Part 71

The first postal system in the American colonies was privately established in New England in 1676, by John Heyward, under authority from the General Court of the colony of Massachusetts. "In 1683 the government of Penn established a postal system for the Colony of Pennsylvania. In 1700 Colonel J. Hamilton organized 'his postal establishment for British America' including all the English colonies, but soon after disposed of his right to the English crown. In 1710 the English Parliament established by law the first governmental postal system with the general office at New York, which continued until in 1776 the Continental Congress adopted and set in action the postal system proposed by Franklin, who was appointed the first Postmaster General. The first law of the Federal Congress continued this system in operation as sufficient for the public wants, but the postal service was not finally settled until the act of 1792. This law (1792) fixed a tariff which with unimportant changes remained in force until the adoption of the system of Uniform Postage in the United States. Single, double and triple letters were charged 8, 16 and 24 cents respectively when sent to other countries, and four cents plus the internal postage when arriving from foreign countries. The internal postage between offices in the United States was 6, 8, 10, 15, 17, 20, 22 and 25 cents for distances of 30, 60, 100, 150, 200, 250, 350, or 400 miles respectively for single letters, and double, triple, etc., this for double, triple, etc. letters. A single letter was defined by the law to be a single sheet or piece of paper, a double letter, two sheets or pieces of paper, etc. … The earliest letters which we have seen, consist of single sheets of paper folded and addressed upon the sheet. An envelope would have subjected them to double postage."

_J. K. Tiffany, History of the Postage Stamps, introduction._

By an act of March 3, 1845, the postage rates in the United States were reduced to two—namely, 5 cents for 300 miles or under, and 10 cents for longer distances. Six years later (March 3, 1851) the minimum rate for half an ounce became 3 cents (if prepaid) with the distance covered by it extended to 3,000 miles; if not prepaid, 5 cents. For distances beyond 3,000 miles, these rates were doubled. In 1856 prepayment was made compulsory; and by an act signed March 3, 1863, the 3 cent rate for half–ounce letters was extended to all distances in the United States.

_J. Rees, Footprints of a Letter-Carrier, page 264._

In 1883 the rate in the United States was reduced to 2 cents for all distances, on letters not exceeding half an ounce. In 1885 the weight of a letter transmissible for 2 cents was increased to one ounce. The use of postage stamps was first introduced in the United States under an act of Congress passed in March, 1847. Stamped envelopes were first provided in 1853. The first issue of postal cards was on the 1st of May, 1873, under an act approved June 8, 1872. The registry system was adopted July 1, 1855. Free delivery of letters in the larger cities was first undertaken on the 1st of July 1863.

_D. M. Dickinson, Progress and the Post (North American Review, October, 1889)._

ALSO IN: _Annual Report of the Postmaster-General of the United States, 1893, pages 543-558 (Description of all Postage Stamps and Postal Cards issued)._

POSTAL MONEY-ORDER SYSTEM, The.

The postal money-order system, though said to be older in practical existence, was regularly instituted and organized in England, in its present form, in 1859. It was adopted in the United States five years later, going into operation in November, 1864.

_D. M. Dickinson, Progress and the Post (North American Review, October, 1889)._

ALSO IN: _Appleton's Annual Cyclopœdia, 1887, page 687._

POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS.

