Part 56

"The commerce of Phœnicia appears to have reached its greatest height about the time of the rise of the Chaldæan power at Babylon. Its monopoly may have been more complete in earlier times, but the range of its traffic was more confined. Nebuchadnezzar was impelled to attempt its conquest by a double motive—to possess himself of its riches and to become master of its harbours and its navy. The prophet Ezekiel (chapter 27), foretelling his siege of Tyre, has drawn a picture of its commerce, which is the most valuable document for its commercial history that has come down to us. … Directly or indirectly, the commerce of Tyre, in the beginning of the sixth century before Christ, thus embraced the whole known world. By means of the Arabian and the Persian gulfs it communicated with India and the coast of Africa towards the equator. On the north its vessels found their way along the Euxine to the frozen borders of Scythia. Beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, its ships, or those of its colony of Gades, visited the British isles for tin, if they did not penetrate into the Baltic to bring back amber. Ezekiel says nothing of the voyages of the Tyrians in the Atlantic ocean, which lay beyond the limits of Jewish geography; but it is probable that they had several centuries before passed the limits of the Desert on the western coast of Africa, and by the discovery of one of the Canaries had given rise to the Greek fable of the Islands of the Blessed."

_J. Kenrick, Phœnicia, chapter 6._

ALSO IN: _A. H. L. Heeren, Historical Researches, volume 1._

_J. Yeats, Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, chapter 3._

_G. Rawlinson, History of Phœnicia, chapters 9, and 14, section 2._

_R. Bosworth Smith, Carthage and the Carthaginians, chapter 1._

PHŒNICIANS: B. C. 332, and after. Final history.

See TYRE.

PHŒNICIANS: End--------

PHOENIX CLUBS.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1858-1867.

PHOENIX PARK MURDERS, The.

See IRELAND: A. D. 1882.

{2535}

PHOKIANS, The.

"The Phokians [in ancient Greece] were bounded on the north by the little territories called Doris and Dryopis, which separated them from the Malians,—on the northeast, east and south-west by the different branches of Lokrians,—and on the south-east by the Bœotians. They touched the Eubœan sea … at Daphnus, the point where it approaches nearest to their chief town, Elateia; their territory also comprised most part of the lofty and bleak range of Parnassus, as far as its southerly termination, where a lower portion of it, called Kirphis, projects into the Corinthian Gulf, between the two bays of Antikyra and Krissa; the latter, with its once fertile plain, was in proximity to the sacred rock of the Delphian Apollo. Both Delphi and Krissa originally belonged to the Phokian race. But the sanctity of the temple, together with Lacedæmonian aid, enabled the Delphians to set up for themselves, disavowing their connexion with the Phokian brotherhood. Territorially speaking, the most valuable part of Phokis consisted in the valley of the river Kephisus. … It was on the projecting mountain ledges and rocks on each side of this river that the numerous little Phokian towns were situated. Twenty-two of them were destroyed and broken up into villages by the Amphiktyonic order, after the second Sacred War."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 3._

See SACRED WARS.

PHORMIO, and the sea victories of.

See GREECE: B. C. 429-427.

PHRATRIÆ.

See PHYLÆ: also, ATHENS: B. C. 510-507.

PHRYGIAN CAP OF LIBERTY, The.

See LIBERTY CAP.

PHRYGIAN SIBYL.

See SIBYLS.

PHRYGIANS. MYSIANS.

"When the Assyrians in the thirteenth century [B. C.] advanced past the springs of the Euphrates into the western peninsula [of Asia Minor], they found, on the central table-land, a mighty body of native population—the Phrygians. The remains of their language tend to show them to have been the central link between the Greeks and the elder Aryans. They called their Zeus Bagalus ('baga' in ancient Persian signifying God; 'bhaga,' in Sanscrit, fortune), or Sabazius, from a verb common to Indian and Greek, and signifying 'to adore.' They possessed the vowels of the Greeks, and in the terminations of words changed the 'm' into 'n.' Kept off from the sea, they, it is true, lagged behind the coast tribes in civilization, and were regarded by these as men slow of understanding and only suited for inferior duties in human society. Yet they too had a great and independent post of their own, which is mirrored in the native myths of their kings. The home of these myths is especially in the northern regions of Phrygia, on the banks of the springs which feed the Sangarius, flowing in mighty curves through Bithynia into Pontus. Here traditions survived of the ancient kings of the land, of Gordius and Midas."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, volume 1, book 1, chapter 3._

