Part 18

PALERMO: A. D. 1848-1849. Expulsion of the Neapolitan garrison. Surrender to King "Bomba."

See ITALY: A. D. 1848-1849.

PALERMO: A. D. 1860. Capture by Garibaldi and his volunteers. Bombardment by the Neapolitans.

See ITALY: A. D. 1859-1861.

{2413}

PALESTINE: Start--------

PALESTINE: Early inhabitants.

See AMALEKITES; AMMONITES; AMORITES; HITTITES; JEWS: EARLY HEBREW HISTORY; MOABITES; PHILISTINES; PHŒNICIANS.

PALESTINE: Name.

After the suppression of the revolt of the Jews in A. D. 130, by Hadrian, the name of their province was changed from Judæa to Syria Palæstina, or Syria of the Philistines, as it had been called by Herodotus six centuries before. Hence the modern name, Palestine.

See JEWS: A. D. 130-134.

PALESTINE: History.

See EGYPT: about B. C. 1500-1400; JEWS; JERUSALEM; SYRIA; CHRISTIANITY; MAHOMETAN CONQUEST AND EMPIRE; CRUSADES.

PALESTINE: End--------

PALESTRO, Battle of (1859).

See ITALY: A. D. 1856-1859.

PALFREYS, PALAFRENI.

See DESTRIERS.

PALI.

"The earlier form of the ancient spoken language [of the Aryan race in India], called Pali or Magadhi, … was introduced into Ceylon by Buddhist missionaries from Magadha when Buddhism began to spread, and is now the sacred language of Ceylon and Burmah, in which all their Buddhist literature is written." The Pali language is thought to represent one of the stages in the development of the Prakrit, or common speech of the Hindus, as separated from the Sanskrit, or language of the learned.

See SANSKRIT.

_M. Williams, Indian Wisdom, introduction, pages xxix-xxx, foot-note._

PALILIA, Festival of the.

"The festival named Palilia [at Rome] was celebrated on the Palatine every year on the 21st April, in honour of Pales, the tutelary divinity of the shepherds, who dwelt on the Palatine. This day was held sacred as an anniversary of the day on which Romulus commenced the building of the city."

_H. M. Westropp, Early and Imperial Rome, page 40._

PALLA, The.

See STOLA.

PALLADIUM, The.

"The Palladium, kept in the temple of Vesta at Rome, was a small figure of Pallas, roughly carved out of wood, about three feet high. Ilos, King of Troy, grandfather of Priam, after building the city asked Zeus to give him a visible sign that he would take it under his special protection. During the night the Palladium fell down from heaven, and was found the next morning outside his tent. The king built a temple for it, and from that time the Trojans firmly believed that as long as they could keep this figure their town would be safe; but if at any time it should be lost or stolen, some dreadful calamity would overtake them. The story further relates that, at the siege of Troy, its whereabouts was betrayed to Diomed, and he and the wily Ulysses climbed the wall at night and carried it off. The Palladium, enraged at finding itself in the Grecian camp, sprang three times in the air, its eyes flashing wildly, while drops of sweat stood on its brow. The Greeks, however, would not give it up, and Troy, robbed of her guardian, was soon after conquered by the Greeks. But an oracle having warned Diomed not to keep it, he, on landing in Italy, gave it to one of Æneas' companions, by whom it was brought into the neighbourhood of the future site of Rome. Another legend relates that Æneas saved it after the destruction of Troy, and fled with it to Italy, where it was afterwards placed by his descendants in the Temple of Vesta, in Rome. Here the inner and most sacred place in the Temple was reserved for it, and no man, not even the chief priest, was allowed to see it except when it was shown on the occasion of any high festival. The Vestals had strict orders to guard it carefully, and to save it in case of fire, as the welfare of Rome depended on its preservation."

_F. Nösselt, Mythology, Greek and Roman, page 3._

PALLESCHI, The.

See FLORENCE: A. D. 1498-1500.

PALLIUM, The.