Postal savings banks were first brought into operation in England in 1861. "One shilling is the smallest sum that can be deposited. The Government has, however, … issued blank forms with spaces for twelve penny postage-stamps, and will receive one of these forms with twelve stamps affixed as a deposit. This plan was suggested by the desire to encourage habits of saving among children, and by the success of penny banks in connection with schools and mechanics' institutes. No one can deposit more than £30 in one year, or have to his credit more than £150 exclusive of interest. When the principal and interest together amount to £200, interest ceases until the amount has been reduced below £200. {2582} Interest at two and a half per cent is paid, beginning the first of the month following the deposit and stopping the last of the month preceding the withdrawal, but no interest is paid on any sum less than a pound or not a multiple of a pound. The interest is added to the principal on the 31st of December of each year. … The English colonies … have established postal savings-banks of a similar character. … The Canadian system … went into operation in 1868. … Influenced by the success of the English system of postal savings-banks, the governments on the Continent of Europe have now nearly all made similar provisions for the investment of the surplus earnings of the people. The Italian system … went into operation February 20, 1876. … In France the proposal to establish postal savings-banks was frequently discussed, but not adopted until March 1881, although the ordinary savings-banks had for several years been allowed to use the post-offices as places for the receipt and repayment of deposits. … The Austrian postal savings-banks were first opened January 12, 1883. … The Belgian system has been [1885] in successful operation for more than fifteen years; that of the Netherlands was established some three years ago; while Sweden has just followed her neighbors, Denmark and Norway, in establishing similar institutions. In 1871 Postmaster-General Creswel recommended the establishment of postal savings depositories in connection with the United States post-offices, and two years later he discussed the subject very fully in his annual report. Several of his successors have renewed his recommendation;" but no action has been taken by Congress.

_D. B. King, Postal Savings-Banks (Popular Science Monthly, December, 1885)._

POSTAL TELEGRAPH, The.

"The States of the continent of Europe were the first to appreciate the advantages of governmental control of the telegraph. … From the beginning they assumed the erection and management of the telegraph lines. It may be said that in taking control of the telegraphs the monarchical governments of the Old World were actuated as much by the desire to use them for the maintenance of authority as by the advantages which they offered for the service of the people. To a certain extent this is doubtless true, but it is none the less true that the people have reaped the most solid benefits, and that the tendency has been rather to liberalize government than to maintain arbitrary power. … The greatest progress and the best management have alike been shown in those countries where the forms of government are most liberal, as in Switzerland and Belgium. … In Great Britain the telegraph was at first controlled by private parties. … In July, 1868, an act was passed 'to enable Her Majesty's Postmaster-General to acquire, work, and maintain electric telegraphs.' … The rate for messages was fixed throughout the kingdom at one shilling for twenty words, excluding the address and signature. This rate covered delivery within one mile of the office of address, or within its postal delivery." The lines of the existing telegraph companies were purchased on terms which were commonly held to be exorbitant, and Parliament, changing its original intention, conferred on the post-office department a monopoly of the telegraphs. Thus "the British postal telegraph was from the first handicapped by an enormous interest charge, and to some extent by the odium which always attaches to a legal monopoly. But notwithstanding the exorbitant price paid for the telegraph, the investment has not proved an unprofitable one."

_N. P. Hill, Speech in the Senate of the United States, January 14, 1884, on a Bill to Establish Postal Telegraphs, ("Speeches and Papers," pages 200-215)._

POSTAL UNION, The.

The Postal Union, which now embraces most of the civilized and semi-civilized countries of the world, was formed originally by a congress of delegates, representing the principal governments of Europe, and the United States of America, which assembled at Berne, Switzerland, in September, 1874. A treaty was concluded at that time, which established uniform rates of postage (25 centimes, or 5 cents, on half-ounce letters), between the countries becoming parties to it, and opening the opportunity for other states to join in the same arrangement. From year to year since, the Postal Union has been widened by the accession of new signatories to the treaty, until very few regions of the globe where any postal system exists lie now outside of it. The late accessions to the Postal Union have been North Borneo, the German East African Protectorate, and the British Australasian Colonies, in 1801; Natal and Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1802; the South African Republic (Transvaal) in 1803. By the action of an international postal congress, held at Vienna, in 1801, a kind of international clearing-house for the Postal Union was established at Berne, Switzerland, and the settlement of accounts between its members has been greatly facilitated thereby.

POSTUMIAN ROAD.

One of the great roads of the ancient Romans. It led from Genoa to Aquileia, by way of Placentia, Cremona and Verona.

_T. Mommsen, History of Rome, book 4, chapter 11._

POTESTAS.

The civil power with which a Roman magistrate was invested was technically termed potestas.

_W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity., chapter 5._

POTESTAS TRIBUNITIA, The.

