History for ready reference, Volume 7
Chapter III of the convention for the pacific settlement of
international disputes adopted at The Hague, and that it shall determine, in so far as there shall be no agreement between the parties, the justice, and the amount of the debt, the time and mode of payment thereof.’ …
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"The third convention relates to the opening of hostilities and provides, in Article I, that the contracting powers recognize that hostilities between them should not commence without notice, which shall be either in the form of a formal declaration of war or of an ultimatum in the nature of a declaration of conditional war. This is to protect belligerents from surprise and bad faith. Article 11 is meant to safeguard the rights of neutrals. The state of war should be notified without delay to neutral powers, and shall only affect them after the receipt of a notification, which may be sent even by telegram.’ …
"The fourth convention concerns the laws and customs of land warfare, [and is] a revision of the convention of 1899. It is highly technical and codifies in a humanitarian spirit the warfare of the present.
"The fifth convention attempts to regulate the rights and duties of neutral powers and of neutral persons in case of land warfare. Short, but important, its guiding spirit is expressed in the opening paragraph of the preamble, namely, to render more certain the rights and duties of neutral powers in case of warfare upon land and to regulate the situation of belligerent refugees in neutral territory. …
"The sixth is the convention concerning enemy merchant ships found in enemy ports or upon the high seas at the outbreak of hostilities. Custom forbids the capture of enemy vessels within the port of the enemy on the outbreak of hostilities and allows them a limited time to discharge or load their cargo and depart for their port of destination. The attempt was made to establish this custom or privilege as a right. The proposition, however, met with serious opposition and, instead of the right, the convention states that it is desirable that enemy ships be permitted freely to leave the port. The convention, therefore, was restrictive rather than declaratory of existing international practice. The same might be said of another provision of the convention concerning the treatment of enemy merchant ships upon the high seas. It may be said that the expression of a desire is tantamount to a positive declaration, but, strictly construed, the convention is not progressive. It lessens rights acquired by custom and usage, although it does, indeed, render the privilege granted universal. The American delegation, therefore, refrained from signing the convention.
"The seventh convention deals with the transformation of merchant ships into ships of war, and it must be said that the positive results of this convention are of little or no practical value. The burning question was whether merchant ships might be transformed into men-of-war upon the high seas. As the transformation of merchant vessels into war vessels upon the high seas caused an international commotion during the recent Russo-Japanese war. Great Britain and the United States insisted that the transfer should only be allowed within the territorial jurisdiction of the transforming power. Some of the continental states, on the contrary, refused to renounce the exercise of the alleged right. The great maritime states were thus divided, and as the question was too simple and too plain to admit of compromise, it was agreed to drop it entirely for the present. In order, however, that something might remain of the careful and elaborate discussions of the subject, a series of regulations was drawn up regarding the transformation of merchant ships into vessels of war, declaratory of international custom. … Indirectly, the rightfulness or wrongfulness of privateering was concerned, and inasmuch as the United States would not consent to abolish privateering unless the immunity of private property be safeguarded, the American delegation abstained from signing the convention.
"The eighth convention relates to the placing of submarine automatic mines of contact, a subject of present and special interest to belligerents; while the interest of the neutral is very general. … Mines break from their moorings and endanger neutral life and property. The conference, therefore, desires to regulate the use of mines in such a way as not to deprive the belligerents of a recognized and legitimate means of warfare, but to restrict, as far as possible, the damage to the immediate belligerents. …
"The ninth convention forbade the bombardment by naval forces of undefended harbors, villages, towns, or buildings. The presence, however, of military stores would permit bombardment of such ports for the sole purpose of destroying the stores, provided they were not destroyed or delivered up upon request. Notice, however, should be given of the intention to bombard. In like manner, the convention permitted the bombardment of such undefended places if provisions were not supplied upon requisition to the naval force. Bombardment, however, was not allowed for the collection of mere money contributions. …
"The tenth convention adapted to maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva Convention of 1906. …
"The eleventh convention relates to certain restrictions in the exercise of the right of capture in maritime war. It is a modest document, but is all that was saved from the wreck of the immunity of private property. The American delegation urged the abolition of the right of capture of unoffending enemy private property upon the high seas, but great maritime powers such as Great Britain, France, Russia, and Japan were unwilling to relinquish this means of bringing the enemy to terms. …
"The twelfth convention sought to establish an international court of prize, and there only remains the ratification of this convention by the contracting powers in order to call into being this great and beneficent institution. For years enlightened opinion has protested against the right of belligerents to pass final judgment upon the lawfulness of the capture of neutral property, and it is a pleasure to be able to state that the interests of the neutrals in the neutral prize are henceforward to be placed in the hands of neutral judges with a representation of the belligerents, in order that the rights of all concerned may be carefully weighed and considered. …
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"The thirteenth convention concerns and seeks to regulate the rights and duties of neutral powers in case of maritime war. This is an elaborate codification of the rights and duties of neutrals in which the conference essayed to generalize and define on the one hand the rights of neutrals and the correlative duties of the belligerents, and in the second place to set forth in detail the duties of neutrals, thus safeguarding the rights of belligerents in certain phases of maritime warfare. … The result, however, was unsatisfactory to some of the larger maritime powers, which prefer their present regulations on the subject of neutrality or which were unwilling to accept the modifications proposed. The United States was not satisfied with certain provisions of the convention, and reserved the right to study the project in detail before expressing a final opinion. It therefore abstained from voting and signing.
"The fourteenth convention is a reenactment of the declaration of 1899 forbidding the launching of projectiles and explosives from balloons. The original declaration was agreed to for a period of five years, and as this period had expired the powers were without a regulation on the subject. The reenactment provided that the present declaration shall extend, not merely for a period of five years, but to the end of the Third Conference of Peace."
Reprinted in _Senate Document Number 433, 60th Congress, 1st Session._
Appended to these Conventions are the Resolutions or Declarations of accepted Principles embodied in the "Final Act"; and these are far from being the least important of the fruits of the Conference. They need presentation in full.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: Final Act of the Second International Peace Conference.
"At a series of meetings, held from the 15th June to the 18th October, 1907, in which the above Delegates [named in a preamble] were throughout animated by the desire to realize, in the fullest possible measure, the generous views of the august initiator of the Conference and the intentions of their Governments, the Conference drew up for submission for signature by the Plenipotentiaries, the text of the Conventions and of the Declaration enumerated below [named in their order, as summarized above] and annexed to the present Act:—
"These Conventions and Declaration shall form so many separate Acts. These Acts shall be dated this day, and may be signed up to the 30th June, 1908, at The Hague, by the Plenipotentiaries of the Powers represented at the Second Peace Conference.
"The Conference, actuated by the spirit of mutual agreement and concession characterizing its deliberations, has agreed upon the following Declaration, which, while reserving to each of the Powers represented full liberty of action as regards voting, enables them to affirm the principles which they regard as unanimously admitted;—
"It is unanimous—
"1. In admitting the principle of compulsory arbitration.
"2. In declaring that certain disputes, in particular those relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions of International Agreements, may be submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction.
"Finally, it is unanimous in proclaiming that, although it has not yet been found feasible to conclude a Convention in this sense, nevertheless the divergences of opinion which have come to light have not exceeded the bounds of judicial controversy, and that, by working together here during the past four months, the collected Powers not only have learnt to understand one another and to draw closer together, but have succeeded in the course of this long collaboration in evolving a very lofty conception of the common welfare of humanity.
"The Conference has further unanimously adopted the following Resolution:—
"The Second Peace Conference confirms the Resolution adopted by the Conference of 1899 in regard to the limitation of military expenditure; and inasmuch as military expenditure has considerably increased in almost every country since that time, the Conference declares that it is eminently desirable that the Governments should resume the serious examination of this question.
"It has besides expressed the following opinions:—
"1. The Conference calls the attention of the Signatory Powers to the advisability of adopting the annexed draft Convention for the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court, and of bringing it into force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selection of the Judges and the constitution of the Court.
"2. The Conference expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the responsible authorities, civil as well as military, should make it their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of specific relations, more especially of the commercial and industrial relations between the inhabitants of the belligerent States and neutral countries.
"3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the Powers should regulate, by special Treaties, the position, as regards military charges, of foreigners residing within their territories.
"4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should figure in the programme of the next Conference, and that in any case the Powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the principles of the Convention relative to the Laws and Customs of War on land.
"Finally, the Conference recommends to the Powers the assembly of a Third Peace Conference, which might be held within a period corresponding to that which has elapsed since the preceding Conference, at a date to be fixed by common agreement between the Powers, and it calls their attention to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition.
"In order to attain this object the Conference considers that it would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable date of the meeting, a preparatory Committee should be charged by the Governments with the task of collecting the various proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what subjects are ripe for embodiment in an International Regulation, and of preparing a programme which the Governments should decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined by the countries interested. This Committee should further be intrusted with the task of proposing a system of organization and procedure for the Conference itself.
"In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries have signed the present Act and have affixed their seals thereto."
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WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: Draft Convention recommended for the Creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court.
The following are the more important provisions of the "annexed draft Convention for the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court" which the Signatory Powers are asked, in the first of the "Opinions" expressed above, to consider "the advisability of adopting":
"Article I. With a view to promoting the cause of arbitration, the Contracting Powers agree to constitute, without altering the status of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, a Judicial Arbitration Court, of free and easy access, composed of Judges representing the various juridical systems of the world, and capable of insuring continuity in jurisprudence of arbitration.
"Article II. The Judicial Arbitration Court is composed of Judges and Deputy Judges chosen from persons of the highest moral reputation, and all fulfilling conditions qualifying them, in their respective countries, to occupy high legal posts, or be jurists of recognized competence in matters of international law. The Judges and Deputy Judges of the Court are appointed, as far as possible, from the members of the Permanent Court of Arbitration. The appointment shall be made within the six months following the ratification of the present Convention.
