLIANCES: The Triple Alliance.

See TRIPLE ALLIANCE.

ALMENARA, Dr. Domingo.

See (in this Volume) PERU.

ALSOP CLAIM, The.

See (in this Volume) CHILE: A. D. 1909.

ALVERSTONE, Sir Richard Everard Webster, Lord Chief Justice: On the Alaska Boundary Commission.

See (in this Volume) ALASKA: A. D. 1903.

ALVES, Rodriquez.

See (in this Volume) ACRE DISPUTES.

AMADE, General d’: Operations in Morocco.

See (in this Volume) MOROCCO: A. D. 1907-1909, and 1909.

AMADOR, Manuel: President of Panama.

See (in this Volume) PANAMA.

AMALGAMATED ASSOCIATION, of Iron, Steel, and Tin Plate Workers: Its strike in 1901.

See (in this Volume) Labor Organization, &c.: United States: A. D. 1901.

AMALGAMATED SOCIETY OF RAILWAY SERVANTS, British: In Taff Vale case.

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION, &c.: ENGLAND: A. D. 1900-1906.

AMALGAMATED SOCIETY OF RAILWAY SERVANTS, British: In strike of 1907

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION, &c.: ENGLAND: A. D. 1907-1909.

AMARAL, Admiral Ferreira do.

See (in this Volume) PORTUGAL: A. D. 1906-1909.

AMBAN, Chinese.

See (in this Volume) TIBET: A. D. 1902-1904.

AMERICAN CIVIC ASSOCIATION.

See (in this Volume) SOCIAL BETTERMENT: UNITED STATES.

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR.

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION, &c.: UNITED STATES.

"AMERICAN INVASION" OF CANADA, The.

See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1896-1909.

----------AMERICAN REPUBLICS: Start--------

AMERICAN REPUBLICS: The South and Central American nations: Their recent rapid advance in character, dignity, and importance.

Among the astonishing. changes that have come upon the political face of the world within a few years past, producing new arrangements of rank or standing and new distributions of influence in the great family of nations, the emergence of the South American republics from generally chronic disorder and obscure unimportance to a position, almost suddenly recognized, of present weight and dignity and great promise to the future, is far from the least.

In 1890, when Mr. Blaine, as Secretary of State, opened the first well-planned endeavor of our government to put itself into such relations with them, of friendly influence, as the elder and stronger in the family of American republics ought to hold, there was little appreciation of the importance of the movement. Even Mr. Blaine did not seem to be fully earnest and fully sanguine in it, or else his chief and his colleagues in the government were not heartily with him; for his admirable scheme of policy was almost wrecked in the second year of its working, by the unaccountable impatience and harshness with which President Harrison wrung humiliating apologies from Chili for a trifling offense in 1892. The seeming arrogance of power then manifested cast a reasonable suspicion on the motives with which the great republic of North America had made overtures of fraternity to the republics of the South, and it freshened an old distrust in their minds.

{20}

Happily, however, Mr. Blaine, in 1890, had brought about the creation of a harmonizing and unifying agency which needed only time to effect great results. This was the Bureau of the American Republics, established at Washington, by a vote of the delegates from eighteen North, South, and Central American governments, at an International American Conference, held in that city in March of the year named. Its immediate purpose was the promotion of commercial intercourse; but the information spread with that object, through all the countries concerned, has carried with it every kind of pacific understanding and stimulation. The common action with common interests thus organized must have had more than anything else to do with the generating of a public spirit, lately, in the Spanish-American countries, very different from any ever manifested before. It has wakened national ambitions in them and sobered the factious temper which kept them in political disorder so long.

Ten years ago, the Central and South American republics had so little standing among the nations that few of them were invited to the Peace Conference of 1900, and the invitation was accepted by none. Spanish America was represented by Mexico alone. At the conference of 1907 at The Hague there were delegates from all, and several among their delegates took a notably important part, giving a marked distinction to the peoples they represent. It was by a special effort on the part of our then Secretary of State that they were brought thus into the council of nations.

Mr. Root has had wonderful success, indeed, in realizing the aim of the policy projected and initiated by Mr. Blaine. He has cleared away the distrust and won the confidence of our fellow Americans at the middle and south of the continent, bringing them to a friendly acceptance of the leading which goes naturally with the power and the experience of these United States. The resulting weight in world politics of what may be called the Concert of America, paralleling the Concert of Europe, is one of the greater products of the present extraordinary time.

AMERICAN REPUBLICS: Their Second International Conference, at the City of Mexico, in 1901-1902. Its proceedings, conventions, resolutions, etc.

The First International Conference of American Republics was held at Washington in the winter and spring of 1889-1890, attended by delegates from eighteen Governments of the New World.

See, in Volume VI. of this work, American Republics.

On the suggestion of President McKinley, ten years later, and on the invitation of President Diaz, of Mexico, a second Conference was convened at the City of Mexico, on the 23d of October, 1901. The sessions of this Conference were prolonged until the 31st of January, 1902. It was attended by delegates from every independent nation then existing in America, being twenty in number; but the delegation of Venezuela was withdrawn by the Government of that State on the 14th of January, and the withdrawal was made retroactive to and from the preceding 31st of December. The delegation from the United States was composed of ex-United States Senator Henry G. Davis; Mr. William I. Buchanan, formerly Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic; Mr. John Barrett, formerly Minister Resident of the United States to Siam; and Messrs. Charles M. Pepper and Volney W. Foster.

The following account of the work of the Conference and its results is compiled from the report made by the delegates of the United States to the Department of State:

"Señor Raigosa, chairman of the Mexican delegation, was chosen temporary president, and the Conference then preceded to its permanent organization by the election of his excellency Señor Lic. Don Ignacio Mariscal, minister of foreign affairs of Mexico, and Honorable John Hay, Secretary of State of the United States, honorary presidents; Senor Lic. Don Genaro Raigosa, of Mexico, president; Senhor Don José Hygino Duarte Pereira, of Brazil, first vice-president, and Señor Doctor Don Baltasar Estupinian, of Salvador, second vice-president. … Under the rules adopted 19 committees were appointed and the work of the conference was apportioned among them. …

"Discussion between the representatives of the Republics that would constitute the conference began months previous to its opening upon the subject of arbitration, and while every desire was manifested then and thereafter by all to see a conclusion reached by the conference in which all might join, unsettled questions existed between some of the Republics that would participate in the conference of a character that made their avoidance difficult in any general discussion of the subject. … This difficulty became more apparent as the conference proceeded with its work. … It was tacitly agreed between delegations, therefore, that the discussion of the subject should be confined, so far as possible, to a committee. … There was at no time any difficulty with regard to securing a unanimous report favoring a treaty covering merely arbitration as a principle; all delegations were in favor of that. The point of discussion was as to the extent to which the principle should be applied. Concerning this, three views were supported in the conference: (a) Obligatory arbitration, covering all questions pending or future when they did not affect either independence or the national honor of a country; (b) Obligatory arbitration covering future questions only and defining what questions shall constitute those to be excepted from arbitration; and (c) Facultative or voluntary arbitration, as best expressed by The Hague convention. …

"A plan was finally suggested providing that all delegations should sign the protocol for adhesion to the convention of The Hague, as originally suggested by the United States delegation, and that the advocates of obligatory arbitration sign, between themselves, a project of treaty obligating their respective governments to submit to the permanent court at The Hague all questions arising or in existence, between themselves, which did not affect their independence or their national honor. Both the protocol and treaty were then to be brought before the conference, incorporated in the minutes without debate or action, and sent to the minister of foreign relations of Mexico, to be officially certified and transmitted by that official to the several signatory governments. After prolonged negotiations this plan was adopted and carried out as outlined above, all of the delegations in the conference, excepting those of Chile and Ecuador, signing the protocol covering adherence to The Hague convention before its submission to the conference. {21} These, after a protracted debate on a point of order involving the plan adopted, later accepted in open conference a solution which made them—as they greatly desired to be, in another form than that adopted—parties to the protocol. The project of treaty of compulsory arbitration was signed by the delegations of the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, Santo Domingo, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. …