The powers and prerogatives of the ancient tribunitian office, without the office itself, being conferred upon Augustus and his successors, became the most important element, perhaps, of the finally compacted sovereignty of the Roman emperors.

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 30._

POTIDÆA, Siege of.

The city of Potidæa, a Corinthian colony founded on the long peninsula of Pallene which projects from the Macedonian coast, but which had become subject to Athens, revolted from the latter B. C. 432, and was assisted by the Corinthians. This was among the quarrels which led up to the Peloponnesian War. The Athenians reduced the city and expelled the inhabitants after a siege of three years.

_Thucydides, History, books 1-2._

See, also, GREECE: B. C. 432; and ATHENS: B. C. 430-429.

POTOMAC, Army of the: Its creation and its campaigns.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1861 (JULY-NOVEMBER); 1862 (MARCH-JULY), and after.

POTOSI, The Spanish province of. Modern Bolivia.

See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC: A. D. 1580-1777.

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POTTAWATOMIES.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, AND OJIBWAS.

POUNDAGE.

See TUNNAGE AND POUNDAGE.

POWHATANS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: POWHATAN CONFEDERACY.

POYNING'S ACTS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1494.

PRÆFECTS. PREFECTS. PRÉFÊTS.

See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14; and PRÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.

PRÆMUNIRE, Statute of.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1306-1393.

PRÆNESTE, Sulla's capture of.

Præneste, the ancient city of the Latins, held against Sulla, in the first civil war, by young Marius, was surrendered after the battle at the Colline Gate of Rome. Sulla ordered the male inhabitants to be put to the sword and gave up the town to his soldiers for pillage.

_W. Ihne, History of Rome, book 7, chapter 19._

PRÆNOMEN. NOMEN. COGNOMEN.

See GENS.

PRÆTOR.

See ROME: B. C. 366.

PRÆTORIANS: Start--------

PRÆTORIAN GUARDS. PRÆTORIANS.

"The commander–in-chief of a Roman army was attended by a select detachment, which, under the name of 'Cohors Praetoria,' remained closely attached to his person in the field, ready to execute his orders, and to guard him from any sudden attack. … Augustus, following his usual line of policy, retained the ancient name of 'Praetoriae Cohortes,' while he entirely changed their character. He levied in Etruria, Umbria, ancient Latium, and the old Colonies, nine or ten Cohorts, consisting of a thousand men each, on whom he bestowed double pay and superior privileges. These formed a permanent corps, who acted as the Imperial Life Guards, ready to overawe the Senate, and to suppress any sudden popular commotion."

_W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 12._

The Prætorian Guard had been quartered, during the reign of Augustus, and during the early years of the reign of Tiberius, in small barracks at various points throughout the city, or in the neighboring towns. Sejanus, the intriguing favorite of Tiberius, being commander of the formidable corps, established it in one great permanent camp, "beyond the north-eastern angle of the city, and between the roads which sprang from the Viminal and Colline gates." This was done A. D. 23.

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 45._

See, also, ROME: A. D. 14-37.

PRÆTORIANS: A. D. 41. Their elevation of Claudius to the throne.

See ROME: A. D. 41.

PRÆTORIANS: A. D. 193. Murder of Pertinax and sale of the empire.

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

PRÆTORIANS: A. D. 193. Reconstitution by Severus.

Severus, whose first act on reaching Rome had been to disarm and disband the insolent Guard which murdered Pertinax and sold the empire to Julianus, had no thought of dispensing with the institution. There was soon in existence a new organization of Prætorians, increased to four times the ancient number and picked from all the legions of the frontiers.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 5._

PRÆTORIANS: A. D. 238. Murder of Balbinus and Pupienus.

See ROME: A. D. 192-284.

PRÆTORIANS: A. D. 312. Abolition by Constantine.