"Article III. The Judges and Deputy Judges are appointed for a period of twelve years, counting from the date on which the appointment is notified to the Administrative Council created by the Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes. Their appointments can be renewed. Should a Judge or Deputy Judge die or retire, the vacancy is filled in the manner in which his appointment was made. In this case, the appointment is made for a fresh period of twelve years.
"Article IV. The Judges of the Judicial Arbitration Court are equal and rank according to the date on which their appointment was notified. The Judge who is senior in point of age takes precedence when the date of notification is the same. The Deputy Judges are assimilated, in the exercise of their functions, with the Judges. They rank, however, below the latter.
"Article V. The Judges enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities in the exercise of their functions, outside their own country. Before taking their seat, the Judges and Deputy Judges must swear, before the Administrative Council, or make a solemn affirmation to exercise their functions impartially and conscientiously.
"Article VI. The Court annually nominates three Judges to form a special delegation and three more to replace them should the necessity arise. They may be re-elected. They are balloted for. The persons who secure the largest number of votes are considered elected. The delegation itself elects its President, who, in default of a majority, is appointed by lot. A member of the delegation cannot exercise his duties when the Power which appointed him, or of which he is a national, is one of the parties. The members of the delegation are to conclude all matters submitted to them, even if the period for which they have been appointed Judges has expired.
"Article VII. A Judge may not exercise his judicial functions in any case in which he has, in any way whatever, taken part in the decision of a National Tribunal, of a Tribunal of Arbitration, or of a Commission of Inquiry, or has figured in the suit as counsel or advocate for one of the parties. A Judge cannot act as agent or advocate before the Judicial Arbitration Court or the Permanent Court of Arbitration, before a Special Tribunal of Arbitration or a Commission of Inquiry, nor act for one of the parties in any capacity whatsoever so long as his appointment lasts. …
"Article X. The Judges may not accept from their own Government or from that of any other Power any remuneration for services connected with their duties in their capacity of members of the Court.
"Article XI. The seat of the Judicial Court of Arbitration is at The Hague, and cannot be transferred, unless absolutely obliged by circumstances, elsewhere. …
"Article XII. The Administrative Council fulfills with regard to the Judicial Court of Arbitration the same functions as to the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
"Article XIV. The Court meets in session once a year. The session opens the third Wednesday in June and lasts until all the business on the agenda has been transacted. …
"Article XVII. The Judicial Court of Arbitration is competent to deal with all cases submitted to it, in virtue either of a general undertaking to have recourse to arbitration or of a special agreement.
"Article XXXII. The Court itself draws up its own rules of procedure, which must be communicated to the Contracting Powers. After the ratification of the present Convention the Court shall meet as early as possible in order to elaborate these rules, elect the President and Vice-President, and appoint the members of the delegation.
"Article XXXIII. The Court may propose modifications in the provisions of the present Convention concerning procedure. These proposals are communicated through the Netherland Government to the Contracting Powers, which will consider together as to the measures to be taken."
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: The sequent International Naval Conference at London in 1908-1909.
The action of the Peace Conference which contemplated the establishment of an International Prize Court (embodied in the Twelfth Convention described above) had a sequel in the next year, resulting from the suggestion by the British Government that, preliminary to the creation of such a court, the prior holding of an International Naval Conference was desirable, for the purpose which it explained in the following words: "Having regard to the importance attached by his Majesty’s Government to the setting up of that Court, they decided to take the initiative in inviting the co-operation of the Powers whose belligerent rights would be most directly affected, in formulating in precise terms a set of rules relative to the law of prize, which should be recognized as embodying doctrines held to be generally binding as part of the existing law of nations." In connection with this suggestion a list of questions was submitted to the several Governments consulted, "on which his Majesty’s Government, after careful examination, considered that an understanding should if possible be reached, and which would therefore appropriately constitute the programme of a special naval conference to meet in London."
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The questions were as follows:
"(_a._) Contraband, including the circumstances under which particular articles can be considered as contraband; the penalties for their carriage; the immunity of a ship from search when under convoy; and the rules with regard to compensation where vessels have been seized but have been found in fact only to be carrying innocent cargo;
"(_b._) Blockade, including the questions as to the locality where seizure can be effected, and the notice that is necessary before a ship can be seized;
"(_c._) The doctrine of continuous voyage in respect both of contraband and of blockade;
"(_d._) The legality of the destruction of neutral vessels prior to their condemnation by a Prize Court;
"(_e._) The rules as to neutral ships or persons rendering ‘unneutral service’ (‘assistance hostile’);
"(_f._) The legality of the conversion of a merchant-vessel into a war-ship on the high seas;
"(_g._) The rules as to the transfer of merchant-vessels from a belligerent to a neutral flag during or in contemplation of hostilities;
"(_h._) The question whether the nationality or the domicile of the owner should be adopted as the dominant factor in deciding whether property is enemy property."
Responses to the British invitation by the greater naval Powers were favorable, and the resulting International Naval Conference had sittings in London from December 4, 1908, until February 26, 1909. The Powers sending representatives to take part in it were Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, the United States, Japan, Spain, Holland. A report of the proceedings and conclusions arrived at was made public on the 22d of March. On two, only, of the questions, proposed by Great Britain, no agreement was reached, and these were left open,—namely; "the legality of the conversion of a merchant-vessel into a war-ship on the high seas, and the question whether the nationality or the domicile of the owner should be regarded as the dominant factor in deciding the character, neutral or enemy, of property." Original differences on other questions were compromised.
A serious difficulty in the undertakings of the Conference was occasioned by the fact that the Constitution of the United States is held to preclude any right of appeal from decisions of its Supreme Court. What was done to overcome this difficulty is explained in the report of the British Delegates as follows: "The Conference was asked to express its acceptance of the principle that, as regards countries in which such constitutional difficulty arose, all proceedings in the International Prize Court should be treated as a rehearing of the case _de novo_, in the form of an action for compensation, whereby the validity of the judgments of the national courts would remain unaffected, whilst the duty of carrying out a decision of the International Court ordering the payment of compensation would fall upon the government concerned. The proposal was further coupled with the suggestion that the jurisdiction of the International Prize Court might be extended, by agreement between two or more of the signatory Powers, to cover cases at present excluded from its jurisdiction by the express terms of the Prize Court Convention, and that in the hearing of such cases that court should have the functions, and follow the procedure, laid down in the Draft Convention relative to the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court, which was annexed to the Final Act of the Second Peace Conference of 1907.
"Great hesitation was felt in approaching these questions. It was undeniable that they lay wholly outside the programme which the Conference had been invited to discuss, and to which the Powers accepting the invitation had expressly assented. It was, however, not disputed that so much of the United States proposal as related to the difficulties in the way of the ratification of the Prize Court Convention was in so far germane to the labours of the Conference, as these also were avowedly directed to preparing the way for the more general acceptance of the Prize Court Convention. As it must clearly be desired by all countries interested in the establishment of the International Prize Court that the United States should be one of the Powers submitting to its jurisdiction and bound by its decisions, the Conference thought it right, notwithstanding its lack of formal authority, to go so far as to express the wish (‘vœu’) which stands recorded in the final Protocol of its proceedings, and of which the substance is that the attention of the various Governments represented is called by their delegates to the desirability of allowing such countries as are precluded by the terms of their constitution from ratifying the Prize Court Convention in its present form, to do so with a reservation in the sense of the first part of the United States proposal. On the other hand, the question of setting up the Judicial Arbitration Court, which seemed to have no necessary connexion with the Prize Court Convention, was decided by all the delegations, except that which had brought it forward, to be one which the Conference could not discuss."
_Parliamentary Papers, 1909: Papers by Command, 4554._ Also, _London Times, March 22, 1909._
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: Central American Peace Conference at Washington. General Treaty of Peace and Amity. Convention establishing a Central American Court of Justice.
See (in this Volume) CENTRAL AMERICA: A. D. 1907.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1907-1908. Waning of the Military Passion in France.
Two very striking indications of the cooling in the French people of the militant passion which made them in former times one of the most warlike of the European races have been afforded within the past three years. The first appeared in the winter of 1907, when a Paris newspaper of great circulation collected votes from its readers on the question, "Who was the Greatest Frenchman of the Nineteenth Century?" Much interest in the query was excited, and more than 15,000,000 [votes] were said to have been cast. {723} From any prior generation the answer of a big majority would undoubtedly have been, "Napoleon Bonaparte"; but the French of the Twentieth Century have developed so different an estimate of human greatness that Louis Pasteur, the Man of Science, led the poll, receiving 1,838,103 votes; while Victor Hugo came next below him, by somewhat more than a hundred thousand votes, and Gambetta was put third in the list. Napoleon received only the fourth place of honor in the estimate of fifteen millions of the French of these days.
About a year later the same change was betokened in a hardly less significant way, by a speech from the Prime Minister of France. The occasion of the address was the inauguration of a monument to M. Scheurer-Kestner, who had been vice-president of the French Senate when the Dreyfus iniquities began to be dragged out of darkness into light, and who was one of the few men in public life then who strove heroically to have the truth ascertained and justice done. Scheurer-Kestner was an Alsatian, and this fact gave Premier Clemenceau an opportunity to break silence on the sore subject of the loss of Alsace, which French statesmen have not ventured to refer to since the heart-breaking surrender of 1871. His breaking of that silence was meant to break, and assuredly does break, the long brooding of revengefulness in French hearts which has been a menace to the peace of Europe for nearly 40 years.