"As far us any positive opinion can be formed respecting nations of whom we know so little, it would appear that the Mysians and Phrygians are a sort of connecting link between Lydians and Karians on one side, and Thracians (European as well as Asiatic) on the other—a remote ethnical affinity pervading the whole. Ancient migrations are spoken of in both directions across the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosphorus. It was the opinion of some that Phrygians, Mysians and Thracians had immigrated into Asia from Europe. … On the other hand, Herodotus speaks of a vast body of Teukrians and Mysians who, before the Trojan war, had crossed the strait from Asia into Europe. … The Phrygians also are supposed by some to have originally occupied an European soil on the borders of Macedonia, … while the Mysians are said to have come from the northeastern portions of European Thrace south of the Danube, known under the Roman empire by the name of Mœsia. But with respect to the Mysians there was also another story, according to which they were described as colonists emanating from the Lydians. … And this last opinion was supported by the character of the Mysian language, half Lydian and half Phrygian."

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 16._

The Mysians occupied the north-western corner of Asia Minor, including the region of the Troad. "In the works of the great Greek writers which have come down to us, notably, in the histories of Herodotus and Thucydides, the Phrygians figure but little. To the Greeks generally they were known but as the race whence most of their slaves were drawn, as a people branded with the qualities of slaves, idleness, cowardice, effeminacy. … From the Phrygians came those orgiastic forms of religious cult which were connected with the worship of Dionysus and of the Mother of the Gods, orgies which led alike to sensual excess and to hideous self–mutilations, to semi-religious frenzy and bestial immoralities, against which the strong good sense of the better Greeks set itself at all periods, though it could not deprive them of their attractions for the lowest of the people. And yet it was to this race sunk in corruption, except when roused by frenzy, that the warlike Trojan stock belonged. Hector and Aeneas were Phrygians; and the most manly race of the ancient world, the Romans, were proud of their supposed descent from shepherds of Phrygia."

_P. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, chapter 2._

PHUT.

See LIBYANS.

PHYLÆ. PHRATRIÆ. GENTES.

"In all Greek states, without exception, the people was divided into tribes or Phylæ, and those again into the smaller subdivisions of Phratriæ and gentes, and the distribution so made was employed to a greater or less extent for the common organisation of the State."