"By the prudent measures of Diocletian, the numbers of the Prætorians were insensibly reduced, their privileges abolished, and their place supplied by two faithful legions of Illyricum, who, under the new titles of Jovians and Herculians, were appointed to perform the service of the imperial guards. … They were old corps stationed at Illyricum; and, according to the ancient establishment, they each consisted of 6,000 men. They had acquired much reputation by the use of the plumbatæ, or darts loaded with lead."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 13, with foot-note._

Restored and augmented by Maxentius, during his brief reign, the Prætorians were finally abolished and their fortified camp destroyed, by Constantine, after his victory in the civil war of A. D. 312.

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 13._

PRÆTORIANS: End--------

PRÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.

"As the government degenerated into military despotism, the Prætorian præfect, who in his origin had been a simple captain of the guards, was placed not only at the head of the army, but of the finances, and even of the law. In every department of administration he represented the person, and exercised the authority, of the emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and abused this immense power was Plautianus, the favourite minister of Severus. … They [the Prætorian præfects) were deprived by Constantine of all military command as soon as they had ceased to lead into the field, under their immediate orders, the flower of the Roman troops; and at length, by a singular revolution, the captains of the guards were transformed into the civil magistrates of the provinces. According to the plan of government instituted by Diocletian, the four princes had each their Prætorian præfect; and, after the monarchy was once more united in the person of Constantine, he still continued to create the same number of four præfects, and intrusted to their care the same provinces which they already administered.

1. The Præfect of the East stretched his ample jurisdiction" from the Nile to the Phasis and from Thrace to Persia.

"2. The important provinces of Pannonia, Dacia, Macedonia, and Greece, acknowledged the authority of the Præfect of Illyricum.

3. The power of the Præfect of Italy" extended to the Danube, and over the islands of the Mediterranean and part of Africa.

"4. The Præfect of the Gauls comprehended under that plural denomination the kindred provinces of Britain and Spain, and … to the foot of Mount Atlas.

… Rome and Constantinople were alone excepted from the jurisdiction of the Prætorian præfects. … A perfect equality was established between the dignity of the two municipal, and that of the four Prætorian præfects."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapters 5 and 17._

See, also, ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14.

PRÆTORIUM, The.

"In the very early days of Rome, before even Consuls had a being, the two chief magistrates of the republic bore the title of Praetors. Some remembrance of this fact lingering in the speech of the people gave always to the term Prætorium (the Praetor's house) a peculiar majesty, and caused it to be used as the equivalent of palace. So in the well-known passages of the New Testament, the palace of Pilate the Governor at Jerusalem, of Herod the King at Caesarea, of Nero the Emperor at Rome, are all called the Praetorium. From the palace the troops who surrounded the person of the Emperor took their well-known name, 'the Praetorian Guard.'"

_T. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders, book 1, chapter 3 (volume 1)._

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PRAGA, Battle of (1831).

See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: Start--------

PRAGMATIC SANCTION.

"No two words convey less distinct meaning to English ears than those which form this title: nor are we at all prepared to furnish an equivalent. Perhaps 'a well considered Ordinance' may in some degree represent them: i. e. an Ordinance which has been fully discussed by men practised in State Affairs. But we are very far from either recommending or being satisfied with such a substitute. The title was used in the Lower [the Byzantine] Empire, and Ducange ad v. describes 'Pragmaticum Rescriptum seu Pragmatica Sanctio' to be that which 'ad hibitâ diligente causæ cognitione, ex omnium Procerum consensu in modum sententiæ lecto, a Principe conceditur.'"

_E. Smedley, History of France, part 1, chapter 15, footnote._

"Pragmatic Sanction being, in the Imperial Chancery and some others, the received title for Ordinances of a very irrevocable nature, which a sovereign makes, in affairs that belong wholly to himself, or what he reckons his own rights."

_T. Carlyle, History of Frederick II., book 5, chapter 2._

"This word [pragmatic] is derived from the Greek 'pragma,' which means 'a rule.'"