"The pallium, or mantle of the Greeks, from its being less cumbersome and trailing than the toga of the Romans, by degrees superseded the latter in the country and in the camp. When worn over armour, and fastened on the right shoulder with a clasp or button, this cloak assumed the name of paludamentum."

_T. Hope, Costume of the Ancients, volume 1, p 37._

PALM, The Execution of.

See GERMANY: A. D. 1806 (JANUARY-AUGUST).

PALMERSTON MINISTRIES.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1855; 1858-1859.

PALMI.

See FOOT, THE ROMAN.

PALMYRA: Start--------

PALMYRA, Earliest knowledge of.

"The outlying city of Palmyra—the name of which is first mentioned during the wars of M. Antony in Syria [B. C. 41]—was certainly at this period [of Augustus, B. C. 31-A. D. 14] independent and preserved a position of neutrality between the Romans and Parthians, while it carried on trade with both. It does not appear however to have as yet risen to a place of great importance, as its name is not mentioned by Strabo. The period of its prosperity dates only from the time of Hadrian."

_E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, chapter 20, section 1 (volume 2)._

PALMYRA: Rise and fall.

"Amidst the barren deserts of Arabia a few cultivated spots rise like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The air was pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient distance between the gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. [It has been the opinion of some writers that Tadmor was founded by Solomon as a commercial station, but the opinion is little credited at present.] Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent city, and, connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble neutrality, till at length, after the victories of Trajan, the little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though honourable rank of a colony." On the occasion of the invasion of Syria by the Persian king, Sapor, when the Emperor Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner (A. D. 260-261), the only effectual resistance opposed to him was organized and led by a wealthy senator of Palmyra, Odenathus (some ancient writers call him a Saracen prince), who founded, by his exploits at that time, a substantial military power. {2414} Aided and seconded by his famous wife, Zenobia, who is one of the great heroines of history, he extended his authority over the Roman East and defeated the Persian king in several campaigns. On his death, by assassination, in 267, Zenobia ascended the Palmyrenian throne and ruled with masculine firmness of character. Her dominions were extended from the Euphrates and the frontiers of Bithynia to Egypt, and are said, with some doubtfulness, to have included even that rich province, for a time. But the Romans, who had acquiesced in the rule of Odenathus, and recognized it, in the day of their weakness, now resented the presumption and the power of his widowed queen. Perhaps they had reason to fear her ambition and her success. Refusing to submit to the demands that were made upon her, she boldly challenged the attack of the warlike emperor, Aurelian, and suffered defeat in two great, battles, fought A. D. 272 or 273, near Antioch and near Emesa. A vain attempt to hold Palmyra against the besieging force of the Roman, an unsuccessful flight and a capture by pursuing horsemen, ended the political career of the brilliant 'Queen of the East.' She saved her life somewhat ignobly by giving up her counsellors to Aurelian's vengeance. The philosopher Longinus was one who perished. Zenobia was sent to Rome and figured among the captives in Aurelian's triumph. She was then given for her residence a splendid villa at Tibur (Tivoli) twenty miles from Rome, and lived quietly through the remainder of her days, connecting herself, by the marriage of her daughters, with the noble families of Rome. Palmyra, which had been spared on its surrender, rashly rose in revolt quickly after Aurelian had left its gates. The enraged emperor returned and inflicted on the fated city a chastisement from which it never rose."

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapters 10-11._

PALMYRA: End--------

PALMYRÊNÉ, The.

"Palmyrêné, or the Syrian Desert—the tract lying between Cœle-Syria on the one hand, and the valley of the middle Euphrates on the other, and abutting towards the south on the great Arabian Desert, to which it is sometimes regarded as belonging. It is for the most part a hard sandy, or gravelly plain, intersected by low rocky ranges, and either barren or productive only of some sapless shrubs and of a low thin grass. Occasionally, however, there are oases, where the fertility is considerable. Such an oasis is the region about Palmyra itself, which derived its name from the palm groves in the vicinity; here the soil is good, and a large tract is even now under cultivation. … Though large armies can never have traversed the desert even in this upper region, where it is comparatively narrow, trade in ancient times found it expedient to avoid the long 'détour' by the Orontes valley, Aleppo, and Bambuk and to proceed directly from Damascus by way of Palmyra to Thapsacus on the Euphrates."