"I do not fear," he said, "to call up the memory of that bloody past. I am mindful of the responsibility which belongs to my office, and I can speak without constraint of events which have entered into history. I can proclaim feelings which we cannot repudiate—which we cannot even hide without lowering ourselves." And this is his open proclamation of the feeling to which France has come, in its thought of Alsace:
"We received France issuing from frightful trial. To rebuild her in her legitimate power of expansion as well as in her dignity as a great moral person, we have no need either to hate or to lie, nor even to recriminate. We look to the future. Sons of a great history, jealously careful of the lofty impulses native to us, in which the civilizing virtue of France was fashioned, we can look in quiet of soul on the descendants of strong races which for centuries have measured themselves with the men of our lands in battlefields beyond numbering. Two such great rival peoples, for the very honor of their rivalry, have a like interest to keep their respect, the one for the other."
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1907-1909. German Opposition to the "Navy Fever," in High Circles as well as Low. Views of Herr Von Holstein and Admiral Galster.
How far the naval ambitions and costly naval policy of Germany are supported by public opinion is much of a question. It is certain that they are a cause of wide discontent in the industrial classes, and no less certain that the weightiest influence behind them is that of the Emperor, who stimulates the exertions of a powerful Navy League. That there is an effective disapproval of the policy in high political circles has been shown lately by the publication of some expressions on the subject by the late Herr von Holstein, who was for many years the chief of the Political Department of the German Foreign Office,—the mentor and prompter from behind the scenes of several successive Chancellors of the Empire. In some reminiscences of this important official, by an intimate friend, Herr von Rath, who published them in September, 1909, he is quoted as having, in 1907, denounced what he called "navy fever" in Germany in these strong words;
"This dangerous disease is fed upon the fear of an attack by England, which is not in accordance with facts. The effect of the ‘navy fever’ is pernicious in three directions—in domestic politics on account of the intrigues of the Navy League, which also produce the greatest ill-feeling in South Germany; in the finances on account of the prohibitive expenditure; in foreign politics on account of the mistrust which these armaments awake. England sees in them a menace which keeps her bound to the side of France. At the same time, even with taxation strained to the utmost limit, the construction of a fleet able to cope with the united fleets of England and France is entirely out of the question. From the menace which everybody in England sees in German naval construction the present Liberal Government in England will not draw serious conclusions. It will be different when the Conservatives come into power. The danger of war between Germany on the one hand and England and France on the other is even today playing a part in the political calculations of other countries. Against armaments on land nobody will offer any objection, because they are justified by the needs of defence. In our naval armaments several Powers see a perpetual menace.
"Even among Parliamentary Deputies there are many who condemn the ‘navy fever,’ but no one of them will take the responsibility of refusing to vote ships, a responsibility which would recoil upon him in the event of a defeat at sea. Anybody who to-day makes a stand against the prevailing ‘navy fever’ is attacked from all sides as wanting in patriotism, but a few years hence the justice of my opinion will be established."
According to Herr von Rath, Herr von Holstein declared in February, 1909, three months before his death, that the navy question transcended all others in importance. He is said to have watched with approval the campaign which is still more or less vigorously carried on by Vice-Admiral Galster and others against the "big ship policy," and to have said, with reference to one of Admiral Galster’s pamphlets:—"The main thing is to expose the lying and treacherous fallacy expressed in the statement that every fresh ship is an addition to the power of Germany—when every fresh ship causes England, to say nothing of France, to build two ships."
The Vice-Admiral Galster here referred to contends that submarines are more effective for defence than Dreadnoughts, and he labors to persuade his fellow countrymen to be satisfied with defensive armament, repudiating what creates suspicion of offensive designs.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1908. School Peace League, The American.
"The American School Peace League [organized in 1908] aims to secure the cooperation of the educational public of America in the project for promoting international justice and equity. … It is hoped that every teacher in the country will subscribe to the purposes of the League by becoming a member. Much of the work will be done by committees, five of which have been organized up to the present time. …
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"The Committee on Meetings and Discussion aims to induce educational associations throughout the country to place the subject of internationalism on their programs. It also seeks to stimulate literary and debating societies, in colleges and schools, to study the subject. The Committee recommends to educational associations the establishment of International Committees, or Departments, for the purpose of making a detailed study of the relation of the International Movement to school instruction.
"The Committee on Publications intends to build up a body of literature, dealing with the interrelation between peoples and nations along political, industrial, and social lines. To this end, the Committee purposes to issue, directly or indirectly, a series of publications for the young, that may be used in the geography, history, science, and literature classes; it also intends to make a collection of the present songs which illustrate the peace sentiment, and to stimulate the writing of new ones.
"The Press Committee, which comprises some of the leading educational editors of the country, is prepared to acquaint teachers with the work of the League through the columns of the educational magazines.
"The Committee on Teaching History will study the textbooks with reference to the space devoted respectively to war and to peace. It hopes to develop among teachers a sentiment which shall lay emphasis on the arts of peace, and on the industrial and social conditions of the people, rather than on campaigns, battles, and other military details. It further aims to arrange, if possible, courses in history to be given at summer schools and teachers’ institutes, with special attention to the growth of international friendship.
"The International Committee intends to make a constructive study of international cooperation in activities which particularly affect educational work."
_Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, Secretary. Objects of the American School Peace League,_
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1908. Evasion of the Conscription in Russia.
According to statistics published in the spring of 1909 by the military organ, the _Russky Invalid_, the conscription of 1908 took place in the following circumstances. The annual contingent had been fixed by the Duma at 456,481 men. Altogether 1,281,655 conscripts were called up for examination. Of this huge number 80,165 men failed to appear, including 20,693 Jews, out of a total of 64,005 Jews conscripted. The largest number of absentees was in the provinces of Suwalki, Lomja, Plotzk, and Kovno. It is from these provinces that a general exodus of Polish, Lithuanian, and Jewish youths to America is noticeable. The actual number found to be fit for military service in 1908 was 17,926 short of the contingent fixed by the Duma. This deficiency was composed of 943 Russians, 5,154 other Christians, 10,677 Jews, 1,082 Mahomedans, and 70 other non-Christians. The recruiting stations noted a general falling off in the physique of the conscripts.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. Changed Conditions in Europe making for Peace.
See (in this Volume) EUROPE: A. D. 1909.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: International School of Peace. Mr. Ginn’s Great Fund for Peace Propagandism.
Members of the various Boston peace organizations took part last evening [December 15] in the formation of an International School of Peace. The idea originated with Edwin Ginn, the publisher, and the ‘house warming’ took place at No. 29 Beacon Street, where a room was appropriately adorned for the occasion with the flags of many nations and large portraits of Sumner and Cobden and other great international leaders.
"Mr. Ginn welcomed the company in a speech wherein the motives and experience which prompted him to found the school were set forth. He explained what he hoped of the organization, how he had for years appealed to various millionaires to unite with him in some larger provision than any which existed for the systematic education of the people in peace principles, the response to which had been disappointing.
"Mr. Ginn felt that some large beginning must be made by somebody; and so he had appropriated $50,000 a year to the work from now on, and provided in his will that the bulk of his estate, after proper provision for family and friends, should go to this cause, which he felt to be the greatest and most necessary cause in the world. This action had brought him multitudes of letters, he said, and clearly awakened much interest; and if it prompted others to do much more than he could do, that was what he wanted. The friends of the cause, especially its wealthy friends, had been strangely asleep to the pressing need for this work of popular education. It must be thoroughly organized to reach the schools and colleges, the churches and newspapers and business men. He gave illustrations of the awful cost and waste of the present military system, which he said violated every principle of good business, political economy, and common sense. …
‘The room is not only a bureau for the office force, but a reading-room and library, where the latest information touching the progress of the movement will always be furnished to teachers, preachers, and all who are interested. Regular conferences upon the different aspects of the movement will also be held there."
_The Boston Transcript, December 16, 1909._
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. The Second National Peace Congress in the United States, assembled at Chicago.
The Second National Peace Congress in the United States held its session in Chicago, May 3-5, 1909. The attendance was large, the speaking of high quality and the prevailing spirit earnest in its repudiation of all reasoning or feeling that is tolerant of the barbarism of war. Respectful attention was given to an address by the German Ambassador to the United States, Count Bernstorff, who defended the attitude of his Government on the question of a limitation of armaments, but the expressions of the Congress on the subject were not toned to agreement with his plea. Among its resolutions was the following:
"Resolved, That no dispute between nations, except such as may involve the national life and independence, should be reserved from arbitration, and that a general treaty of obligatory arbitration should be included at the earliest possible date. Pending such a general treaty, we urge upon our government, and the other leading Powers, such broadening of the scope of their arbitration treaties as shall provide, after the example of the Danish Netherlands treaty, for the reference to the Hague Court of all differences whatever not settled otherwise by peaceful means."
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WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. The Annual Lake Mohonk Peace Conferences in the United States.
The annual Peace Conferences at Lake Mohonk, in the United States, have been held with regularity. At the Fifteenth, convened in May, 1909, a strong resolution was adopted, asking the Government of the United States to consider "whether the peculiar position it occupies among the nations does not afford it a special opportunity to lead the way towards … carrying into effect the strongly expressed desire of the two Peace Conferences at The Hague, that the governments examine the possibility of an agreement as to the limitation of armed forces by land and sea, and of war budgets."
Privately during the Conference there was discussion of the suggestion that if four or five of the great Powers—England, Germany, France, Italy, the United States, and Japan, and perhaps Spain and Russia—could join in establishing a Supreme Court of the nations, to which they would refer their difficulties, other nations would be compelled by the course of events to accept the tribunal and its decisions, and to come into participation in it on such terms as might later be agreed upon.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. Exchange of Parliamentary Visits between France and Sweden.
Seventy-six members of the French Parliament, representing the international arbitration group, visited Stockholm in July, 1909, under the leadership of Baron d’Estournelles de Constant. The visit was paid in return for one made by the members of the three Scandinavian Parliaments to Paris some time before.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. A World Petition for a General Treaty of Obligatory Arbitration.