_E. de Bonnechose, History of France, volume 1, epoch 2, book 1, chapter 5, foot-note._

The following are the more noted ordinances which have borne this name.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1220 and 1232. Of the Emperor Frederick II.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1250-1272.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION:A. D. 1268 (?). Of St. Louis.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1268.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1438. Of Charles VII. of France, and its abrogation.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1438; and 1515-1518.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION:A. D. 1547. Of the Emperor Charles V. for the Netherlands.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1547.

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: A. D. 1718. Of the Emperor Charles VI.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1718-1738; and 1740 (OCTOBER).

PRAGMATIC SANCTION: End--------

PRAGUE: Start--------

PRAGUE: A. D. 1348-1409. The University and the German secession.

See EDUCATION, MEDIÆVAL: GERMANY; and BOHEMIA: A. D. 1405-1415.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1620. Battle of the White Mountain. Abandonment of crown and capital by Frederick.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1620.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1631. Occupied and plundered by the Saxons.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1631-1632.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1648. Surprise and capture of the Kleinsite by the Swedes. Siege of the older part of the city. The end of the Thirty Years War.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1646-1648.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1741. Taken by the French, Saxons and Bavarians.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1741 (AUGUST-NOVEMBER).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1742. The French blockaded in the city. Retreat of Belleisle.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1742 (JUNE-DECEMBER).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1744. Won and lost by Frederick the Great.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1743-1744; and 1744-1745.

PRAGUE: A. D. 1757. Battle. Prussian victory Siege. Relief by Count Daun.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1757 (APRIL-JUNE).

PRAGUE: A. D. 1848. Bombardment by the Austrians.

See AUSTRIA: A. D. 1848-1849.

PRAGUE: End--------

PRAGUE, Congress of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1813 (MAY-AUGUST).

PRAGUE, Treaty of (1634).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1634-1639.

Treaty of (1866).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1866.

PRAGUERIE.

The commotions produced by John Huss, at Prague, in the beginning of the 15th century, gave the name Praguerie, at that period, to all sorts of popular disturbances.

PRAIRIAL, The month.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (OCTOBER) THE NEW REPUBLICAN CALENDAR.

PRAIRIAL FIRST, The insurrection of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1795 (APRIL).

PRAIRIAL TWENTY-SECOND, Law of the.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1794 (JUNE-JULY).

PRAIRIE GROVE, Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER: MISSOURI-ARKANSAS).

PRAKRITA.

See SANSKRIT

PRATO, The horrible sack of (1512).

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1502-1569.

PRECIANI, The.

See AQUITAINE: THE ANCIENT TRIBES.

PRECIEUSES.

See RAMBOUILLET, HÔTEL DE.

PRECIOUS METALS, Production of.

See MONEY AND BANKING: 16-17TH CENTURIES, and 1848-1893.

PREFECTS. PRÉFÊTS. PRÆFECTS.

See ROME: B. C. 31-A. D. 14; and PRÆTORIAN PRÆFECTS.

PREMIER. PRIME MINISTER.

See CABINET, THE ENGLISH.

PREMISLAUS, King of Poland, A. D. 1289-1296.

PREMONSTRATENSIAN ORDER.

This was the most important branch of the Regular Canons of St. Augustine, founded by St. Norbert, a German nobleman, who died in 1134. It took its name from Pre-montre, in Picardy, where the first house was established.

_E. L. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, chapter 3._

ALSO IN: _J. Alzog, Manual of Universal Church History, section 243 (volume 2)._

See AUSTIN CANONS.

PRESBURG, OR PRESSBURG, Peace of (1805).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1805-1806.

PRESBYTERIANS: Start--------

PRESBYTERIANS, English, in the Civil War.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1643 (JULY), and (JULY-SEPTEMBER); 1646 (MARCH); 1647 (APRIL-AUGUST); (AUGUST-DECEMBER); 1648.

PRESBYTERIANS: At the Restoration.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1658-1660; 1661; and 1662-1665.

PRESBYTERIANS: In Colonial Massachusetts.

See MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1646-1651.

PRESBYTERIANS: Scotch-Irish.

See SCOTCH-IRISH.

PRESBYTERIANS: Scottish.

See CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

PRESBYTERIANS: End--------