_G. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies: Babylonia, chapter 1._

PALO ALTO, Battle of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1846-1847.

PALSGRAVE.

An Anglicized form of Pfalzgraf.

See PALATINE COUNT.

PALUDAMENTUM, The.

"As soon as the [Roman] consul entered upon his military career, he assumed certain symbols of command. The cloak of scarlet or purple which the imperator threw over his corslet was named the paludamentum, and this, which became in later times the imperial robe, he never wore except on actual service."

_C. Merivale, History of the Romans, chapter 31._

See, also, PALLIUM.

PALUS MÆOTIS, MÆOTIS PALUS.

The ancient Greek name of the Sea of Azov.

PAMLICOS.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAMPAS. LLANOS.

"In the southern continent [of America], the regions which correspond with the prairies of the United States are the 'pampas' of the La Plata and the 'llanos' of Columbia [both 'pampa' and 'llano' having in Spanish the signification of 'a plain']. … The llanos of Venezuela and New Granada have an area estimated at 154,000 square miles, nearly equal to that of France. The Argentine pampas, which are situated at the other extremity of the continent, have a much more considerable extent, probably exceeding 500,000 square miles. This great central plain … stretches its immense and nearly horizontal surface over a length of at least 1,900 miles, from the burning regions of tropical Brazil to the cold countries of Patagonia."

_E. Reclus, The Earth, chapter 15._

For an account of the Indian tribes of the Pampas.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: PAMPAS TRIBES.

PAMPELUNA: Siege by the French (1521).

See NAVARRE: A. D. 1442-1521.

PAMPTICOKES, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY.

PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS, The.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

PAN-HANDLE, The.

See VIRGINIA: A. D. 1779-1786.

PAN-IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

See IONIC AMPHICTYONY.

PANAMA: Start--------

PANAMA: A. D. 1501-1502. Discovery by Bastidas. Coasted by Columbus.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1498-1505, and 1500.

PANAMA: A. D. 1509. Creation of the Province of Castilla del Oro. Settlement on the Gulf of Uraba.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1509-1511.

PANAMA: A. D. 1513-1517. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa and the discovery of the Pacific. The malignant rule of Pedrarias Davila.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1513-1517.

PANAMA: A. D. 1519. Name and Origin of the city.

Originally, Panama was the native name of an Indian fishing village, on the Pacific coast of the Isthmus, the word signifying "a place where many fish are taken." In 1519 the Spaniards founded there a city which they made their capital and chief mart on the Pacific coast.

_H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States, volume 1, chapters 10-11 and 15._

PANAMA: A. D. 1671-1680. Capture, destruction and recapture of the city of Panama by the Buccaneers.

See AMERICA: A. D. 1639-1700.

PANAMA: A. D. 1688-1699. The Scottish colony of Darien.

See SCOTLAND: A. D. 1695-1699.

PANAMA: A. D. 1826. The Congress of American States.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1826.

PANAMA: A. D. 1846-1855. American right of transit secured by Treaty. Building of the Panama Railroad.

See NICARAGUA: A. D. 1850.

PANAMA: A. D. 1855. An independent state in the Colombian Confederation. Opening of the Panama Railway.

See COLOMBIAN STATES: A. D. 1830-1886.

{2415}

PANAMA CANAL. PANAMA SCANDAL.