"By the above plan the conference attained the highest possible end, and for the first time each of the American Republics, as a result of that action, takes her place by the side of the other countries of the world in favor of international arbitration; more than this, by the unanimous acceptance thus of The Hague convention on the part of the 19 Republics represented in the conference, it is given that force and character which places it to-day as the formal expression of the governments of the entire civilized world in favor of peace. The delegates of the United States believe, hence, that substantial progress and a noteworthy and historic step in advance has been taken in the interests of peace, and that means have been provided by which wars will be rendered less frequent, if not wholly avoided, between the countries of the Western Hemisphere. The opening of the doors of the permanent tribunal of The Hague to all of the Republics of America, as this protocol has done, is of itself an achievement of the greatest importance. As a result of this action the American Republics now have at their command the machinery of that great international body for the pacific settlement of any dispute they may desire to refer to arbitration. Beyond this the obligations imposed by their adhesion to the convention to have recourse, as far as circumstances allow, to the good offices or mediation of any one or more friendly powers, and to permit these offers to be made without considering them unfriendly, is certainly a point of great value gained by all.

"In addition to accepting The Hague convention the conference went further. It accepted the three Hague conventions as principles of public American international law, and authorized and requested the President of the Mexican Republic, as heretofore explained, to enter upon negotiations with the several American Governments looking toward the most unrestricted application of arbitration possible should the way for such a step appear open. In addition to the protocol and treaty referred to, another step was taken in the direction of the settlement of international controversies by the adoption and signing, on the part of every country represented in the conference, of a project of treaty covering the arbitration of pecuniary claims. Under this the several republics obligate themselves for a period of five years to submit to the arbitration of the court at The Hague all claims for pecuniary loss or damage which may be presented by their respective citizens and which cannot be amicably adjusted through diplomatic channels, when such claims are of sufficient importance to warrant the expense of arbitration. Should both parties prefer that a special jurisdiction be organized, according to article 21 of the convention of The Hague this may be done, and if the permanent court of The Hague shall not be open to one or more of the signatory republics for any cause, they obligate themselves to stipulate then in a special treaty the rules under which a tribunal shall be established for the adjustment of the matter in dispute and the form of procedure to be followed in such arbitration. As a supplement to the protocol and treaty above referred to, this project of treaty is of great importance and will most certainly be of wide benefit to the good relations and intercourse between the United States and her sister republics of this Hemisphere." …

"Among the most important recommendations made by the First International American Conference, held in Washington in 1889-1890, with a view to facilitating trade and communication between the American Republics, was that looking to the construction of an intercontinental railway, by which all of the republics on the American continent would be put into rail communication with each other. In pursuance of the recommendations of that conference, an international railway commission was organized, and under its direction surveys were made which showed that it would be entirely practicable, by using, as far as possible, existing railway systems and filling in the gaps between them. … The report of the intercontinental railway commission showed that the distance between New York and Buenos Ayres by way of the proposed line would be 10,471 miles, of which a little less than one-half had then been constructed, leaving about 5,456 miles to be built. Following up the work of the first conference and the intercontinental railway commission, the present conference adopted a strong report and a series of carefully considered recommendations on this subject. …

"The resolution … providing for the meeting of an international American customs congress in the city of New York within a year, to consider customs administrative matters, is one of the subjects on which early action should be taken by our Government if the success of the congress is to be assured. The governing board of the International Bureau of the American Republics is to fix the date for the meeting of this congress. … This congress will have nothing whatever to do with the subject of tariff rates in any of the countries represented. Its functions … briefly stated, are to consider means for bringing about, as far as may be practicable, the adoption by the several republics of uniform and simple methods of custom-house procedure and a uniform and simple system of port regulations and charges; measures to secure the adoption and use in customs schedules and laws of a common nomenclature of the products and merchandise of the American republics, to be issued in English, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and that it may become the basis for the statistical data of exports and imports; to provide for the organization of a permanent customs committee or commission, composed of persons having technical and expert knowledge, which, as a dependency of the International Bureau of the American Republics, or otherwise, shall be charged with the execution of the resolutions and decisions of the congress and the study of the customs laws of the American republics, in order to suggest to the several governments the adoption of laws and measures which, with regard to custom house formalities, may tend to simplify and facilitate mercantile traffic. …

{22}

"Another resolution which contemplates that early action must be taken by the several Governments is that regarding quarantine and sanitary matters. In dealing with this subject the object of the conference was to make sanitation take the place of quarantine. When the ideal had in view by the conference shall have been realized, the cities of the Western Hemisphere will have been put in such perfect sanitary condition that the propagation of disease germs in them will be impossible and quarantine restrictions upon travel and commerce, with their vexations and burdensome delays and expenses, will be unnecessary.

"The conference fully recognized the value and importance to all the Republics of the International Bureau of the American Republics, which was established in Washington in pursuance of the action of the First International American Conference. … With a view to rendering the Bureau still more useful to all the countries represented in its administration, and making it still more valuable in establishing and maintaining closer relations between them, the conference adopted a plan of reorganization, or rather of broadening and expanding the existing organization. … The new regulations adopted provide that the Bureau shall be under the management of a governing board to be composed of the Secretary of State of the United States, who is to be its chairman, and the diplomatic representatives in Washington of all the other governments represented in the Bureau. This governing board is to meet regularly once a month, excepting in June, July, and August of each year. …

"In order that the archæological and ethnological remains existing in the territory of the several Republics of the Western Hemisphere might be systematically studied and preserved, the conference adopted a resolution providing for the meeting of an American international archæological commission in the city of Washington, D. C., within two years from the date of the adoption of the resolution. …

"The conference gave its most hearty indorsement to the project for the construction of an interoceanic canal by the Government of the United States." …

"The recommendation of the conference that there be established in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Buenos Ayres, or any other important mercantile center, a bank with branches in the principal cities in the American republics, is in line with the similar resolution adopted by the First International American Conference in Washington in 1889-1890."

"In addition to the protocol for the adhesion of the American Republics to the Convention of The Hague, the treaty of compulsory arbitration signed by nine delegations, and the treaty for the arbitration of pecuniary claims, the Conference agreed to and signed a treaty for the extradition of criminals, … including a clause making anarchy an extraditable offense when it shall have been defined by the legislation of the respective countries; a convention on the practice of the learned professions, providing for the reciprocal recognition of the professional diplomas and titles granted in the several Republics; a convention for the formation of codes of public and private international law; … a convention on literary and artistic copyrights; … a convention for the exchange of official, scientific, literary, and industrial publications; … a treaty on patents of invention, etc.; … and a convention on the rights of aliens." The treaty on patents and the convention on the rights of aliens could not be signed by the delegates of the United States, for reasons set forth in their report.

"The delegates desire especially to express their most grateful appreciation of the courtesy extended by the Mexican Government in preparing for the comfort of delegates and in all the arrangements for the conference. Every convenience at the command of that Government was placed at the disposal of delegates to assist them in the discharge of their labors. …

"It is the belief of the delegates of the United States that the results of the Second International American Conference will be of great and lasting benefit to the nations participating in its deliberations. … That the relations between the American Republics have been improved as a result of the conference cannot be doubted. The intimate daily association for nearly four months, of leading men from every American Republic of itself tended toward this result. Delegates learned that, while existing international relations made differences of opinion inevitable between the representatives of some of the countries, they all had many interests in common. As a result, toleration for the opinions of others was shown by delegates to a marked degree, and the sessions of the conference were remarkably free from acrimonious debates and reflections on the policies of delegations or their Governments."

_57th Congress, 1st Session 1901-1902, Senate Document 330._

AMERICAN REPUBLICS: Their Third International Conference, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1906. Proceedings, conventions, resolutions.