At the annual meeting of the International Peace Bureau at Brussels, October 9, 1909, the following resolution was adopted, expressing approval of the world-petition to the third Hague Conference in favor of a general treaty of obligatory arbitration:
"_Whereas_, Public opinion, _if recorded_, will prove an influential factor at the third Hague Conference; and
_Whereas_, The ‘world-petition to the third Hague Conference’ has begun to successfully establish a statistical record of the men and women in every country who desire to support the governments in their efforts to perfect the new international order based on the principle of the solidarity of all nations;
_Resolved_, That the Commission and the General Assembly of the International Peace Bureau, meeting at Brussels October 8 and 9, 1909, urgently recommend the signing of the ‘world-petition to the third Hague Conference.’"
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. Evasion of Military Service in France. Spread of Anti-Militarism.
According to returns of the recruiting for the French Army, published in the summer of 1909, there appears to be a steady increase in the evasion of service by young men at the times they are required by law to enter it. "Since 1906, when the number of refractory recruits amounted to 4,567, the figures have slowly risen, until they have now reached 11,782. The _soldat insoumis_ may be punished in France by imprisonment of from one month to one year. But on about an average of every two years during the last 20 years Parliament has regularly voted an Amnesty Bill in favour of deserters and recalcitrant recruits or reservists." This is one supposed cause of the increasing evasions; but a more important influence working with it is the propagandism of anti-military doctrines, preached passionately by Gustav Hervé, accepted widely, it is said, among the primary teachers of the country, as well as in the ranks of the workingmen. The General Confederation of Labor is reported to be distributing annually some thousands of "soldiers’ manuals" in which desertion is urged as a duty to humanity at large.
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909 (October). American Proposal that the Prize Court now established be also a Court of Arbitral Justice.
By reference to the proceedings of the Second Peace Conference at The Hague, as set forth above, it will be seen that the Conference gave favorable consideration to a draft Convention for the creation of a "Judicial Arbitration Court" (the text of which draft is given at the end of said proceedings), and that the Conference went so far as to declare the "advisability of adopting … and of bringing it into force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selection of the judges and the constitution of the Court." It will be seen, also, that the Conference adopted measures for the creation of an International Prize Court, preliminary to which an International Naval Conference was held in London from December 4, 1908, until February 26, 1909. At that Conference a suggestion was made that "the jurisdiction of the International Prize Court might be extended, by agreement between two or more of the signatory Powers, to cover cases at present excluded from its jurisdiction by the express terms of the Prize Court Convention, and that in the hearing of such cases that Court should have the functions and follow the procedure laid down in the draft Convention relative to the creation of a Judicial Arbitration Court, which was annexed to the Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, of 1907."
In line with this suggestion, it was made known, in the later part of the past year, that the Government of the United States, through its State Department, had proposed in a circular note to the Powers, that the Prize Court should be invested with the jurisdiction and functions of the proposed Judicial Arbitration Court. The difficulties in selecting judges for that contemplated Court, which caused the creation of it to be postponed in 1907, would thus be happily surmounted, and, as remarked by Secretary Knox, there would be at once given "to the world an international judicial body to adjudge cases arising in peace, as well as controversies incident to war."
WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST: A. D. 1909. Attitude of the Workingmen.
At the Twentieth International Congress of Miners, held in Berlin, in May, 1909, there were strong declarations for disarmament, and one Belgian delegate, M. Maroille, said significantly: If it were better organized the International Federation of Miners could by itself render wars impossible. They need not do anything violent or illegal; they had only to remain quiet, so very quiet that war could not be carried on.
{726}
WAR.
See (in this Volume) Red Cross Society.
WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE: Prime Minister of New Zealand.
See (in this Volume) NEW ZEALAND A. D. 1906-1909.
WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE: At the Imperial Conference of 1907.
See (in this Volume) BRITISH EMPIRE: A. D. 1907.
WARD, SIR JOSEPH GEORGE: Testimony on the Working of Woman Suffrage in New Zealand.
See (in this Volume) ELECTIVE FRANCHISE: WOMAN SUFFRAGE.
WARSAW, DISTURBANCES IN.
See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1904-1905, and 1905 (FEBRUARY-NOVEMBER).
WASHBURN, Reverend. Dr. George: President of Robert College.
See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: TURKEY, &c.
WASHINGTON, BOOKER T.: His work at Tuskegee Institute.
See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1906.
WASHINGTON: A. D. 1908. Meeting of International Congress on Tuberculosis.
See (in this Volume) PUBLIC HEALTH. TUBERCULOSIS.
WASHINGTON MEMORIAL INSTITUTION, THE.
See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901.
WATER POWER TRUST: Threatened in the United States. Precautionary Measures taken.
See (in this Volume) COMBINATIONS, INDUSTRIAL, &c.: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1909.
WATERS AND WATER POWER, CONSERVATION OF.
See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.
WATERS-PIERCE OIL COMPANY.
See (in this Volume) COMBINATIONS, INDUSTRIAL, &c.: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1904-1909.
WATERWAYS COMMISSION AND WATERWAYS TREATY.
See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY).
WATKINS, THOMAS H.: On the Anthracite Coal Strike Arbitration Commission.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1902-1903.
WATSON, J. C.: Premier of Australia.
See (in this Volume) AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1903-1904.
WATSON, Thomas E.: Nomination for President of the United States.
See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1904 (MARCH-NOVEMBER), and 1908 (MARCH-NOVEMBER).
WAZEER, GRAND.
See (in this Volume) MOROCCO: A. D. 1903.
WEALTH: Its Concentration in Great Britain.
In a speech made in Parliament, on a motion to graduate the Income Tax, March 24, 1909, Mr. Chiozza-Money, who speaks with considerable authority on such subjects, made the following statements: "Statistics were available in Somerset House showing the product of the graduated scale of death duties imposed by Sir William Harcourt in 1894. Of the 700,000 persons who died annually, only about 80,000 left sufficient property to need an inquisition by Somerset House. Out of the 80,000 persons nearly the whole of the property was left by 27,000 persons; and £200,000,000 worth of property was left by about 4,000 persons each year. This was not only a curious fact, but it was a constant fact in relation to this problem. He also showed that there had arisen a tendency among rich persons to devise part of their property before death in order to escape the death duties, with the result that a good deal of wealth did not come under the review of Somerset House. What he described as his own conservative estimate of the wealth of the United Kingdom was a total of about £11,500,000,000. Of that sum five millions of persons owned £10,900,000,000. One-ninth of the population owned 95 per cent. of the entire capital stock of the United Kingdom. Thus the whole of the country regarded as a business undertaking was in the hands of a handful of people. Taking the income of the country at 1,800 millions a year, there were about five million persons who took one-half and 39 millions the other half. Of the five million persons who took 900 millions of income about 1¼ million persons, or 250,000 families, took 600 millions out of the 900 millions. From this state of facts the most terrible inequalities resulted, evidences of which could be seen along the Embankment and other parts of Westminster almost within a stone’s throw of that House."
WEALTH PROBLEM, THE. The Question of a Progressive Taxation.
"At this moment we are passing through a period of great unrest—social, political and industrial unrest. It is of the utmost importance for our future that this should prove to be not the unrest of mere rebelliousness against life, of mere dissatisfaction with the inevitable inequality of conditions, but the unrest of a resolute and eager ambition to secure the betterment of the individual and the nation. … It is a prime necessity that if the present unrest is to result in permanent good the emotion shall be translated into action, and that the action shall be marked by honesty, sanity, and self-restraint. There is mighty little good in a mere spasm of reform. The reform that counts is that which comes through steady, continuous growth; violent emotionalism leads to exhaustion.
"It is important to this people to grapple with the problems connected with the amassing of enormous fortunes, and the use of those fortunes, both corporate and individual, in business. We should discriminate in the sharpest way between fortunes well won and fortunes ill won; between those gained as an incident to performing great services to the community as a whole, and those gained in evil fashion by keeping just within the limits of mere law-honesty. Of course no amount of charity in spending such fortunes in any way compensates for misconduct in making them. As a matter of personal conviction, and without pretending to discuss the details or formulate the system, I feel that we shall ultimately have to consider the adoption of some such scheme as that of a progressive tax on all fortunes, beyond a certain amount, either given in life or devised or bequeathed upon death to any individual—a tax so framed as to put it out of the power of the owner of one of these enormous fortunes to hand on more than a certain amount to any one individual; the tax, of course, to be imposed by the National and not the State Government. Such taxation should, of course, be aimed merely at the inheritance or transmission in their entirety of those fortunes swollen beyond all healthy limits."
_President Roosevelt, Address at the Laying of the Corner Stone of the Office-Building of the House of Representatives, April 14, 1906._
WEAVER, JOHN: MAYOR OF PHILADELPHIA.
See (in this Volume) MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.
{727}
WEEKLY REST DAY.
See (in this Volume) SUNDAY OBSERVANCE.
"WE FREES."
See (in this Volume) SCOTLAND: A. D. 1904-1905.
WEI-HAI-WEI: Strategic Worthlessness of the Port.
See (in this Volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1902 (FEBRUARY).
WEKERLE, ALEXANDER: PRIME MINISTER OF HUNGARY.
See (in this Volume) AUSTRIA HUNGARY: A. D. 1905-1906, and 1908-1909.
WELSH COERCION ACT.
See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: ENGLAND: A. D. 1902.
WERMUTH, Herr: Secretary of the German Imperial Treasury.
See (in this Volume) GERMANY: A. D. 1908-1909.
WEST AFRICA: White Colonization impossible in Present Conditions.
See (in this Volume) AFRICA.
WEST INDIES, DANISH: Failure of Projected Sale to the United States.
See (in this Volume) DENMARK: A. D. 1902.
WESTERN FEDERATION OF MINERS.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION. UNITED STATES: A. D. 1899-1907.