_G. F. Schömann, Antiquities of Greece: The State, part 2, chapter 4._

The four Attic tribes were called, during the later period of that division, the Geleontes, Hopletes, Ægikoreis, and Argadeis. "It is affirmed, and with some etymological plausibility, that the denominations of these four tribes must originally have had reference to the occupations of those who bore them,—the Hopletes being the warriour-class, the Ægikoreis goatherds, the Argadeis artisans, and the Geleontes (Teleontes or Gedeontes) cultivators. Hence some authors have ascribed to the ancient inhabitants of Attica an actual primitive distribution into hereditary professions or castes, similar to that which prevailed in India and Egypt. If we should even grant that such a division into castes might originally have prevailed, it must have grown obsolete long before the time of Solon; but there seem no sufficient grounds for believing that it ever did prevail. … The four tribes, and the four names (allowing for some variations of reading), are therefore historically verified. But neither the time of their introduction, nor their primitive import, are ascertainable matters. … {2536} These four tribes may be looked at either as religious and social aggregates, in which capacity each of them comprised three Phratries and ninety Gentes; or as political aggregates, in which point of view each included three Trittyes and twelve Naukraries. Each Phratry contained thirty Gentes; each Trittys comprised four Naukraries: the total numbers were thus 360 Gentes and 48 Naukraries. Moreover, each gens is said to have contained thirty heads of families, of whom therefore there would be a total of 10,800. … That every Phratry contained an equal number of Gentes, and every Gens an equal number of families, is a supposition hardly admissible without better evidence than we possess. But apart from this questionable precision of numerical scale, the Phratries and Gentes themselves were real, ancient and durable associations among the Athenian people, highly important to be understood. The basis of the whole was the house, hearth or family,—a number of which, greater or less, composed the Gens, or Genos. This Gens was therefore a clan, sept, or enlarged, and partly factitious, brotherhood. … All these phratric and gentile associations, the larger as well as the smaller, were founded upon the same principles and tendencies of the Grecian mind—a coalescence of the idea of worship with that of ancestry, or of communion in certain special religious rites with communion of blood, real or supposed. The god, or hero, to whom the assembled members offered their sacrifices, was conceived as the primitive ancestor, to whom they owed their origin. … The revolution of Kleisthenes in 509 B. C. abolished the old tribes for civil purposes, and created ten new tribes,—leaving the Phratries and Gentes unaltered, but introducing the local distribution according to demes or cantons, as the foundation of his new political tribes. A certain number of demes belonged to each of the ten Kleisthenean tribes (the demes in the same tribes were not usually contiguous, so that the tribe was not coincident with a definite circumscription), and the deme, in which every individual was then registered, continued to be that in which his descendants were also registered. … The different Gentes were very unequal in dignity, arising chiefly from the religious ceremonies of which each possessed the hereditary and exclusive administration, and which, being in some cases considered as of preeminent sanctity in reference to the whole city, were therefore nationalized. Thus the Eumolpidæ and Kerykes, who supplied the Hierophant and superintended the mysteries of the Eleusinian Demeter—and the Butadæ, who furnished the priestess of Athene Polias as well as the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus in the acropolis—seem to have been reverenced above all the other Gentes. When the name Butadæ was selected in the Kleisthenean arrangement as the name of a deme, the holy Gens so called adopted the distinctive denomination of Eteobutadæ, or 'The true Butadæ.'"

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 10._

ALSO IN: _Fustel de Coulanges, The Ancient City, book 3, chapter 1._

PHYLARCH.

See TAXIARCH.

PHYLE.

See ATHENS: B. C. 404-403.

PHYSICIANS, First English College of.

See MEDICAL SCIENCE, 16TH CENTURY.

PIACENZA.

See PLACENTIA.

PIAGNONI, The.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1490-1498.

PIANKISHAWS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and SACS, &c.

PIASTS, PIASSES, The.

See POLAND: BEGINNINGS, &c.

PIAVE, Battle on the.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1809 (JANUARY-JUNE).

PI-BESETH.

See BUBASTIS.

PICARDS, The Religions Sect of the.

"The reforming movement of Bohemia [15th century] had drawn thither persons from other countries whose opinions were obnoxious to the authorities of the church. Among these, the most remarkable were known by the name of Picards,—apparently a form of the word 'beghards' [see BEGUINES], which … was then widely applied to sectaries. These Picards appear to have come from the Low Countries."

_J. C. Robertson, History of the Christian Church, volume 8, page 24._

See, also, PAULICIANS.

PICARDY. PICARDS.

"Whimsical enough is the origin of the name of Picards, and from thence of Picardie, which does not date earlier than A. D. 1200. It was an academical joke, an epithet first applied to the quarrelsome humour of those students in the university of Paris who came from the frontier of France and Flanders."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 58, foot-note 1._

PICENIANS, The.

See SABINES.

PICHEGRU, Campaign and political intrigues of.

See FRANCE; A. D. 1794 (MARCH-JULY); 1794-1795 (OCTOBER-MAY); 1795 (JUNE-DECEMBER); 1797 (SEPTEMBER); 1804-1805.

PICHINCHA, Battle of (1822).

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1819-1830.

PICKAWILLANY.

See OHIO (VALLEY): A. D. 1748-1764.

PICTAVI.

See POITIERS: ORIGINAL NAMES.

PICTONES, The.

"The Pictones [of ancient Gaul], whose name is represented by Poitou, and the Santones (Saintonge) occupied the coast between the lower Loire and the great aestuary of the Garonne."

_G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, volume 4, chapter 6._

PICTS AND SCOTS.

See SCOTLAND: THE PICTS AND SCOTS.

PICTURE-WRITING.