The Third International Conference of American Republics was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from July 21st to August 26th, 1906. It was attended by delegates from each of the 21 American Republics, excepting only Hayti and Venezuela. The delegates from the United States of America were the Honorable William I. Buchanan, chairman, formerly Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic; Dr. L. S. Rowe, Professor of Political Science, University of Pennsylvania; Honorable A. J. Montague, ex-Governor of Virginia; Mr. Tulio Larrinaga, Resident Commissioner from Porto Rico in Washington; Mr. Paul S. Reinsch, Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin; Mr. Van Leer Polk, ex-Consul-General; with a staff of secretaries, etc., from several departments of the public service at Washington.

The Conference was attended also by the Secretary of State of the United States, the Honorable Elihu Root, incidentally to an important tour through many parts of South America which he made in the months of that summer. In the course of his journey he visited, on invitation, not only Brazil, but Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Panama, and Colombia; and, as stated in the next annual Message of President Roosevelt, "he refrained from visiting Paraguay, Bolivia, and Ecuador only because the distance of their capitals from the seaboard made it impracticable with the time at his disposal. He carried with him a message of peace and friendship, and of strong desire for good understanding and mutual helpfulness; and he was everywhere received in the spirit of his message."

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In the instructions to the delegates from the United States, prepared by Secretary Root, this wise admonition was conveyed:—

"It is important that you should keep in mind and, as occasion serves, impress upon your colleagues, that such a conference is not an agency for compulsion or a tribunal for adjudication; it is not designed to compel States to make treaties or to observe treaties; it should not sit in judgment upon the conduct of any State, or undertake to redress alleged wrongs, or to settle controverted questions of right. A successful attempt to give such a character to the Conference would necessarily be fatal to the Conference itself, for few if any of the States represented in it would be willing to submit their sovereignty to the supervision which would be exercised by a body thus arrogating to itself supreme and indefinite powers. The true function of such a conference is to deal with matters of common interest which are not really subjects of controversy, but upon which comparison of views and friendly discussion may smooth away differences of detail, develop substantial agreement and lead to coöperation along common lines for the attainment of objects which all really desire. It follows from this view of the functions of the Conference that it is not expected to accomplish any striking or spectacular final results; but is to deal with many matters which, not being subjects of controversy, attract little public attention, yet which, taken together, are of great importance for the development of friendly intercourse among nations; and it is to make such progress as may now be possible toward the acceptance of ideals, the full realization of which may be postponed to a distant future. All progress toward the complete reign of justice and peace among nations is accomplished by long and patient effort and by many successive steps; and it is confidently hoped that this Conference will mark some substantial advancement by all the American States in this process of developing Christian civilization. Not the least of the benefits anticipated from the Conference will be the establishment of agreeable personal relations, the removal of misconceptions and prejudices, and the habit of temperate and kindly discussion among the representatives of so many Republics."

The following account of the Conference and its action is derived from the subsequent official report of the Delegates of the United States:—

"The sessions of the Conference were held in a spacious and ornate building, erected especially for this purpose by the Brazilian Government, and situated on the superb new boulevard that for nearly four miles follows the shore of the Bay of Rio, and at the end of the new Avenida Central. The building is a permanent one, reproduced in granite and marble from the plans of the palace erected by Brazil at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, at St. Louis. It is surrounded by an exquisite garden, and, facing as it does the entrance to the wonderfully beautiful Bay of Rio, the building is a notable landmark. It was christened 'The Monroe Palace' by special action of the Brazilian Government. The Brazilian Government installed in the palace a complete telegraph, mail, and telephone service, and telegrams, cables, and mail of the different delegations and of individual delegates were transmitted free. Recognition is due in this connection to the governments of the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Chili, which officially extended, through the director of telegraphs of Brazil, the courtesy of free transit for all telegrams sent by delegates over the telegraph lines of their respective countries. This marked courtesy on the part of Brazil and of the Republics mentioned was greatly appreciated by the delegates. In connection with the work of the Conference, the Brazilian Government organized and maintained at its expense an extensive and competent corps of translators, stenographers, and clerical assistants, whose services were at all times at the command of the delegates. A buffet lunch, for the convenience and comfort of delegates and their guests, was maintained in the palace throughout the period of the Conference. The palace was elaborately lighted and was the center of attraction day and night for great crowds of people, and nothing in connection with its equipment and administration or that concerned the comfort or convenience of delegates was left undone by the Brazilian Government. The Monroe Palace now becomes a national meeting place for the people of Brazil. It will remain as an adornment of the splendid new Rio that has risen from the old city during the past two or three years, and as an evidence of the progress and energy of the Brazilian people.

"The Conference was formally opened in the presence of a large and distinguished audience on the evening of July 23, 1906, by His Excellency the Baron do Rio Branco, the distinguished Brazilian minister for foreign affairs. The approaches to the palace were lined with troops, the public grounds and avenues of the city brilliantly illuminated and packed with people. … The Conference unanimously chose as its president, His Excellency Señor Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, the Brazilian Ambassador to the United States; as honorary vice-presidents, His Excellency the Baron do Rio Branco, and the Honorable Elihu Root, Secretary of State of the United States, and as its Secretary-General, His Excellency, Señor Dr. J. F. de Assis-Brasil, the Brazilian envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to the Argentine Republic. The latter selected as his assistants one of the most competent and distinguished groups of men that has served any of the preceding conferences. … These officers left nothing undone toward aiding and facilitating the work of delegates, and to them the United States delegation feels greatly indebted for the many courtesies and the great kindness extended on all occasions.

"The conference was attended by delegates from each of the 21 American Republics, with the exception of Haiti and Venezuela." …

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"The distinguishing note of the Conference was the extraordinary session convened to receive the Secretary of State of the United States, Honorable Elihu Root, who, as stated earlier in this report, had been named one of the two honorary presidents of the Conference. The reception accorded the Secretary of State by the Conference was one of the most notable political events that has taken place in our relations with Central and South America, and manifested the feeling of good fellowship and sympathy that exists between the American Republics. We believe the visit of the Secretary of State to South America has resulted in greater good to our relations with Central and South America than any one thing that has heretofore taken place in our diplomatic history with them. The extraordinary session of the Conference to receive the Secretary of State was held on the evening of July 31 and was one of great brilliancy. In introducing the Secretary of State to the Conference, His Excellency Dr. Joaquim Nabuco, the Brazilian Ambassador to the United States and President of the Conference, delivered a notable address, to which the Secretary of State replied."

It was, indeed, a notable utterance of pregnant and impressive thought which Mr. Root addressed to this important congress of the American Republics, and it well deserved the distinction that was accorded to it by the President of the United States, when he appended it to his Message to Congress the following December. A considerable part of the brief but richly filled address may fitly be quoted here:

"I bring from my country," said the Secretary, "a special greeting to her elder sisters in the civilization of America. Unlike as we are in many respects, we are alike in this, that we are all engaged under new conditions, and free from the traditional forms and limitations of the Old World in working out the same problem of popular self-government.

"It is a difficult and laborious task for each of us. Not in one generation nor in one century can the effective control of a superior sovereign, so long deemed necessary to government, be rejected and effective self-control by the governed be perfected in its place. The first fruits of democracy are many of them crude and unlovely; its mistakes are many, its partial failures many, its sins not few. Capacity for self-government does not come to man by nature. It is an art to be learned, and it is also an expression of character to be developed among all the thousands of men who exercise popular sovereignty.

"To reach the goal toward which we are pressing forward, the governing multitude must first acquire knowledge that comes from universal education, wisdom that follows practical experience, personal independence and self-respect befitting men who acknowledge no superior, self-control to replace that external control which a democracy rejects, respect for law, obedience to the lawful expressions of the public will, consideration for the opinions and interests of others equally entitled to a voice in the state, loyalty to that abstract conception—one’s country—as inspiring as that loyalty to personal sovereigns which has so illumined the pages of history, subordination of personal interests to the public good, love of justice and mercy, of liberty and order. All these we must seek by slow and patient effort; and of how many shortcomings in his own land and among his own people each one of us is conscious!