WET, C. R. de.
See (in this Volume) SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1901-1902.
WEYLER, GENERAL Y NICOLAU: Suppression of Strike at Barcelona.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: SPAIN.
WEYLER, GENERAL Y NICOLAU: Spanish Minister of War.
See (in this Volume) SPAIN: A. D. 1901-1904.
WHITE, HENRY: American Delegate to the Algeciras Conference' on the Morocco Question.
See (in this Volume) EUROPE: A. D. 1905-1906.
WHITE HOUSE, THE: Its Restoration.
See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1902 (MAY-NOVEMBER).
WHITE MOUNTAIN FOREST, PRESERVATION OF THE.
See (in this Volume) CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: UNITED STATES.
WHITE SLAVE TRADE, MOVEMENT FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF THE.
The movement for the suppression of what is now described as the White Slave Traffic, and which has grown into an important international organization, appears to have had its beginning in the formation of a committee at London, in 1880, "for the purpose of exposing and suppressing the [then] existing traffic in English, Scotch and Irish girls for foreign prostitution." This committee presented a memorial on the subject to Lord Granville, then Secretary for Foreign Affairs, setting out a statement of facts which "revealed the existence of systematic abduction to Brussels, and elsewhere on the Continent of Europe, of girls who were English subjects, and who, having been induced to go abroad under promise of obtaining employment or respectable situations, were on arrival taken to the office of the ‘Police des Mœurs’ for registration as prostitutes." The memorialists craved Lord Granville’s influence "in favour of measures which would render it impossible that British subjects, however humble, should in the future be subjected to such infamy and degradation, including the loss of their personal liberty."
Such measures were taken, Parliament passing an Act which became law in 1885, with so much effectiveness that "the traffic was at once checked. The miscreants who were engaged in it were dismayed by its provisions, and within five years after the Act had come into operation the Burgomaster of Brussels, which had been the head-quarters of the traffic, questioned as to the effect produced by that measure, in April 1890 wrote as follows: 'Comme suite à votre lettre du 15 courant, j’ai l’honneur de vous faire connaître que depuis 1880 aucune fille de nationalité Auglaise n’a été inscrite aux registres de Bruxelles.’ While, however, the traffic, so far as the United Kingdom was concerned, was thus almost extinguished, it seems to have increased and spread in certain districts of Eastern Europe to an extent which attracted the serious and alarmed attention of the Governments and public authorities of the countries immediately concerned. About the year 1898 the National Vigilance Society, headed by the late Duke of Westminster, then its President, resolved ‘to open definite measures for its mitigation—if possible, its suppression.’ This organization was fortunate in having for its Secretary and chief administrative officer Mr. William Alexander Coote, a man of remarkable energy and determination."
_Parliamentary Papers, 1907 (Cd. 3453)._
Mr. Coote went on a mission to the Continent and aroused the interest of the Governments most concerned. International conferences on the subject were held, in London, 1899, at Paris, 1902, and again at Paris in 1906, producing concerted action. In 1904 an International Agreement was signed at Paris, May 18, by the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, Germany, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway, and Switzerland, the first two articles of which were as follows:
"Article 1. Each of the Contracting Governments undertakes to establish or name some authority charged with the co-ordination of all information relative to the procuring of women or girls for immoral purposes abroad; this authority shall be empowered to correspond direct with the similar department established in each of the other Contracting States.
Article 2. Each of the Governments undertakes to have a watch kept, especially in railway stations, ports of embarkation, and _en route_, for persons in charge of women and girls destined for an immoral life. With this object instructions shall be given to the officials and all other qualified persons to obtain, within legal limits, all information likely to lead to the detection of criminal traffic. The arrival of persons who clearly appear to be the principals, accomplices in, or victims of, such traffic shall be notified, when it occurs, either to the authorities of the place of destination, or to the Diplomatic or Consular Agents interested, or to any other competent authorities."
_Parliamentary Papers, 1905, Treaty Series No. 24 (Cd. 2689)._
Meantime, in the United States, due attention was not given to the matter, until it was found that the abominable traffic had become organized to an appalling extent in the country, especially in connection with its foreign immigration, and had a principal seat in New York, with a suspected connivance on the part of men having political influence, if not official power. An investigation of the facts became one of the main objects of the Congressional Immigration Commission which pursued inquiries in Europe and America in 1909, and was the leading subject of the preliminary report made public by the Commission, December 10. {728} In this report the Commission says that the white slave traffic is the most pitiful phase of the immigration question. The business has assumed large proportions, and has exerted an evil influence upon the country. The inquiry covered the cities of New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Seattle, Portland, Salt Lake, Ogden, Butte, Denver, Buffalo, Boston, and New Orleans. No attempt was made to investigate conditions in every important city. But the commission believes that enough evidence with reference to women of different races and nationalities, living under different conditions has been obtained from localities sufficiently scattered to warrant the reports being used as a basis for official action.
Among other recommendations of the Commission is one that the transportation of persons from one State, Territory, or district, to another for the purpose of prostitution be forbidden under heavy penalties. The commission also expresses the opinion that the Legislatures of the several States should consider the advisability of enacting more stringent laws regarding prostitution. It is suggested that the Illinois statute regarding pandering be carefully considered. A number of suggestions of administrative changes and more rigid enforcement of existing regulations by the Department of Commerce and Labor, particularly by the Bureau of Immigration, and amendments of the Immigration act itself are submitted by the commission.
Legislation on the lines recommended is now pending in Congress and in New York and other States, while the alleged organization of the traffic in the city of New York is being investigated by a special grand jury of one of the State Courts.
WICKERSHAM, GEORGE W.: Attorney-General.
See (in this Volume ) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1909 (MARCH).
WIJU.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904 (FEBRUARY-JULY).
WILLIAM II., German Emperor: Statement of his Peace Policy based on Preparation for War.
See (in this Volume) WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR.
WILLIAM II., German Emperor: His speech at Tangier.
See (in this Volume) EUROPE: A. D. 1905-1906.
WILLIAM II., German Emperor: His published Interview with an Englishman and its Effect.
See (in this Volume) GERMANY: A. D. 1908 (NOVEMBER).
WILSON, James: Secretary of Agriculture.
See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1905; 1905-1909; AND 1909 (MARCH).
WILSON, General John M.: On the Anthracite Coal Strike Arbitration Commission.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1903-1903.
WILSON, Woodrow: President of Princeton University.
See (in this Volume) EDUCATION: UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1909.
WINE-GROWERS’ REVOLT, IN FRANCE.
See (in this Volume) FRANCE: A. D. 1907 (MAY-JULY).
WINNIPEG: A. D. 1909. Meeting of British Association for the Advancement of Science.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT: PHYSICAL.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.
See (in this Volume and in Volume VI.) SCIENCE, RECENT: ELECTRICAL.
WISCONSIN: A. D. 1900-1909. Governor and Senator La Follette.
The recognized "new movement" in American politics which has been putting a distinctive mark on the last decade, directed towards the emancipation of parties from a selfishly organized system, or "machine," had nowhere in the West a more vigorous starting than in Wisconsin; and nobody can doubt that the initial force given to it there came mostly from the energy of the leader it found in Robert Marion La Follette. He had entered politics when he entered the profession of law, in 1880. From 1889 to 1901 he was a representative in Congress. At the end of that period he had been elected Governor of his State, and he held the office for three terms, resigning it in 1905 to accept a seat in the Senate of the United States, where he exercises a degree of independence not common in that assembly. All this advancement in public service has gone with a personal leadership in politics, resisted unavailingly by the old party organization.
WISCONSIN: A. D. 1907. Enactment of Public Utilities Law.
See (in this Volume) PUBLIC UTILITIES.
WISCONSIN STATE UNIVERSITY: Its Legislative Reference Department and Municipal Reference Bureau.
See (in this Volume). MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.
WITBOIS, THE.
See (in this Volume) Africa: A. D. 1904-1905, and GERMANY: A. D. 1906-1907.
WITTE, Sergius Yulievitch: As Russian Finance Minister and practically as Premier.
See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1901-1904, and 1904-1905.
WITTE, Sergius Yulievitch: Withdrawal from Premiership.
See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1906.
WITTE, Sergius Yulievitch: Memorial to the Tsar on Religious Liberty and the Bondage of the Church to the State.
See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1905 (APRIL-AUGUST).
WITTE, Sergius Yulievitch: Russian Plenipotentiary for negotiating Treaty of Peace with Japan.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1905 (JUNE-OCTOBER).
WOLF’S HILL, The Capture of.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904-1905 (MAY-JANUARY).
WOMAN SUFFRAGE.
See (in this Volume) ELECTIVE FRANCHISE.
WOMEN, International Council of: A. D. 1909. Proceedings at Toronto.
The International Council of Women was assembled at Toronto, Canada, in June, 1909, being then in the twenty-fifth year of its existence. Its large gatherings are undertaken but once in five years, executive meetings being held in years between. The Toronto session was opened on the 17th of June, and was prolonged interestingly for ten days. The delegates attending numbered 160, from all parts of Europe, America and Australasia, Great Britain sending the largest number. Germany comes next with 19, Sweden sends 7, Denmark 4, Italy 3, Austria-Hungary 5, Norway 10, Belgium 4, Greece 3, the Netherlands 11, Australasia 11, the United States 16, and Canada 11.