See AZTEC AND MAYA PICTURE-WRITING; also HIEROGLYPHICS.

PIE-POWDER COURT, The.

"There was one special court [in London, during the Middle Ages], which met to decide disputes arising on market-days, or among travellers and men of business, and which reminds us of the old English tendency to decide quickly and definitely, without entering into any long written or verbal consideration of the question at issue; and this was known as the Pie-powder Court, a corruption of the old French words. 'pieds poudres,' the Latin 'pedes pulverizati,' in which the complainant and the accused were supposed not to have shaken the dust from off their feet."

_R. Pauli, Pictures of Old England, chapter 12._

PIECES OF EIGHT.

See SPANISH COINS.

PIEDMONT: Primitive inhabitants.

See LIGURIANS.

PIEDMONT: History.

See SAVOY AND PIEDMONT.

PIEDMONT, VIRGINIA., Battle of.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MAY-JUNE: VIRGINIA) THE CAMPAIGNING IN THE SHENANDOAH.

{2537}

PIEGANS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: BLACKFEET.

PIERCE, Franklin: Presidential election and administration.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1852, to 1857.

PIGNEROL: Start--------

PIGNEROL: A. D. 1630-1631 Siege, capture and purchase by the French.

See ITALY: A. D. 1627-1631.

PIGNEROL: A. D. 1648. Secured to France in the Peace of Westphalia.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1648.

PIGNEROL: A. D. 1659. Ceded to France.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1659-1661.

PIGNEROL: A. D. 1697. Ceded to the Duke of Savoy.

See SAVOY: A. D. 1580-1713.

PIGNEROL: End--------

PIGNEROL, Treaty of.

See WALDENSES: A. D. 1655.

PIKE'S PEAK MINING REGION.

See COLORADO: A. D. 1806-1876.

PILATE, Pontius.

See JEWS: B. C. 40-A. D. 44; and A. D. 26.

PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, The.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1535-1539.

PILGRIMS. PILGRIM FATHERS.

In American history, the familiar designation of the little company of English colonists who sailed for the New World in the Mayflower, A. D. 1620, seeking religious freedom, and who landed at Plymouth Rock.

See INDEPENDENTS OR SEPARATISTS, and MASSACHUSETTS: A. D. 1620.

PILLOW, Fort: Start--------

PILLOW, Fort: A. D. 1862. Evacuated by the Confederates.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1862 (JUNE: ON THE MISSISSIPPI).

PILLOW, Fort: A. D. 1864. Capture and Massacre.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (APRIL: TENNESSEE).

PILLOW, Fort: End--------

PILNITZ, The Declaration of.

See FRANCE: A. D. 1791 (JULY-SEPTEMBER).

PILOT KNOB, Attack on.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1864 (MARCH-OCTOBER: ARKANSAS-MISSOURI).

PILSEN, Capture by Count Ernest of Mansfeld (1618).

See GERMANY: A. D. 1618-1620.

PILUM, The.

The Roman spear was called the pilum. "It was, according to [Polybius], a spear having a very large iron head or blade, and this was carried by a socket to receive the shaft. … By the soldiers of the legions, to whom the use of the pilum was restricted, this weapon was both hurled from the hand as a javelin, and grasped firmly, as well for the charge as to resist and beat down hostile attacks."

_P. Lacombe, Arms and Armour, chapter 4._

PIMAN FAMILY, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PIMAN FAMILY.

PIMENTEIRAS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: GUCK on COCO GROUP.

PINDARIS, PINDHARIES, The.

See INDIA: A. D. 1816-1819.

PINE TREE MONEY.

Between 1652 and 1684 the colony of Massachusetts coined silver shillings and smaller coins, which bore on their faces the rude figure of a pine tree, and are called "pine tree money."

See MONEY AND BANKING: 17TH CENTURY.

PINEROLO.

See PIGNEROL.

PINKIE, Battle of (1547).

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1544-1548.

PIPE ROLLS.

See EXCHEQUER.

PIPPIN, OR PEPIN, of Heristal, Austrasian Mayor of the Palace, and Duke of the Franks, A. D. 687-714.

Pippin, or Pepin, the Short, Duke and Prince of the Franks, 741-752; King, 752-768.