"Yet no student of our times can fail to see that not America alone but the whole civilized world is swinging away from its old governmental moorings and intrusting the fate of its civilization to the capacity of the popular mass to govern. By this pathway mankind is to travel, whithersoever it leads. Upon the success of this our great undertaking the hope of humanity depends. Nor can we fail to see that the world makes substantial progress towards more perfect popular self-government. …

"It is not by national isolation that these results have been accomplished or that this progress can be continued. No nation can live unto itself alone and continue to live. Each nation’s growth is a part of the development of the race. There may be leaders and there may be laggards, but no nation can long continue very far in advance of the general progress of mankind, and no nation that is not doomed to extinction can remain very far behind. It is with nations as with individual men; intercourse, association, correction of egotism by the influence of others' judgment, broadening of views by the experience and thought of equals, acceptance of the moral standards of a community the desire for whose good opinion lends a sanction to the rules of right conduct—these are the conditions of growth in civilization. …

"To promote this mutual interchange and assistance between the American republics, engaged in the same great task, inspired by the same purpose, and professing the same principles, I understand to be the function of the American Conference now in session. There is not one of all our countries that cannot benefit the others; there is not one that cannot receive benefit from the others; there is not one that will not gain by the prosperity, the peace, the happiness of all. …

"The association of so many eminent men from all the Republics, leaders of opinion in their own homes; the friendships that will arise among you; the habit of temperate and kindly discussion of matters of common interest; the ascertainment of common sympathies and aims; the dissipation of misunderstandings; the exhibition to all the American peoples of this peaceful and considerate method of conferring upon international questions—this alone, quite irrespective of the resolutions you may adopt and the conventions you may sign, will mark a substantial advance in the direction of international good understanding.

"These beneficent results the Government and the people of the United States of America greatly desire. We wish for no victories but those of peace; for no territory except our own; for no sovereignty except the sovereignty over ourselves. We deem the independence and equal rights of the smallest and weakest member of the family of nations entitled to as much respect as those of the greatest empire, and we deem the observance of that respect the chief guaranty of the weak against the oppression of the strong. We neither claim nor desire any rights, or privileges, or powers that we do not freely concede to every American republic. We wish to increase our prosperity, to expand our trade, to grow in wealth, in wisdom, and in spirit, but our conception of the true way to accomplish this is not to pull down others and profit by their ruin, but to help all friends to a common prosperity and a common growth, that we may all become greater and stronger together.

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"Within a few months, for the first time the recognized possessors of every foot of soil upon the American continents can be and I hope will be represented with the acknowledged rights of equal sovereign states in the great World Congress at The Hague. This will be the world’s formal and final acceptance of the declaration that no part of the American continents is to be deemed subject to colonization. Let us pledge ourselves to aid each other in the full performance of the duty to humanity which that accepted declaration implies; so that in time the weakest and most unfortunate of our republics may come to march with equal step by the side of the stronger and more fortunate. Let us help each other to show that for all the races of men the liberty for which we have fought and labored is the twin sister of justice and peace. Let us unite in creating and maintaining and making effective an all-American public opinion, whose power shall influence international conduct and prevent international wrong, and narrow the causes of war, and forever preserve our free lands from the burden of such armaments as are massed behind the frontiers of Europe, and bring us ever nearer to the perfection of ordered liberty. So shall come security and prosperity, production and trade, wealth, learning, the arts, and happiness for us all."

The fruits of the Conference were embodied in four conventions and a number of important resolutions. The text of a convention agreed to, which establishes between the States signing it the status of naturalized citizens who again take up their residence in the country of their origin, will be found elsewhere in this Volume, under the subject-heading Naturalization. Another, which amends and extends the operation of a treaty signed at the Second Conference, at Mexico, in 1902 (see above) is as follows:—

"Sole article. The treaty on pecuniary claims signed at Mexico January thirtieth, nineteen hundred and two, shall continue in force, with the exception of the third article, which is hereby abolished, until the thirty-first day of December, nineteen hundred and twelve, both for the nations which have already ratified it, and for those which may hereafter ratify it."

The third Convention signed was a modification and extension of another of the agreements of the Second Conference, at Mexico, having relation to patents of invention, literary property, etc. The fourth Convention provides for an "international Commission of Jurists, composed of one representative from each of the signatory States, appointed by their respective Governments, which Commission shall meet for the purpose of preparing a draft of a code of Private International Law and one of Public International Law, regulating the relations between the nations of America." The more important of the resolutions adopted were the following:

"To ratify adherence to the principle of arbitration; and, to the end that so high a purpose may be rendered practicable, to recommend to the Nations represented at this Conference that instructions be given to their Delegates to the Second Conference to be held at The Hague, to endeavor to secure by the said Assembly, of world-wide character, the celebration of a General Arbitration Convention, so effective and definite that, meriting the approval of the civilized world, it shall be accepted and put in force by every nation."

"To recommend to the Governments represented therein that they consider the point of inviting the Second Peace Conference, at The Hague, to examine the question of the compulsory collection of public debts, and, in general, means tending to diminish between Nations conflicts having an exclusively pecuniary origin."

Other resolutions of the Conference were directed to a broadening of the work and an enlargement of the influence of the International Bureau of the American Republics; to the erection of a building for that Bureau and for the contemplated Library in Memory of Columbus; to the creation in the Bureau of a section having "as its chief object a special study of the customs legislation, consular regulations and commercial statistics of the Republics of America," with a view to bringing them into more harmony, and to securing the greatest development and amplification of commercial relations between American Republics; to promote the establishment and maintenance of navigation lines connecting the principal ports of the American continent; to bring about more effective cooperation in international sanitary measures; to advance the construction of lines that shall form, connectedly, the desired Pan-American Railway, extending through the two continents.

The time and place of future conferences are to be determined by the Governing Board of the Bureau of American Republics.

AMERICAN REPUBLICS: The International Bureau: Its increased efficiency. The gift of a building to it by Mr. Carnegie.

The International Bureau of the American Republics, instituted at Washington in 1890 (see in Volume VI. of this work), assumed larger functions and increased importance in 1906, after the return of Mr. Root, United States Secretary of State, from his tour of visits to the South American States. The Honorable John Barrett, who had successively represented the Government of the United States in Panama, in Argentina and in Colombia, as well as at the Second Pan-American Conference, in Mexico, was made Director of the Bureau, and entered upon its duties with an exalted belief in the possibilities of good to be done in the American hemisphere by an energetic promotion of more intimate relations between its peoples. At the same time a new dignity was given to the International Union of the American Republics, embodied in the work of the Bureau, by the provision of a stately building for its use. Mr. Root had persuaded Congress to appropriate $200,000 for the site and building of such a home, to be offered to the Union, and this inadequate sum was supplemented by a generous private gift. It was easy to interest Mr. Andrew Carnegie in a project which bore so directly on the promotion of international friendliness and peace, and he offered an addition of $750,000 to the fund for the Pan-American Building.

The site secured for the structure is that of the old Van Ness mansion, about half-way between the State, War and Navy Building and the Potomac River. It covers a tract of five acres, facing public parks on two sides. There the corner stone of a central seat of Pan-American coöperations and influences was laid in May, 1908, in the presence of official representatives from twenty-one American republics, and under their assembled flags.

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AMERICAN SCHOOL PEACE LEAGUE, The.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1908.

AMERICAN SOCIETY OF EQUITY.

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION, &c.: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1902-1909.

AMERICAN SUGAR REFINING COMPANY (the "Sugar Trust").

See (in this Volume) COMBINATIONS, INDUSTRIAL, &c.: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1907-1909, and 1909.

AMSTERDAM: A. D. 1907. Meeting of International Woman Suffrage Alliance.

See (in this Volume) Elective Franchise: Woman Suffrage.

AMUNDSEN, Roald: Arctic Exploration. Magnetic Pole Researches.

See (in this Volume) POLAR EXPLORATION.