Lady Aberdeen, the President of the Council, in her opening remarks, indicated the breadth of the ideas of service to the world which this international organization contemplates, when she said: "Having proved that we are truly representative of the women workers of the world and that within our various councils we have gathered organizations of women of all races, creeds, classes, and parties, what is the outcome? {729} What do we stand for? What practical contribution can we offer to the world’s welfare?" Turning to the Canadian delegates, she answered these questions by alluding to the sympathy that the National Council of Canada had created between the women of the different provinces and the way in which it had made them recognize their true relationship to their country and the world. From this Lady Aberdeen went on to say:
"Our International Council must indeed be of necessity the strongest peace society that can exist, for if the homes of the different countries of the world are brought in touch with one another and understand and believe in one another, there can be no more war. Again, the health movement which our national councils’ reports show us is going on in all countries of the world is one that has within itself potentialities far beyond the immediate objects it aims at. What are these medical and scientific congresses, these international conferences on tuberculosis, infant mortality, school hygiene, temperance, and the like doing? Are they not bringing the world’s thinkers and workers into line for the preservation of life, for the furtherance of a high and vigorous type of life based on knowledge, principle, and self-control, for international action in the interests of the world’s health? Here is work which concerns all women in all countries, and in which every society has an interest. … But … the keynote of our success and influence must always lie in the fact that we lay stress in being more than doing, in the spirit of our work more than the work itself, in the motive underlying our union, rather than in our actual federation."
Peace and Arbitration, Woman Suffrage (favored by a majority of the delegates in attendance), the "White Slave Traffic," so-called, Public Health, Education, Immigration, cheapened International Postage, were among the principal subjects of discussion taken up on successive days.
The next quinquennial council was appointed to be held at Rome, in 1914, with executive meetings in Sweden in 1911 and in the Netherlands in 1913. Lady Aberdeen was reelected President.
WOMEN WORKERS: Legal Regulation of Hours and Conditions.
See (in this Volume) LABOR PROTECTION: HOURS OF LABOR.
WOOD, GENERAL LEONARD: Military Governor of Cuba.
See (in this Volume) CUBA: A. D. 1901-1902.
WOODWARD, Dr. Robert S.: President of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION: CARNEGIE INSTITUTION.
WORKMEN.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION.
WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION ACT, BRITISH.
See (in this Volume) LABOR PROTECTION.
WORLD MOVEMENTS: Fichte’s Prophecy of a World Commonwealth. The Progress of a Century toward its Fulfilment.
"Fichte says: ‘It is the vocation of our race to unite itself into one single body, all the parts of which shall be thoroughly known to each other, and all possessed of similar culture. Nature, and even the passions and vices of men have, from the beginning, tended towards this end: a great part of the way towards it is already passed, and we may surely calculate that this end, which is the condition of all further progress, will in time be attained. … Until the existing culture of every age shall have been diffused over the whole inhabited globe, and our race become capable of the most unlimited inter-communication with itself, one nation or one continent must pause on the great common path of progress, and wait for the advance of the others; and each must bring as an offering to the universal commonwealth, for the sake of which alone it exists, its ages of apparent immobility, or retrogression. When that first point shall have been attained, when every useful discovery made at one end of the earth shall be at once made known and communicated to all the rest, then, without further interruption, without halt or regress, with united strength and equal step, humanity shall move onward to a higher culture, of which we can at present form no conception.’
"This was an end-of-the-eighteenth-century utterance, and events have followed it as if it were a resistless fiat compelling its own fulfilment, rather than the dictum of a philosopher. The nations have striven fiercely to carry forward the work which the great Seer pointed to as the essential condition of the higher progress. Inspired by varied aims, and carried forward by diverse means, the end has been ever the same. The missionary with his religious mandate, the devil-may-care adventurer seeking excitement, the restless military caste craving advancement, the trader thirsting for gain, all promote the ‘Divine plan.’ …
"The pride of independent nationality must gradually give way to the pride of being members of the great confederations. The transition from Nationalism to internationalism will be brought about by a threefold pressure, and will be rendered easy by the system we have evolved with our great Colonies. There will be the pressure of the higher organisation on the lower, the larger upon the less; there will be racial pressure, as yellow and black begin to feel their power; and there will be commercial pressure. This irresistible pressure will be gradually recognised as a benevolent despotism forcing the practical recognition of the brotherhood of man.
"With regard to commercial pressure. A glance ahead will show that the Western nations, in forcing their trade on yellow and black races, are educating the latter into formidable competitors. Like the Japs they will better the instruction, and, with their more favourable economic conditions, will flood the Western world with commodities at prices it cannot compete with. To avoid being dragged down to their lower level of subsistence the great world powers will be compelled to draw a ring-fence of tariffs round their possessions. In our case the British Empire contains nearly all climates and resources that will enable it to be entirely self-contained and self-supporting. The comparative free trade within the fence will starve isolated countries to come in.
{730}
"There is no reason why an Empire such as ours should not be much more truly happy and prosperous than it has yet been, if we organise it scientifically. The loss of our abnormal position in foreign trade will be a blessing if we exercise foresight. In the furtherance of the World-purpose it was necessary that the progressive nations should for a time worship foreign trade as a fetich, and as the chief means of prosperity. Nothing else would have given them the needed stimulus, and forced them to such Herculean efforts to conquer and keep foreign markets. But when all foreign markets have been opened up, and we have unintentionally educated other races, not only to supply their own wants, but to swamp us with their manufactures, then we must readjust our ideas, and adopt less one-sided aims. In our ambition to be the Cheap John of the world, we have developed some of our resources abnormally, and neglected others. To foster foreign trade we converted a large part of our island home into black country, we have been prodigally wasteful of our mineral resources, and have neglected our agriculture. In striving for foreign markets we have neglected the best market in the world—the Home market—and have left ourselves miserably dependent on the foreigner. This is really incipient heart disease of the Empire.
"It was providential that we adopted ‘free trade’ when we did, as it gives a moral justification for our annexations which no protective nation can show; but as the other great Powers extend their sway, and their tariff barriers, we shall cease to need our free trade justification. Then we can reconsider the case."
_E. W. Cook, The Organisation of Mankind (Contemporary Review, September, 1901)._
WORLD MOVEMENTS: The Making of a World Constitution and the development of World Legislation.
"In the relations of nations to one another, as proved by their treaties and code of international law, certain truths are recognized which involve the very nature of mankind as a created whole. That is, there is a world-constitution, unwritten, not called by that name, but existing as truly as the animal creation existed before it was named by man, and as independent of his recognition and his naming as the animal creation was independent of human recognition. Though that world-constitution has remained obscure and unrecognized, yet world progress toward its formal expression has been wonderfully rapid in recent years.
"In the first place that constitution is bringing about the formal existence of an organ for the use and for the expression of the intelligence and the will of the world. Nations, repeatedly, in separate congresses, upon special subjects, have expressed their intelligence and their will, and have entrusted to the nations severally the duty of carrying out that will, as is most perfectly illustrated in the case of the Universal Postal Union. That is, the nations are creating a world legislative department.
"In the next place, the establishment of the Hague Court of Arbitration is doubtless the beginning of the establishment of a judicial department which will include other duties than the settlement of causes dangerous to the peace of nations. Lastly, the formal establishment of some world-executive will not long lag behind the creation of the legislative and judicial departments. The world is moving rapidly toward political organization as one body, and the situation must soon reveal itself to present doubters."
_R. L. Bridgman, World-Organization secures World-Peace (Atlantic Monthly, September, 1904)._
"At the session of the Massachusetts Legislature of 1902 a petition was presented in favor of a world-legislature. That petition was referred to the Legislature of 1903 in order that the subject might receive further public consideration, and the chairman of the committee which heard the petitioners said, in each branch respectively, that the proposal was meritorious. According to the report, the petition is pending before the Legislature of 1903, with hundreds of signers, including some of the best citizens. The American Peace Society, by vote of its directors, signed the petition, while it also presented another petition of its own, asking for a movement for a world-conference or congress, with recommendatory powers, to meet at stated intervals, say once in seven years. Thus the proposal of world-organization is formally before the public.
"Since the first petition was presented repeated instances have occurred to support the main argument for it,—that business exigencies of the world were becoming so urgent that world-organization, as a necessity, would precede the efforts of pure philanthropy or statesmanship for the same end. Early in the year came the Pan-American Congress. Among its proposals, suited for a world-scale, were these: a Pan-American bank; a custom-house congress, and an international customs commission; a statistical bureau of international scope; an international copyright law; an international commission to codify international law; international regulations to cover inventions and trademarks; a common treaty of extradition and protection against anarchy; international regulations for the world-wide practice of the liberal professions; an international archaeological commission; an international office as depositary of the archives of international conferences; an international regulation granting equal rights to all foreigners from any of the signatory countries, and some minor plans.
"Other world-propositions which developed during the year included (in January) the organization of the International Banking Corporation, with power, under a Connecticut charter, of doing business all over the world; (early in the year) circulation by the Manchester (England) Statistical Society of a pamphlet advocating an international gold coinage; (in July) suggestion by Russia of an international conference to protect the nations against trusts and other private operations of capital; (in July) another plan for an international bank; (in August) meeting of the International Congress on Commerce and Industry; and (in December) the meeting of the International Sanitary Conference in Washington; to which may be added (in January, 1903) the meeting in New York of the International Customs Congress. For one year that is a notable record of progress toward world-organization in matters of business, not as matters of theory or of pure philanthropy. These instances illustrate the truth, which many persons still fail to realize, that the world is getting together at a rapid rate, and that, as a matter of self-interest, the nations must soon have a permanent legislative body as a means of establishing regulations for the benefit of all.
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"Pertinent to the case is the fact that world-legislation has occurred repeatedly, though no world-legislature has been organized. … In the case of the International Postal Union we have absolute world-legislation. … That is the most conspicuous and most successful illustration of world-legislation, because it embraces organized mankind, and because it is so eminently successful. …
"Mention may be made of the International Conference in Washington, in 1885, for the establishment of a common prime meridian, at which twenty-six nations were represented. At the International Sanitary Conference in Vienna in 1892, fifteen nations were represented. At the Dresden International Sanitary Conference in 1893, nineteen nations were represented."