PIQUETS AND ZINGLINS.

See HAYTI: A. D. 1804-1880.

PIRÆUS, The.

This was the important harbor of Athens, constructed and fortified during and after the Persian wars; a work which the Athenians owed to the genius and energy of Themistocles. The name was sometimes applied to the whole peninsula in which the Piræus is situated, and which contained two other harbors—Munychia and Zea. Phalerum, which had previously been the harbor of Athens, lay to the east. The walls built by Themistocles "were carried round the whole of the peninsula in a circumference of seven miles, following the bend of its rocky rim, and including the three harbour-bays. At the mouths of each of the harbours a pair of towers rose opposite to one another at so short a distance that it was possible to connect them by means of chains: these were the locks of the Piræus. The walls, about 16 feet thick, were built without mortar, of rectangular blocks throughout, and were raised to a height of 30 feet by Themistocles, who is said to have originally intended to give them double that height."

_E. Curtius, History of Greece, book 3, chapter 2._

ALSO IN: _W. M. Leake, Topography of Athens, section 10._

See, also, ATHENS: B. C. 489-480.

PIRATES OF CILICIA, The.

See CILICIA, PIRATES OF.

PIRMASENS, Battle of (1793).

See FRANCE: A. D. 1793 (JULY-DECEMBER) PROGRESS OF TUE WAR.

PIRNA, Saxon Surrender at.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1756.

PIRU, CHONTAQUIROS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES:: ANDESIANS.

PISA, Greece.

See ELIS; and OLYMPIC GAMES.

PISA, Italy: Start--------

PISA, Italy: Origin of the city. Early growth of its commerce and naval power. Conquest of Sardinia.

Strabo and others have given Pisa a Grecian origin. "Situated near the sea upon the triangle formed in past ages, by the confluence of the two rivers, the Arno and the Serchio; she was highly adapted to commerce and navigation; particularly in times when these were carried on with small vessels. We consequently find that she was rich and mercantile in early times, and frequented by all the barbarous nations. … Down to the end of the fifteenth century, almost all the navigation of the nations of Europe, as well as those of Asia and Africa, which kept a correspondence and commerce with the former, was limited to the Mediterranean, Adriatic, Archipelago, and Euxine seas; and the first three Italian republics, Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, were for a long time mistresses of it. Pisa, as far back as the year 925, was the principal city of Tuscany, according to Luitprand. In the beginning of the eleventh century, that is, in the year 1004, we find in the Pisan annals, that the latter waged war with the Lucchese and beat them; this is the first enterprise of one Italian city against another, which proves that she already acted for herself, and was in great part, if not wholly, liberated from the dominion of the Duke of Tuscany. {2538} In the Pisan annals, and in other authors, we meet with a series of enterprises, many of which are obscurely related, or perhaps exaggerated. Thus we find that in the year 1005, in an expedition of the Pisans against the maritime city of Reggio, Pisa being left unprovided with defenders, Musetto, king, or head, of the Saracens, who occupied Sardinia, seized the opportunity of making an invasion; and having sacked the city, departed, or was driven out of it. … It was very natural for the Pisans and Genoese, who must have been in continual fear of the piracies and invasions of the barbarians as long as they occupied Sardinia, to think seriously of exterminating them from that country: the pope himself sent the Bishop of Ostia in haste to the Pisans as legate, to encourage them to the enterprise: who, joining with the Genoese, conquered Sardinia [1017] by driving out the Saracens; and the pope, by the right he thought he possessed over all the kingdoms of the earth, invested the Pisans with the dominion; not however without exciting the jealousy of the Genoese, who, as they were less powerful in those times, were obliged to yield to force. The mutual necessity of defence from the common enemy kept them united; the barbarians having disembarked in the year 1020 in Sardinia under the same leader, they were again repulsed, and all their treasure which remained a booty of the conquerors, was conceded to the Genoese as an indemnity for the expense."

_L. Pignotti, History of Tuscany, volume 1, chapter 7._

PISA: A. D. 1063-1293. Architectural development. Disastrous war with Genoa. The great defeat at Meloria. Count Ugolino and his fate. War with Florence and Lucca.