ANAM: Deposition of the King.

Toward the end of 1906, France asserted sovereignty over Anam, which had been a French Protectorate for many years, by adjudging its king to be insane, placing him in confinement, and thus ending his reign. He was accused of almost incredible atrocities, in torturing and murdering his wives and other subjects within his reach. Even cannibalism was included among his alleged crimes.

ANARCHISM IN INDIA.

See (in this Volume) INDIA: A. D. 1907-1908, and 1907-1909.

ANATOLIAN RAILWAY.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: TURKEY: A. D. 1899-1909.

ANDERSON, Judge A. B.: Acquittal of the Standard Oil Company.

See (in this Volume) COMBINATIONS, INDUSTRIAL, &c.: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1904-1909.

ANDRASSY, Count.

See (in this Volume) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1905-1906.

ANGELL, James Burrill: Retirement from Presidency of University of Michigan.

See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1909.

ANGLE HILL, Capture of.

See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904-1905 (MAY-JANUARY).

ANJUMAN, ENJUMEN.

A term which seems to signify in Persia either a local assembly or a political association of any nature.

See (in this Volume) PERSIA: A. D. 1908-1909.

ANNUITIES, for Workingmen.

See POVERTY, PROBLEMS OF.

ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.

See POLAR EXPLORATION.

ANTHRACITE COAL: The Railroad Monopoly.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1906-1909.

ANTHRACITE COAL STRIKES.

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: UNITED STATES.

ANTI-REBATE LEGISLATION.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1870-1908, and 1903 (FEBRUARY).

ANTI-SEMITIC DEMONSTRATIONS.

See (in this Volume) JEWS.

ANTI-TRUST, or Sherman Act, of 1890 .

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1890-1902.

ANTI-TRUST DECISIONS, in United States Courts.

See (in this Volume) SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES.

ANTUNG: Opened to Foreign Trade.

See (in this Volume) CHINA: A. D. 1903 (MAY-OCTOBER).

ANTUNG-MUKDEN RAILWAY QUESTION, between Japan and China.

See (in this Volume) CHINA: A. D. 1905-1909

APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTION OF THE CURIA.

See (in this Volume) PAPACY: A. D. 1908.

APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FORESTS, Preservation of the.

See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: UNITED STATES.

APPONYI, Count Albert.

See (in this Volume) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1904; 1905-1906; 1908-1909.

ARABIA: A. D. 1903-1905. "Holy War" with the Sultan opened by the Sheik Hamid Eddin, of the Hadramaut, claiming the Caliphate.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1903-1905.

ARBITRATION, INDUSTRIAL.

See LABOR ORGANIZATION.

ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL: General Treaties, since the First Peace Conference, of 1899.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1899-1909.

ARBITRATION, SPECIAL: Of the Pious Fund Dispute between Mexico and the United States.

See (in this Volume) MEXICO: A. D. 1902 (MAY).

ARBITRATION, OF CLAIMS AGAINST VENEZUELA.

See (in this Volume) VENEZUELA: A. D. 1902-1904.

ARBITRATION, Of Alaska Boundary, between the United States and Great Britain.

See (in this Volume) ALASKA: A. D. 1903.

ARBITRATION, Of Brazil and British Guiana: Boundary Dispute.

See (in this Volume) BRAZIL: A. D. 1904.

ARBITRATION, Of Great Britain and Russia: The Dogger Bank Incident.

See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904-1905 (OCTOBER-MAY).

ARBITRATION, Of Fisheries Questions between the United States and Great Britain.

See (in this Volume) NEWFOUNDLAND: A. D. 1905-1909.

ARBITRATION, Central American Court of Justice.

See (in this Volume) CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1907.

ARBITRATION, Of Casablanca Incident, between Germany and France, at The Hague.

See (in this Volume) MOROCCO: A. D. 1907-1909.

ARCTIC EXPLORATION.

See (in this Volume) POLAR EXPLORATION.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1901-1906. Participation in Second and Third International Conferences of American Republics, at Rio de Janeiro.

See (in this Volume) AMERICAN REPUBLICS.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1902. Noble ending of naval rivalries with Chile. A model arbitration treaty.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1902.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1903. The Foreign Population.

"Statistics of 1903 showed 1,000,000 foreigners in Argentina in a total of 5,000,000. Of these 500,000 were Italians, 200,000 Spaniards, 100,000 French, 25,000 English, 18,000 Germans, 15,000 Swiss, 13,000 Austrians, and the remainder of many nationalities. The number of Americans did not exceed 1,500, although many are coming now, to go into cattle-raising and farming in the country or into all kinds of business in Buenos Ayres. English influence is very strong, especially in financial circles, with the Germans almost equally active."

_John Barret, Argentina (American Review of Reviews, July, 1905)._

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1904. Inauguration of President Quintana.

Dr. Manuel Quintana, elected President of the Republic, was inaugurated on the 12th of October, 1904, and entered on an administration which promised much good to the country.

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ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1905. A revolutionary movement promptly suppressed.

A revolutionary undertaking, in Buenos Aires and several provinces, had its outbreak on the 4th of February, but was suppressed so promptly that the public disturbance by it was very brief. Particulars of the affair were reported by the American Minister at Buenos Aires, Mr. Beaupré, as follows:

"On the afternoon of the 3d instant rumors of an intended movement subversive of the established government of this country came to the Federal authorities from various parts of the Republic. These rumors were at first discredited, but finally proved so persistent that the President and heads of the various departments of the government proceeded to take measures of precaution. In the early hours of the morning of the next day, the 4th instant, the anticipated outbreak came simultaneously in the capital, Rosario, Mendoza, Cordoba, and Bahia Blanca, these being the largest cities of the Republic and the principal political and military centers.

"In the capital the plan of the revolutionists seems to have been to attack the police stations and military arsenal, with a view perhaps of forcing the police of the capital into their ranks and of supplying themselves with arms and munitions. At the arsenal, by a simple stratagem of the minister of war, the malcontents were lured into the building and arrested. About the police stations there was some fighting, particularly at Station No. 14; but the insurgents proved unprepared and insufficiently organized, so that by dawn the movement had completely failed in this city. Except that many of the shops remained closed throughout the day of the 4th, and except for the presence of armed police in the streets, there were no evidences of any revolutionary effort. Some half dozen fatalities are reported.

"The prompt and effective suppression of the revolution in this city is due in large measure to the energy and judgment displayed by the President and his ministers, who spent the entire night in the Government House in council. Following up the precautionary measures of the 3d instant and the active measures of the night of the 3d and 4th, the President proceeded at 8 A. M. of the 4th to declare the Republic in a state of siege for a period of thirty days, to call out the reserves and to establish a censorship of the press and of the telegraph service.

"The movement in Rosario was about as brief and unsuccessful as that in the capital, so that by the forenoon of the 4th it was known to have failed in the two principal cities of the Republic. Here there was also some blood shed.

"In the meantime the real center of the movement was the city of Cordoba, while serious trouble seemed in view in the city of Mendoza, where the revolutionists were said to be in a strong position, and in the province of Buenos Aires, where troops and marines were already in movement from Bahia Blanca upon the capital."

Forces despatched to those points made as quick an ending of the revolt there as at the capital. "The revolutionary forces at Cordoba had made prisoners of the vice-president of the Republic, Dr. Figueroa Alcorta, and other prominent citizens. These prominent men they are reported to have proposed putting in their vanguard unless concessions were made to them. This and the conditions of the revolutionists the vice-president telegraphed to the Executive, who did not allow himself to be moved by threats or even by sympathy for his colleague. Consequently the revolutionists, finding threats and resistance vain, fled yesterday before the government troops arrived. With the failure of the movement in Cordoba the revolution is considered at an end and the country has returned to its former condition of peace and tranquillity."

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1906. Death of its President.

Dr. Manuel Quintana, the much esteemed President of the Argentine Republic, died in March, 1906, and was succeeded by the Vice-President, Dr. Figuero Alcorta, who will fill the office until 1910.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1908. Dreadnought building.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1909. Assassination of Colonel Falcon.