_R. L. Bridgman, A World-Legislature (Atlantic Monthly, March, 1903)._
WORLD MOVEMENTS: The Passing of the Age of Colonial Dominion. The Coming of the Epoch of the "Open Door."
The old notions of colonial dominion, which had pricked the ambition of nations since the sixteenth century, came practically to the end of their working in the last years of the nineteenth. The European partitioning of Africa, in the decade after 1884, the scramble for footings in China between 1897 and the Boxer rising, and the Spanish-American War of 1898, may be looked upon as the expiring operations of statesmanship on lines of "colonial policy," in the acquisitive sense. As certainly as anything in politics can be certain, the epoch of the founding and spreading of colonial dominions came then to its close.
The colonial policy of that epoch meant colonial dominion necessarily, for the reason that the commerce-spreading nations of the West could not think of agreeing to open doors of trade with the feebler or more backward folk of the East. Each could make sure of marts in the great orient and oceanic region only by seizing and walling them in, behind well-locked doors, to keep the others out. Now, however, they have arrived at a state of things in the world which compels them to think of the "open door" for commerce, as a substitute for the colonial dependency, held under lock and key. Several changes have worked together in bringing this new situation about.
Principally, of course, it results from the near approach to an exhaustion of the territory available for easy conquest and colony-making. Africa and the great archipelagos of the South Sea have all been divided up. Japan, with China making ready to stand with her, has undertaken a policing of Eastern Asia, to stop the staking out of lawless claims there. Moreover, confidence in the stability as well as belief in the usefulness of colonial dominion is much shaken of late, by increasing signs of relaxing bonds in the great British Empire, without much sign of harm to the prosperity or the power of the imperial nation itself. Several of the outlying dependencies of the British crown have grown to so much of independence that they have taken the doorkeeping of their commerce into their own hands and the sovereign mother country makes no objection or complaint.
For many years past the commercial experience of England has been furnishing proof that trade and dominion, under the conditions of the present day, have little of necessary connection with each other; and now the Germans, within later years, have been adding to that proof. The few colonies they have laid hands on, in Africa and Oceanica, have been of less profit than expense to them; but, more rapidly than any other people, they have pushed their trade in regions where they have no political influence or control, by sheer energy and careful learning of the conditions to be met.
The commercial mind, which has always dictated the policies of government, is being thus compelled to turn its thought to the "open door," and that, as a commercial aim, will evidently extinguish colonial undertakings hereafter. It ruled the settlement of the Chinese troubles of 1900 (thanks to John Hay); it has gone into the recent treaties of Japan with England, Russia and France; it gave a practicable solution to the Morocco problem, at the Algeciras conference; it furnished the ground in 1907 for an arrangement of long-troubled relations between England and Russia in Persia, Tibet, and Afghanistan.
Manifestly, the commercial policy of the future is to be, not the policy of colonial dependencies, but the policy of open doors. Even the imperialists and the stand-patters of the United States will have to accept it; and in due time the tariff-walled nations, after practicing themselves sufficiently in the dictatorial opening of other people’s doors, will be ready to unlock their own.
WORLD MOVEMENTS: For and against War.
See (in this Volume) WAR, THE PREPARATIONS FOR, and WAR, THE REVOLT AGAINST.
World’s Prohibition Confederation.
See (in this Volume) ALCOHOL PROBLEM; INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS.
WOS Y GIL, GENERAL: Revolutionary President of San Domingo.
See (in this Volume) SAN DOMINGO: A. D. 1904-1907
WRIGHT, DR. A. E., WRIGHT, DR. DOUGLAS; The Discoverers of Opsonins.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT. OPSONINS.
WRIGHT, Carroll D.: On the Anthracite Coal Strike Arbitration Commission.
See (in this Volume) LABOR ORGANIZATION: UNITED STATES; A. D. 1902-1903.
WRIGHT, GENERAL LUKE E.: Secretary of War.
See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1905-1909.
WRIGHT, ORVILLE AND WILBUR.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT: AERONAUTICS.
WURTEMBERG: A. D. 1906. Displacement of Privileged Members from the Parliament.
See (in this Volume) ELECTIVE FRANCHISE: GERMANY: A. D. 1906.
WYNDHAM, G.: Chief Secretary for Ireland.
See (in this Volume) ENGLAND: A. D. 1902 (JULY).
WYNNE, Robert J.: Postmaster-General.
See (in this Volume) UNITED STATES: A. D. 1901-1905.
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Y.
YALU, BATTLES AT THE.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904 (FEBRUARY-JULY).
YAMAGATA, Prince Aritomo.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1903 (JUNE) and 1909 (OCTOBER).
YANGTZULING, BATTLE OF.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).
YASHIMA, SINKING OF THE.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904 (FEBRUARY-AUGUST).
YASS-CANBERRA. Chosen Site of the Capital of Australia.
See (in this Volume) AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1905-1906.
YELLOW FEVER.
See (in this Volume) PUBLIC HEALTH.
YOUNG EGYPT.
See (in this Volume) EGYPT. A. D. 1909 (SEPTEMBER).
YOUNG FINNS:
See (in this Volume) FINLAND: A. D. 1908-1909.
YOUNG TURKS.
See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1908 (JULY-DECEMBER), and after.
YOUNGHUSBAND, COLONEL GEORGE J.: Mission to Tibet.
See (in this Volume) TIBET: A. D. 1902-1904.
YOUSSUF IZEDDIN.
See (in this Volume) TURKEY: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY-MAY).
YUAN SHIH-KAI: His abrupt Dismissal from Office.
See (in this Volume) CHINA: A. D. 1909 (JANUARY).
YUKON DISTRICT, THE: Census, 1901.
See (in this Volume) CANADA: A. D. 1901-1902.
YUSHIN-KAI.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1909.
ZAHLE MINISTRY.
See (in this Volume) DENMARK: A. D. 1905-1909.
ZAIMIS, M., High Commissioner of Crete.
See (in this Volume) CRETE: A. D. 1905-1906.
ZAMENHOF, DR.: Inventor of Esperanto.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT: ESPERANTO.
ZANARDELLI, Giuseppe: Premier of Italy.
See (in this Volume) ITALY: A. D. 1901 and 1903.
ZANZIBAR: A. D. 1903. Practical Ending of Slavery.
The following remarks are from reports made by British consular officers in 1903. By decree of the Sultan of Zanzibar the legal status of slavery was annulled in 1897: "As I have anticipated in my former Reports, the number of slaves who have thought fit to present themselves for freedom to the Zanzibar Government has been very small. … It is as well known as ever throughout the Island of Zanzibar that a slave has only to appear and ask for freedom and it is immediately granted. But the slaves have long since discovered that freedom is not such ‘a bed of roses’ as was anticipated. They have learnt that practically they lose far more than they gain by leaving their owners to get freedom, and then having to find a new home and support themselves."
"The slavery question may be said to be at an end in Pemba. Those slaves who still remain in a state of servitude are slaves only in name, and they continue to be so of their own free will, for there is not a man or a woman at this time in the island unaware of the fact that any slave can obtain manumission for the asking. A small number of slaves do apply for and obtain their freedom month by month, but the bulk of the servile population in Pemba appear to be content with their existing status."
ZASULICH, General.
See (in this Volume) JAPAN: A. D. 1904 (FEBRUARY-JULY).
ZAYISTAS.
See (in this Volume) CUBA: A. D. 1906-1909.
ZEEMAN, Peter.
See (in this Volume) NOBEL PRIZES.
ZELAYA, JOSE CANTOS: President of Nicaragua.
See (in this Volume) CENTRAL AMERICA: NICARAGUA: A. D. 1909.
ZEMSTVOS, RUSSIAN.
See (in this Volume) RUSSIA: A. D. 1904-1905, and 1905-1907.
ZEPPELIN, Count.
See (in this Volume) SCIENCE AND INVENTION, RECENT: AERONAUTICS.
ZICHY, Count.
See (in this Volume) AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: A. D. 1904; 1905-1906.
ZIEGLER ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS.
See (in this Volume) POLAR EXPLORATION.
ZIL-ES-SULTAN.
See (in this Volume) PERSIA: A. D. 1907-1908 (SEPTEMBER-JUNE).
ZULUS, The: Their revolt in 1906.
See (in this Volume) South Africa.
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COURSES FOR STUDY OR READING
PREPARED by C. W. CHASE
As an aid to those possessors of this work who may wish to pursue in it regular courses of reading or study, the following directory, as it may be called, has been prepared by a gentleman whose acquaintance with the contents of the Volumes and with their arrangement is very thorough, and whose equipment of historical knowledge is large. This responds to a great number of requests and suggestions that have been coming to the publishers of "History for Ready Reference," ever since it began to make itself known as the best of compilations for "Topical Reading" in history, as well as for "Ready Reference," because drawn from the best historical writers in their own exact words.
Those who make use of these "Studies" should bear in mind that the first five Volumes of "History for Ready Reference" cover all times, from the earliest, down to its publication in 1895, and are under one comprehensive arrangement, for which reason the numbering of pages in those Volumes is consecutive from the first to the last; whereas Volumes VI. and VII. deal with two succeeding periods, of Recent History, and have separately numbered pages. Hence reference in the "Studies" to pages in the first five Volumes is without mention of the number of the Volume.
On revision of the original five-Volume work in 1901 some rearrangement of matter occurred which changed the page numbers. This necessitates the giving of both new and old numbers in the reference to every matter within those Volumes. For copies of the work purchased before 1901 the numbers are in parenthesis, and those for the later edition precede them.
The following is a subject index to the "Studies" appended:
ALEXANDER’S CONQUESTS: Study X.
AMERICA: Study XXIII.
(See, also, UNITED STATES, CANADA, and SPANISH AMERICA.)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: Studies XIV., XV., XXVII., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI.
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA: Study IV.