"The commencement of an undertaking [projected by Count Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Canal] for connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, through the Isthmus of Panama, was a natural result of the success achieved by the Suez Canal. Various sites have been proposed from time to time for the construction of a canal across the Isthmus, the most northern being the Tehuantepec route, at a comparatively broad part of the Isthmus, and the most southern the Atrato route, following for some distance the course of the Atrato River. The site eventually selected, in 1879, for the construction of a canal was at the narrowest part of the Isthmus, and where the central ridge is the lowest, known as the Panama route, nearly following the course of the Panama Rail way. It was the only scheme that did not necessarily involve a tunnel or locks. The length of the route between Colon on the Atlantic, and Panama on the Pacific, is 46 miles, not quite half the length of the Suez Canal; but a tide-level canal involved a cutting across the Cordilleras, at the Culebra Pass, nearly 300 feet deep, mainly through rock. The section of the canal was designed on the lines of the Suez Canal, with a bottom width of 72 feet, and a depth of water of 27 feet, except in the central rock cutting, where the width was to be increased to 78¾ feet on account of the nearly vertical sides, and the depth to 29½ feet. … The work was commenced in 1882. … The difficulties and expenses, however, of the undertaking had been greatly under–estimated. The climate proved exceptionally unhealthy, especially when the soil began to be turned up by the excavations. The actual cost of the excavation was much greater than originally estimated; and the total amount of excavation required to form a level canal, which had originally been estimated at 100 million cubic yards, was subsequently computed, on more exact data, at 176½ million cubic yards. The preliminary works were also very extensive and costly; and difficulties were experienced, after a time, in raising the funds for carrying on the works, even when shares were offered at a very great discount. Eventually, in 1887, the capital at the disposal of the company had nearly come to an end; whilst only a little more than one-fifth of the excavation had been completed. … At that period it was determined to expedite the work, and reduce the cost of completing the canal, by introducing locks, and thus diminish the remaining amount of excavation by 85 million cubic yards; though the estimated cost, even with this modification, had increased from £33,500,000 to £65,500,000. … The financial embarrassments, however, of the company have prevented the carrying out of this scheme for completing the canal; and the works are at present [1891] at a standstill, in a very unfinished state."

_L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Achievements in Engineering, chapter 14._

"It was on December 14, 1888, that the Panama Canal Company stopped payments. Under the auspices of the French Government, a parliamentary inquiry was started in the hope of finding some means of saving the enterprise. Facts soon came to light, which, in the opinion of many, justified a prosecution. The indignation of the shareholders against the Count de Lesseps, his son, and the other Directors, waxed loud. In addition to ruinous miscalculations, these men were charged with corrupt expenditure with a view to influence public opinion. … The gathering storm finally burst on November 21 [1892], when the interpellation in regard to the Canal question was brought forward in the Chamber. M. Delahaye threw out suggestions of corruption against a large number of persons, alleging that 3,000,000 francs had been used by the company to bribe 150 Senators and Deputies. Challenged to give their names, he persisted in merely replying that if the Chamber wanted details, they must vote an inquiry. … It was ultimately agreed, by 311 to 243, to appoint a special Committee of 33 Members to conduct an investigation. The judicial summonses against the accused Directors were issued the same day, charging them with 'the use of fraudulent devices for creating belief in the existence of a chimerical event, the spending of sums accruing from issues handed to them for a fixed purpose, and the swindling of all or part of the fortune of others.' The case being called in the Court of Appeals, November 25, when all of the defendants—M. Ferdinand de Lesseps; Charles, his son; M. Marius Fontanes, Baron Cottu, and M. Eiffel—were absent, it was adjourned to January 10, 1893. … On November 28, the Marquis de la Ferronaye, followed by M. Brisson, the Chairman of the Committee of Inquiry, called the attention of the Government to the rumors regarding the death of Baron Reinach, and pressed the demand of the Committee that the body be exhumed, and the theory of suicide be tested. But for his sudden death, the Baron would have been included in the prosecution. He was said to have received immense sums for purposes of corruption; and his mysterious and sudden death on the eve of the prosecution started the wildest rumors of suicide and even murder. Public opinion demanded that full light be thrown on the episode; but the Minister of Justice said, that, as no formal charges of crime had been laid, the Government had no power to exhume the body. M. Loubet would make no concession in the matter; and, when M. Brisson moved a resolution of regret that the Baron's papers had not been sealed at his death, petulantly insisted that the order of the day 'pure and simple' be passed. This the Chamber refused to do by a vote of 304 to 219. The resignation of the Cabinet immediately followed. … A few days' interregnum followed during which M. Brisson and M. Casimir-Périer successively tried in vain to form a Cabinet. M. Ribot, the Foreign Minister, finally consented to try the task, and, on December 5, the new Ministry was announced. … The policy of the Government regarding the scandal now changed. … In the course of the investigation by the Committee, the most startling evidence of corruption was revealed. It was discovered that the principal Paris papers had received large amounts for puffing the Canal scheme. M. Thierrée, a banker, asserted that Baron Reinach had paid into his bank 3,390,000 francs in Panama funds, and had drawn it out in 26 checks to bearer. … On December 13, M. Rouvier, the Finance Minister, resigned, because his name had been connected with the scandal. … In the meantime, sufficient evidence had been gathered to cause the Government, on December 16, to arrest M. Charles de Lesseps, M. Fontane, and M. Sans-Leroy, Directors of the Canal Company, on the charge, not, as before, of maladministration of the company's affairs, but of corrupting public functionaries. This was followed by the adoption of proceedings against five Senators and five Deputies.