As Colonel Falcon, Prefect of Police at Buenos Ayres, was returning from a funeral, with his secretary, on the 14th of November, a bomb was thrown into the carriage and exploded, with fatal effects to both. The assassin, a youth of nineteen years, was captured. The murder had been preceded by a number of bomb explosions in the past six months, all attributed to anarchists from Europe, of whom large numbers were said to have been collected in Buenos Ayres.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1909. Chief food supply to Great Britain.

"How many readers of _The Times_ (said a special correspondent of the _London Times_ writing from Buenos Aires, October 15, 1909), if asked to name the country which supplied the United Kingdom last year with the largest quantity of wheat, of maize, and of refrigerated and frozen cattle, would unhesitatingly award the first place to the Argentine Republic? How many English people realize that this South American Republic is changing places with the North American Republic in the exporting of these and other food products to the United Kingdom? The Argentine Republic last year occupied, and may in the future occupy, the first, whilst the United States may have to be content with the second, place in the exportation of foodstuffs. The change is partly due to the shortage of meat in America, and partly to the fact that with their increasing population the United States will have less and less surplus provisions with which to supply the world. Last year, the Argentine Republic sent England three times more maize than the United States did, something like four and a half million cwt. more wheat, and considerably over twice the amount of refrigerated and frozen cattle. The shipments of meat are considerably heavier for the first nine months of 1909, so the proportion shipped by the Argentine Republic is not likely to be less for the present year."

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1909. Arbitration of the Acre boundary dispute between Bolivia and Peru.

See (in this Volume) ACRE DISPUTES.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1909. Building of the Transandine Railway Tunnel.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: ARGENTINA-CHILE.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1910. Agreement with Uruguay concerning the River Plate.

The following message came from Buenos Ayres on the 6th of January, 1910: "A burning question between Argentina and Uruguay, which for two years was seemingly insoluble and possibly involved Brazil, has been settled by Señor Roque Saenz-Peña.

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As Argentine Plenipotentiary he signed a Protocol at Montevideo yesterday, of which the following is a summary: Recognizing the reciprocal desire for friendly relations, fortified by the common origin of the two nations, the parties agree to declare that past differences are not capable of being regarded as a cause of offence and shall not be allowed to continue. The navigation and use of the waters of the River Plate will continue as heretofore without alteration, and differences which may arise in the future will be removed and settled in the same spirit of cordiality."

ARICA-LA PAZ RAILWAY.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: CHILE-BOLIVIA.

ARICA QUESTION.

See (in this Volume) CHILE: A. I). 1907.

ARID LANDS, Reclamation of.

See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

ARIZONA: Refusal of statehood in union with New Mexico.

See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1906.

ARMENIANS: A. D. 1903-1904. Incursions of Armenian revolutionists from Russia and Persia. Exaggerated accounts of massacre.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1903-1904.

ARMENIANS: A. D. 1905. Massacre by Tartars in the Caucasus.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1905 (FEBRUARY-NOVEMBER).

ARMENIANS: A. D. 1909. Massacre at Adana and vicinity.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY-MAY) and (APRIL-DECEMBER).

ARMAMENTS. Armies.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE PREPARATION FOR.

ARMOUR & CO.,et al., The case of the United States against.

See (in this Volume) COMBINATIONS, INDUSTRIAL: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1903-1906.

ARMOUR PACKING COMPANY: Decision against in rebating case.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1908.

ARMSTRONG, Vice-Consul J. P.: Reports on affairs in the Congo State.

See (in this Volume) CONGO STATE: A. D. 1906-1909.

ARMSTRONG INVESTIGATION COMMITTEE.

See (in this Volume) INSURANCE, LIFE.

ARNOLDSEN, K. P.

See (in this Volume) NOBEL PRIZES.

ARRHENIUS, SVANTE AUGUST.

See (in this Volume) NOBEL PRIZES.

ARYA SAMAJ, The:

This is "an organization founded in Bombay more than 30 years ago by a devout Gujerati Brahmin who was born in Kathiawar. So far as I am aware, it has few followers in Bombay nowadays: but in the last few years it has waxed very strong in the Punjab. Originally it was a purely religious movement, based upon the teaching of the Vedas. It promotes the abolition of caste and idolatry, condemns early marriages, and permits the remarriage of widows. At the same time it is violently hostile to Christianity. There can be no question that large numbers of members of the Arya Samaj are only concerned with its spiritual side; but there can be equally no question that the organization, as a whole, has developed marked political tendencies subversive of British rule. …

"In the United Provinces it is believed that there are now about 40,000 members of the Arya Samaj. I have entirely failed to secure any trustworthy estimate of the number of its members in this province [the Punjab], but there are flourishing branches of the Samaj in every large town and in many of the important villages, and proselytism is being actively pursued with marked success. The members of the Samaj strenuously deny that their organization has a political side. The literature of the sect, and particularly the writings of their founder, the ardent ascetic Dayanand Saraswati, who came from Kathiawar, show no trace of any interest in mundane politics. Dayanand was an enthusiast who denounced the idolatrous tendencies of modern Hinduism, and advocated a return to the earlier, purer faith. … Dayanand’s clarion call of "Back to the Vedas" produced a complete revulsion of feeling, and he made the Punjab a stronghold of the new creed. For that reason, the Arya Samaj is to this day the bitterest opponent of Christianity in India; and Punjabi Mahomedans declare that it is also their most formidable foe."

_India correspondence of The Times._

ASHOKAN RESERVOIR.

See (in this Volume) NEW YORK CITY: A. D. 1905-1909.

ASIATIC IMMIGRATION: The resistance to it in South Africa, Australia, America, and elsewhere.

See (in this Volume) RACE PROBLEMS.

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry, Chancellor of the Exchequer.

See (in this Volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1905 (DECEMBER), and 1905-1906.

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry: On the German attitude toward an international reduction of naval armaments.

See (in this Volume) WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR.

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry: Address at the Imperial Conference of 1907 on Preferential Trade.

See (in this Volume) BRITISH EMPIRE: A. D. 1907.

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry: Prime Minister.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1908 (APRIL).

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry: On the rejection of the Licensing Bill by the House of Lords.

See (in this Volume) Alcohol Problem: England: A. D. 1908.

ASQUITH, Mr. Herbert Henry: On the Budget of 1909.

See (in this Volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1909 (APRIL-DECEMBER).

ASIA: The Asiatic future of Russia as it appeared at the beginning of the twentieth century.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA.

ASSAM: United with Eastern Bengal.

See (in this Volume) INDIA: A. D. 1905-1909.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of King Alexander, Queen Draga, and others of the Servian Court.

See (in this Volume) BALKAN AND DANUBIAN STATES: SERVIA.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Count Alexei Ignatief.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1906.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Ali Akbar Khan, the Atabek Azam.

See (in this Volume) PERSIA: A. D. 1907.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Ashutosh Biswas.

See (in this Volume) INDIA: A. D. 1907-1908.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of the Atabeg-i-Azam.

See (in this Volume) PERSIA: A. D. 1907 (JANUARY-SEPTEMBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of General Beckman.

See (in this Volume) DENMARK: A. D. 1909 (JUNE).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Governor-General Bobrikoff.

See (in this Volume) FINLAND: A. D. 1904.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of M. Bogoliepoff, Russian Minister of Instruction.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A D. 1901-1904.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of King Carlos I. and Crown Prince Luiz Felipe.

See (in this Volume) PORTUGAL: A. D. 1906-1909.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Sir Curzon-Wyllie.

See (in this Volume) INDIA: A. D. 1909 (JULY).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Premier Delyannis.

See (in this Volume) GREECE: A. D. 1905.

{29}

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Colonel Falcon.

See (in this Volume) ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D). 1909.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Fehim Pasha.

See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1908 (JULY-DECEMBER), and 1909 (JANUARY-MAY).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Prince Ito.