CANADA: Study XLIX.
CHINA: Studies VII., LI.
CHRISTIANITY: Studies XVIII., XIX., XX., XXIV.
CRUSADES: Study XXV.
EGYPT, ANCIENT: Study V.
ENGLAND: Studies XXVIII., XXIX., XXX., XXXI., XXXII., XXXIII., XXXV., XXXVI., XLII., XLVIII.
EUROPE AT LARGE: Studies XII., XIII., XIV., XVIII., XIX., XX., XXII., XXIII., XXIV., XXV., XXVII., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI.
FRANCE: Studies XIII., XIV., XVI., XXIII., XXIV., XXV., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI., XLIII.
FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON: Studies XXXV XXXVI.
GERMANY: Studies XIII., XIV., XV., XXIII., XXIV., XXVII., XXXIV., XXXV., XXXVI., XLIV.
GREAT BRITAIN.
See ENGLAND.
GREECE, ANCIENT: Studies VIII., IX., X.
HISTORY AND ITS STUDY: Study I.
INDIA, ANCIENT: Study VII.
ITALY, MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN: Studies XIV., XVII., XXIII., XXXV., XXXVI., LV.
JAPAN: Study L.
JEWS: Study VI.
MIDDLE AGES: Studies XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVII.
MOHAMMEDANISM: Studies XXI., XXII.
MONASTICISM: Study XX.
NETHERLANDS: Study XXVI.
PAPACY: Study XIX., XXIV., XXV.
PRIMITIVE PEOPLES: Studies II., III.
REFORMATION, PROTESTANT: Studies XXIV., XXV.
RENAISSANCE: Study XXIII.
ROME, ANCIENT: Studies XI., XII., XIII.
RUSSIA: Study LII.
SPAIN: Studies XXVI., XXXVI.
SPANISH AMERICA: Study LIV.
(See, also, AMERICA.)
TURKISH EMPIRE: Study LIII.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Studies XXXVII., XXXVIII., XXXIX., XL., XLI., XLV., XLVI., XLVII.
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APPENDIX
COURSES FOR STUDY OR READING
Note.
The text of "History for Ready Reference" is made up of matter taken from the best writers and special students of all ages and all nations. Under the various topics in these Studies, therefore, the historical works referred to are those from which the matter of the text is taken; the figures following each citation indicating the pages in "History for Ready Reference" where the matter may be found,—the figures inclosed in parentheses showing where the same matter may be found in the first (1895) edition of the work. These extracts vary from a quarter of a column to five or six columns in length.
[Transcriber's note—A colon (:) at the end of a line indicates the following line begins a subheading, a citation, or the citation title.]
STUDY I.
HISTORY AND ITS STUDY.
"It is seldom appreciated what a very large share of the world’s literature is history of some sort. The primitive savage is probably the only kind of a man who takes no interest in it. But as soon as a spark of civilization illumines this primitive darkness men begin to take interest in other men,—not only beyond their immediate surroundings, but beyond the limits of their own generation. Interest in the past and provision for the future are perhaps essential differences between the civilized man and the savage. Accordingly as this care for the past and future increases, all literature divides itself into that which concerns the forces of nature, and that which concerns the history of man."
PROFESSOR J. P. MAHAFFY.
1. VARIOUS VIEWS AS TO WHAT HISTORY IS:
R. Flint: History of the Philosophy of History, 1686-1687 (1648-1649). archive.org/details/historyphilosop00flingoog
"With us the word ‘History,’ like its equivalents in all modern languages, signifies either a form of literary composition, or the appropriate subject matter of such composition,—either a narrative of events, or events which may be narrated." R. FLINT.
2. THE PROPER SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS OF HISTORY:
E. A. Freeman: Practical Bearings of European History, 1687-1688 (1648-1649).
T. B. Macaulay: History (Essays), 1692 (1658).
"The perfect historian is he in whose work the character and spirit of an age is exhibited in miniature. … By judicious selection, rejection, and arrangement, he gives to truth those attractions which have been usurped by fiction. … He shows us the court, the camp, and the senate. But he also shows us the nation. He considers no anecdote, no peculiarity of manner, no familiar saying, as too insignificant for his notice, which is not too insignificant to illustrate the operation of laws, of religion, and of education, and to mark the progress of the human mind." T. B. MACAULAY.
3. THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY:
R. Flint: Philosophy of History_, 1688 (1649).
4. HISTORY AS A SCIENCE; and HISTORY AS THE ROOT OF ALL SCIENCE:
H. T. Buckle: History of Civilization in England, 1688 (1649). www.gutenberg.org
J. G. Droysen: Outline of the Principles of History, 1689 (1650). archive.org/details/outlineofprincip01droy
T. Carlyle: On History (Essays), 1689-1690 (1650-1651).
"There is, I speak humbly, in common with Natural Science, in the study of living History, a gradual approximation to a consciousness that we are growing into a perception of the workings of the Almighty ruler of the world. … The study of History is in this respect, as Coleridge said of Poetry, its own great reward, a thing to be loved and cultivated for its own sake. … For one great, insoluble problem of astronomy or geology, there are a thousand insoluble problems in the life, in the character, in the face of every man that meets you in the street. Thus, whether we look at the dignity of the subject matter, or at the nature of the mental exercise which it requires, or at the nature of the field over which the pursuit ranges, History, the knowledge of the adventures, the development, the changeful career, the varied growths, the ambitions, aspirations, and, if you like, the approximating destinies of mankind, claims a place second to none in the roll of Sciences." BISHOP STUBBS.
5. HOW TO STUDY HISTORY:
A. B. Hart: How to Study History, 1693 (1654).
6. THE EDUCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL VALUE OF HISTORY; ITS MORAL LESSONS:
J. A. Froude: Short Studies on Great Subjects, 1690 (1651).
W. E. H. Lecky: The Political Value of History, 1690 (1651).
C. K. Adams: Manual of Historical Literature, 1690-1691 (1651-1652).
W. Stubbs: The Study of Modern History, 1691 (1652).
"The effect of historical reading is analogous, in many respects, to that produced by foreign travel. The student, like the tourist, is transported into a new state of society. He sees new fashions. He hears new modes of expression. His mind is enlarged by contemplating the wide diversities of laws, of morals, and of manners." T. B. MACAULAY.
7. THE PROVINCE AND VALUE OF THE HISTORICAL ROMANCE:
G. H. Lewes: Historical Romance, 1692-1693 (1653-1654).
A. Thierry: The Merovingian Era, 1693 (1654).
J. R. Seeley: History and Politics, 1693 (1654).
"To say that there is more real history in his (Scott’s) novels on Scotland and England than in the philosophically false compilations which still possess that great name, is not advancing anything strange in the eyes of those who have read and understood ‘Old Mortality,’ ‘Waverley,’ ‘Rob Roy,’ the ‘Fortunes of Nigel,’ and the ‘Heart of Midlothian.’" A. THIERRY.
"We can hardly read the interesting Life of Lord Macaulay without perceiving that the most popular historical work of modern times owes its origin in a great measure to the Waverley Novels. Macaulay grew up in a world of novels: his youth and early manhood witnessed the appearance of the Waverley Novels themselves. He became naturally possessed by the idea which is expressed over and over again in his Essays, and which at last he realized with such wonderful success, the idea that it was quite possible to make history as interesting as romance." J. R. SEELEY.
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8. THE IMPORTANCE OF A KNOWLEDGE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY:
O. Browning: The Teaching Of History In Schools, 1604 (1655).
"To know History is impossible; not even Mr. Freeman, not Professor Ranke himself, can be said to know history. … No one, therefore, should be discouraged from studying History. Its greatest service is not so much to increase our knowledge as to stimulate thought and broaden our intellectual horizon, _and for this purpose no study is its equal_." W. P. ATKINSON.
STUDY II. Page references in first 1895 edition in parentheses.
THE DAWN OF HISTORY; PRIMITIVE PEOPLES.
I. THE THREE MARKED DIVISIONS OF THE HUMAN RACE WHEN THE EARLIEST HISTORIC RECORD BEGINS:
(a) The Aryan: 144 (137), 145 (138) and Appendix A., Volume V. (Volume I).
(b) The Semitic: 2963-2966 (2886-2889).
(c) The Turanian: 3245, 1740, 2265 (3129, 1701, 2221).
2. THESE DIVISIONS WERE NOT PROPERLY RACIAL, BUT LINGUISTIC, THOUGH USAGE HAS GIVEN THEM A RACIAL SIGNIFICANCE:
"Aryan in Scientific language is utterly inapplicable to race. It means language, and nothing but language … I have declared again and again that if I say ‘Aryas,’ I mean simply those who speak the ‘Aryan’ language." MAX MÜLLER.
"The ‘Semitic race’ owes its name to a confusion of ethnology and philology. A certain family of speech, composed of languages closely related to one another, and presupposing a common mother tongue, received the title of ‘Semitic’ … But whatever justification there may have been for speaking of a Semitic family of languages, there was none for speaking of a Semitic race." A. H. SAYCE.
3. BIRTHPLACE OF THE ARYANS:
C. F. Keary: The Dawn of History, 144-145 (137-138). www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52030.
J. N. Larned: A Historical Sketch of Europe, 1018 (990).
J. Rhys: Race Theories, 145 (138).
4. EARLY ARYAN MIGRATIONS:
(a) To India.
W. W. Hunter: History of India, 1740-1741 (1701-1702).
M. Duncker: History of Antiquity, 1741-1742 (1702-1703).
M. Williams: Religious Thought in India, 1742 (1703).
(b) To Greece.
E. Curtius: History of Greece, 2603 (2535).
C. W. C. Oman: History of Greece, 1604-1605 (1566-1567).
J. N. Larned: Europe, 1019-1021 (991-993).
D. G. Hogarth: Authority and Archaeology,