_Quarterly Register of Current History, March, 1893._

{2416}

"The trial of the De Lesseps, father and son, MM. Fontane, Cottu, and Eiffel, began January 10, before the court of appeals. MM. Fontane and Eiffel confessed, the latter to the bribery of Hebrard, director of 'Le Temps,' a newspaper, with 1,750,000 francs. On February 14, sentence was pronounced against Ferdinand and Charles De Lesseps, each being condemned to spend five years in prison and to pay a fine of 3,000 francs; MM. Fontane and Cottu, two years and 3,000 francs each; and M. Eiffel, two years and 20,000 francs. … On March 8, the trial of the younger de Lesseps, MM. Fontane, Baihaut, Blondin, and ex-Minister Proust, Senator Beral, and others, on charges of corruption, began before the assize court. … De Lesseps, … with MM. Baihaut and Blondin, was found guilty March 21, and sentenced to one year more of imprisonment. M. Blondin received a two-year sentence; but M. Baihaut was condemned to five years, a fine of 75,000 francs, and loss of civil rights. The others were acquitted."

_Cyclopedic Review of Current History, volume 3, number 1 (1803)._

"On June 15 the Court of Cassation quashed the judgment in the first trial on the ground that the acts had been committed more than three years before the institution of proceedings, reversing the ruling of the trial court that a preliminary investigation begun in 1891 suspended the three years' prescription. Fontane and Eiffel were set at liberty, but Charles de Lesseps had still to serve out the sentence for corruption."

_Appleton's Annual Cyclopædia, 1893, page 321._

The enemies of the Republic had wished to establish the venality of the popular representatives; "they succeeded only in showing the resistance that had been made to a temptation of which the public had not known before the strength and frequency. Instead of proving that many votes had been sold, they proved that many were found ready to buy them, which was very different."

_P. De Coubertin, L'Evolution Frarçaise sous la Troisième Republique, page 266._

PANATHENÆA, The Festival of the.

See PARTHENON AT ATHENS.

PANDECTS OF JUSTINIAN.

See CORPUS JURIS CIVILIS.

PANDES.

See CASTE SYSTEM OF INDIA.

PANDOURS.

See HUNGARY: A. D. 1567-1604.

PANICS OF 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1835-1837, 1873, 1893-1894; and TARIFF LEGISLATION (UNITED STATES): A. D. 1846-1861.

PANIPAT, PANNIPUT, Battles of (1526, 1556, and 1761).

See INDIA: A. D. 1399-1605; and 1747-1761.

PANIUM, Battle of (B. C. 198).

See SELEUCIDÆ: B. C. 224-187.

PANJAB, The.

See PUNJAB.

PANNONIA AND NORICUM.