See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1909 (OCTOBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Colonel Karpoff.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1909 (DECEMBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of President McKinley.

See (in this Volume) BUFFALO: A. D. 1901; and UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901 (SEPTEMBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of General Min.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1906 (AUGUST).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of M. Plehve.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1901-1904.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of General Sakharoff.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1904-1905.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Count Schouvaloff.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1905 (FEBRUARY-NOVEMBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Grand Duke Sergius.

See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1904-1905.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of Shemsi Pasha.

See TURKEY: A. D. 1908 (JULY-DECEMBER).

ASSASSINATIONS: Of M. Sipiagin.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1901-1904.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of ex-Governor Steunenberg, of Idaho.

See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: UNITED STATES. A. D. 1899-1907.

ASSASSINATIONS: Of D. W. Stevens.

See KOREA: A. D. 1905-1909.

ASSASSINATIONS: Attempted murder of Minister Stolypin.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1906 (AUGUST).

ASSINIBOIA: Absorbed in the Province of Saskatchewan.

See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1905.

ASSIS-BRAZIL, Dr. J. F.: Secretary-general of Third International Conference of American Republics.

See (in this Volume) AMERICAN REPUBLICS.

ASSOCIATIONS, Law: French.

See (in this Volume) FRANCE: A. D. 1902 (APRIL-OCTOBER), and 1903.

ASSOCIATIONS, Law: German.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1908 (APRIL).

ASSUAN DAM, Completion of.

See (in this Volume) EGYPT: A. D. 1902 (DECEMBER).

ASTRONOMY OF THE INVISIBLE.

See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION.

ATABEG-I-AZAM: Premier of Persia. His assassination.

See (in this Volume) PERSIA: A. D. 1907 (JANUARY-SEPTEMBER).

ATABEGS, ATABEKS.

See (in this Volume) Persia: A. D. 1905-1906.

ATCHINESE, Dutch hostilities with the.

See (in this Volume) NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1904.

ATHABASCA: Absorbed in the Provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan.

See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1905.

ATLANTA: A. D. 1906. Anti-Negro Riot.

See (in this Volume) RACE PROBLEMS: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1906.

ATWATER, Professor W. O.

See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT: CARNEGIE INSTITUTION.

AUSGLEICH, Austro-Hungarian.

See (in this Volume) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1902-1903, and 1907.

----------AUSTRALIA: Start--------

AUSTRALIA: The Race Problem. Reasons for dread of Asiatic immigration. The demand for a white Australia.

See (in this Volume) RACE PROBLEMS.

AUSTRALIA: Woman Suffrage.

See (in this Volume) ELECTIVE FRANCHISE: WOMAN SUFFRAGE.

AUSTRALIA: Government ownership of railways. Disconnecting gauges in the several states.

See (in this Volume) RAILWAYS: AUSTRALIA.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1901-1902. The Tariff Question in the First Parliament of the Commonwealth. Issue between the Senate and the Representative Chamber.

"The tariff originally proposed by the government was framed on lines of extreme protection, with special reference to the languishing industries of Victoria; it was inevitable that the opposition, mainly representing New South Wales, should fight tooth and nail to prevent its becoming law. The result of the struggle, which lasted almost without a serious interruption for nine months, has been a compromise which leaves the tariff of the commonwealth neither one thing nor the other. There can be little doubt that in debating power and political generalship the victory lay generally with the opposition; but after all the result, so far as it was a victory for the party of free trade, was due to the action of the Senate.

"To many, and apparently not least to the cabinet, the prompt and effective interference of the Senate in a question of taxation, which was generally supposed to be practically placed by the constitution almost as much beyond their control as custom has placed it beyond that of the House of Lords in England, was a great surprise, and as the first test of the respective powers of the two chambers of the legislature it can hardly fail to be of great political importance. It was provided by the constitution not only that all bills involving the taxation of the people, directly or indirectly, should, as in this country, originate in the representative chamber of the legislature, but further that such bills should not be altered or amended in their passage through the Senate. As a concession to the less populous states, it was agreed when the constitution was framed that while only the chamber, elected on a strict basis of population, should impose or control taxation, the Senate, in which all the states enjoy, as in America, equal representation, should have the right to suggest, for the consideration of the other chamber, any amendments it thought desirable in any money bill sent on for its assent. This provision, mild and inoffensive as it was supposed to be, has now been used in a way to upset the policy of the government, and practically to compel the assent of the representative chamber to the views of a Senate majority. The tariff bill as passed by the government majority was subjected to an exhaustive criticism by the Senate, and finally fully fifty items of the schedule imposing duties were referred back to the representative chamber, with a request for their reconsideration and reduction or excision.

{30}

"The government attempted to meet the difficulty by agreeing to a few trifling amendments on the lines suggested, and got the chamber peremptorily to reject all the others, sending the bill back in effect as it was. To this the Senate replied by calmly adhering to the views it had already expressed, and sending the bill back again for further consideration, allowing it to be pretty plainly understood that, in the event of their views being ignored, they would place their reasons on record and reject the bill altogether, thus preventing any uniform tariff being established during the session. Face to face with so grave a difficulty the cabinet gave way, and agreed to a compromise which they would not have dreamed of doing but for the action of the Senate, with its free-trade majority of two votes. The immediate result of the long struggle has been the passing of a tariff act which pleases neither party, but will apparently raise the required revenue of $40,000,000, needed to meet the wants of the federal and state governments."

_Hugh H. Lusk, The First Parliament of Australia (American Review of Reviews, March, 1903)_.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1902. The "States Rights" temper. Question of constitutional relations between Commonwealth and States in external affairs, as raised by South Australia. Decision of the Imperial Government.

"State-rights" questions and the provincialistic spirit behind them made a prompt appearance in the Australian Commonwealth after its federation was accomplished. One of the first wrangles to occur between the General Government and that of a State was appealed necessarily to the Imperial Government at London, because it arose out of a call from the latter, in September, 1902, for information about an incident which concerned a Dutch ship. The request for information went from London to the Commonwealth Government, and from the latter to the Government of South Australia, where the incident in question occurred, involving some act of its officials. The South Australian Ministry declined to pass the desired information through the channel of the Commonwealth Ministry, but would give it to the British Colonial Office, direct. A long triangular argumentative correspondence ensued, in the course of which much that seems like a repetition of the early history of the United States of America appears. Such as this, for example, in one of the letters of the Acting Premier of South Australia to the Lieutenant-Governor of that State: "The importance to the States, especially to the smaller States, of strictly maintaining the lines of demarcation between Commonwealth and State power is manifest. Already a movement has begun to destroy the Federal element in the Constitution. A remarkable indication of this may be gathered from a speech made by Sir William Lyne, the Commonwealth Minister for Home Affairs, at Kalgoorlie, in Western Australia, on the 2nd day of the present month. Speaking of the Constitution, Sir William Lyne said: 'If the population increased in the States as he expected, he did not think three of the larger States would still consent to be governed by four of the smaller ones. He hoped that when the time came there would not be bloodshed, but that things would settle themselves in a manner worthy of the records of the first Parliament.’

"Believing, as Ministers do, that the peaceful and successful working of the Constitution depends upon the strict maintenance of the lines of demarcation between the powers of the Commonwealth and those of the States, and that that line is drawn clearly in the Constitution, they cannot agree to the opinions of the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the Colonies, which increase, by implication, the power of the Commonwealth, and which seem to Ministers to tend to Unification, and to a sacrifice of the Federal to the National principle."

This communication, transmitted to London, drew from the then Colonial Secretary, Mr. Chamberlain, an unanswerable reply, addressed to the Lieutenant-Governor and dated April 15, 1903, in part as follows:

"Your Ministers contend ‘that the grant of power to the Commonwealth, notwithstanding the general terms of Section 3 of the Act, is strictly limited to the Departments transferred, and to matters upon which the Commonwealth Parliament has power to make laws and has made laws,’ and that ‘in the distribution of legislative and consequently of executive power, made by the Constitution, all powers not specifically ceded to the Commonwealth remain in the States.’

"They are unable to agree ‘with the contention that there does not appear to be anything in the Constitution to justify this limitation,’ and argue that the validity of any claim of the Commonwealth to any particular power, should be tested by enquiring:—Does the Constitution specifically confer the power?

"The view of the Act which I take is that it is a Constitution Act, and creates a new political community. It expressly declares that ‘the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania, and also, if Her Majesty is satisfied that the people of Western Australia have agreed thereto, of Western Australia, shall be united in a Federal Commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth of Australia.’ The object and scope of the Act is defined and declared by the preamble to be to give effect to the agreement of the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania 'to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and under the Constitution hereby established.’

"The whole Act must be read in the light of this declaration and the provisions of Section 3. So far as other communities in the Empire or foreign nations are concerned, the people of Australia form one political community for which the Government of the Commonwealth alone can speak, and for everything affecting external states or communities, which takes place within its boundaries, that Government is responsible. The distribution of powers between the Federal and State Authorities is a matter of purely internal concern of which no external country or community can take any cognizance. It is to the Commonwealth and the Commonwealth alone that, through the Imperial Government, they must look, for remedy or relief for any action affecting them done within the bounds of the Commonwealth, whether it is the act of a private individual, of a State official, or of a State government. The Commonwealth is, through His Majesty’s Government, just as responsible for any action of South Australia affecting an external community as the United States of America are for the action of Louisiana or any other State of the Union.

{31}

"The Crown undoubtedly remains part of the constitution of the State of South Australia and, in matters affecting it in that capacity, the proper channel of communication is between the Secretary of State and the State Governor. But in matters affecting the Crown in its capacity as the central authority of the Empire, the Secretary of State can, since the people of Australia have become one political community, look only to the Governor-General, as the representative of the Crown in that community."

The published correspondence ends with this, and it is to be assumed that South Australia had no more to say.

_Correspondence respecting the Constitutional Relations of the Australian Commonwealth and States in regard to External Affairs (Parliamentary Papers, Cd. 1587)._

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1902. British Colonial Conference at London.

See (in this Volume) BRITISH EMPIRE.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1902. The Governor-Generalship.

The office of Governor-General was resigned by Lord Hopetoun in the summer, and he was succeeded by Lord Tennyson.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1902-1909. Undertakings of irrigation and forestry.

See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: AUSTRALIA.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1903. The Governor-Generalship.

In August, Lord Northcote, previously Governor of the Presidency of Bombay, was appointed Governor-General of Australia, succeeding Lord Tennyson.

AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1903-1904. Resignation of Premier Barton. The Deakin Ministry. Four months of power for the Labor Party. Its influence in the Commonwealth.

Sir Edmund Barton, who had been the Prime Minister of the Australian Commonwealth since its Union in 1900 (see Australia in Volume VI. of this work), resigned in 1903 to accept a place on the bench of the High Federal Court, and was succeeded by Mr. Alfred Deakin, previously Attorney-General in the Federal Cabinet. The most important occurrence of the year in the Commonwealth was the election of a new House of Representatives in the Federal Parliament and of one third of its Senate. These were the first federal elections occurring since those of 1900 which constituted the original Parliament, opened in May, 1901, and the first in which women went to the polls. The main issue in the elections was between the Labor Party and its opponents, and the rising power of the former was shown by its gain of six seats in each House, four from the Ministry and two from the opposition in the Senate, and all six from the Ministry in the lower House. This threw the balance of power into its hands in both branches of Parliament. Naturally, in these circumstances, labor questions became dominant in Australian politics, with Socialistic tendencies very strong.

The Deakin Ministry was defeated in April, 1904, on an industrial arbitration bill which excluded State railway employés and other civil servants from its provisions, contrary to the demands of the Labor Party. The adverse majority was made up of 23 Labor representatives, 13 opponents of the protectionist policy of the Government, and 4 from the ranks of its own ordinary supporters. The ministry resigned, and the leader of the Labor Party, Mr. J. C. Watson, a young compositor by trade, was called to form a Government, which he did, drawing all but its Law Officer from the Labor Party. It is creditable to the capability of this Labor Ministry that, with so precarious a backing in the House, it should have held the management of Government, with apparently good satisfaction to the public, for about four months. It was defeated in August on another labor question, and gave way to a coalition Ministry of Free Traders and Moderate Protectionists, formed under Mr. George Houston Reid.

An account of the Labor Ministry and its leader, from which the following facts are taken, was given by _The Review of Reviews for Australasia_ at the time of its ascendancy: The average age of the members is only forty-three years, while in England sixty is the average age at which corresponding rank is attained. The nationalities of the members are as follows: One, the prime minister, is a New Zealander, two are Australian-born, two are Irish, two are Scotch, and one is Welsh. There is not one who was born in England.

Mr. John Christian Watson, the premier, is but thirty-seven years of age. He was born in Valparaiso, where his parents were on a visit, but was only a few months old when they returned to New Zealand. At an early age he began his apprenticeship as a compositor, joining the Typographical Union. When nineteen, he came to Sydney and joined the composing staff of the _Star_. Then he became president of the Sydney Trades and Labor Council, and president of the Political Labor League of New South Wales. In 1894, he was returned to a New South Wales Parliament, and took the leading place among the Labor members. In 1901, he was returned to the first federal Parliament. He was selected to lead the Labor party in the federal House, and has won golden opinions in that position. He is a born leader of men, and has rare tact. He overcame the apprehension caused by his youth. He curbed the extremists of his party. Power came to him at once. He seized the advantage of leading a third party between two opponents. It was he, rather than Sir Edmund Barton or Mr. Deakin, who decided what should pass and what not.

The situation developed in this period is described by an American writer, whose sympathies are ardently with the Labor Party, as follows:

"Protectionists and Free Traders (so called) were so divided in the Australian Parliament that neither could gain a majority without the Labor Party. A succession of governments bowled over by labor votes drove this hard fact into the political intelligence. The Labor Party was then invited to take the government. For five months men that had been carpenters, bricklayers, and painters administered the nation’s affairs. No convulsion of nature followed, no upheavals and no disasters. It is even admitted that the government of these men was conspicuously wise, able, and successful. But having a minority party, their way was necessarily precarious, and on the chance blow of an adverse vote they resigned. Some scene shifting followed, but in the end the present arrangement was reached, by which the government is in the hands of the Protectionists that follow Mr. Deakin, and the ministry is supported by the Labor Party on condition that the Government adopt certain legislation. And that is the extent of the ‘absolute rule of the Labor gang.’ The Deakin Government does not greatly care for the Labor Party, nor for the Labor Party’s ideas, but it rules by reason of the Labor Party’s support, and in return therefor has passed certain moderate and well-intentioned measures of reform. {32} Indeed the sum-total of the ‘revolutionary, radical, and socialistic laws’ passed by the Labor Party, directly or by bargaining with the Deakin or other ministries, indicates an exceedingly gentle order of revolution. It has done much in New South Wales and elsewhere to mitigate the great estate evil by enacting graduated land taxes; it has passed humane and reasonable laws regulating employers’ liability for accidents to workmen and laws greatly bettering the hard conditions of labor in mines and factories. It has passed a law to exclude trusts from Australian soil. It has stood for equal rights for men and women. In New South Wales it has enormously bettered conditions for toilers by regulating hours of employment even in department and other stores and by instituting a weekly half-holiday the year around for everybody. It has tried with a defective Arbitration and Conciliation Act to abolish strikes. To guard Australia against the sobering terrors of the race problem that confronts America, it has succeeded in keeping out colored aliens. It has agitated for a Henry George land tax and for the national ownership of public services and obvious monopolies. And with one exception this is the full catalogue of its misdeeds." [The "one exception" is the abolition of coolie labor.]

_Charles E. Russell, The Uprising of the Many,