Part 59

Lord Lawrence's immediate successor, Lord Mayo, was assassinated, while Viceroy, in 1872, by a convict—a Highlander—at the convict settlement on the Andaman Islands, for no reason of personal hatred, but only because he represented the governing authority which had condemned the man. Lord Mayo was succeeded by Lord Northbrook, who held the office from 1872 to 1876.

_Sir W. W. Hunter, The Earl of Mayo._

INDIA: A. D. 1876. Lord Lytton, Viceroy.

The successor of Lord Northbrook in the Vice-regal office was Lord Lytton, appointed in 1876.

INDIA: A. D. 1877. The Native States and their quasi feudatory relation to the British Crown. Queen Victoria's assumption of the title of Empress of India.

"In some sense the Indians were accustomed to consider the Company, as they now consider the Queen, to be the heir of the Great Mughal, and therefore universal suzerain by right of succession. But it is easy to exaggerate the force of this claim, which is itself a mere restatement of the fact of conquest. Politically, India is divided into two parts, commonly known as British territory and the native states. The first portion alone is ruled directly by English officials, and its inhabitants alone are subjects of the Queen. The native states are sometimes called feudatory—a convenient term to express their vague relation to the British crown. To define that relation precisely would be impossible. It has arisen at different times and by different methods; it varies from semi-independence to complete subjection. Some chiefs are the representatives of those whom we found on our first arrival in the country; others owe their existence to our creation. Some are parties to treaties entered into as between equal powers; others have consented to receive patents from their suzerain recording their limited rights; with others, again, there are no written engagements at all. Some have fought with us and come out of the struggle without dishonour. Some pay tribute; others pay none. Their extent and power vary as greatly as their political status. The Nizam of Haidarabad governs a kingdom of 80,000 square miles and 10,000,000 inhabitants. Some of the petty chieftains of Kathiawar exercise authority over only a few acres. It is, however, necessary to draw a line sharply circumscribing the native states, as a class, from British territory. Every native chief possesses a certain measure of local authority, which is not derivative but inherent. English control, when and as exercised, is not so much of an administrative as of a diplomatic nature. In Anglo-Indian terminology this shade of meaning is expressed by the word 'political.' … As a general proposition, and excepting the quite insignificant states, it may be stated that the government is carried on not only in the name but also by the initiative of the native chief. {1748} At all the large capitals, and at certain centres round which minor states are grouped, a British officer is stationed under the style of Resident or Agent. Through him all diplomatic affairs are conducted. He is at once an ambassador and a controller. His duty is to represent the majesty of the suzerain power, to keep a watchful eye upon abuses, and to encourage reforms."

_J. S. Cotton, Colonies and Dependencies, part 1, chapter 3._

"The supremacy of the British Government over all the Native States in India was declared in 1877, in a more emphatic form than it had received before, by the assumption by the Queen of the title of Kaisar-i-Hind, Empress of India. No such gathering of chiefs and princes has taken place in historical times as that seen at Delhi in January, 1877, when the rulers of all the principal States of India formally acknowledged their dependence on the British Crown. The political effect of the assertion of the supremacy of the paramount power, thus formally made for the first time in India, has been marked and extremely important."

_Sir J. Strachey, India, lecture 11._

ALSO IN: _G. B. Malleson, Historical Sketch of the Native States of India._

INDIA: A. D. 1878-1881. The second Afghan War.

See AFGHANISTAN: A. D. 1869-1881.

INDIA: A. D. 1880-1893. Recent Viceroys.

On the defeat of the Conservative Beaconsfield Ministry in England, in 1880, Lord Lytton resigned the Viceroyalty and was succeeded by the Marquis of Ripon, who gave place in turn to the Marquis of Dufferin in 1884. In 1888, the Marquis of Lansdowne succeeded Lord Dufferin, and was himself succeeded in 1893 by Sir Henry Norman.

INDIA: A. D. 1893. Suspension of the free coinage of silver.

In June, 1893, the Indian Government, with the approval of the British Cabinet, stopped the free coinage of silver, with a view to the introduction of a gold standard. The Government, it was announced, while stopping the coinage of the declining metal for private persons, would continue on its own account to coin rupees in exchange for gold at a ratio then fixed at sixteen pence sterling per rupee. "The closing of the mints of British India to the coinage of silver coins of full-debt-paying power is the most momentous event in the monetary history of the present century. It is the final and disastrous blow to the use of silver as a measure of value and as money of full-debt-paying power, and the relegation of it to the position of a subsidiary, or token metal. It is the culmination of the evolution from a silver to a gold standard which has been progressing with startling rapidity in recent years. … The remarkable series of events which have characterized, or made manifest, this evolution from a silver to a gold standard are nearly all condensed in the brief period of twenty years, and are probably without a parallel in ancient or modern monetary history. … With the single exception of England, all Europe forty years ago had the silver standard, not only legally but actually—silver coins constituting the great bulk of the money of actual transactions. To-day, not a mint in Europe is open to the coinage of full-debt-paying silver coins, and the gateways of the Orient have been closed against it. Twenty years ago one ounce of gold exchanged in the markets of the world for fifteen and one-half ounces of silver; to-day, one ounce of gold will buy nearly thirty ounces of silver. … There is a general impression that silver has been the money of India from remote generations. This is a fallacy. It has not been a great many years since India adopted the silver standard. The ancient money of the Hindoos was gold, which in 1818 was supplemented by silver, but gold coins remained legal tender until 1835, when silver was made the sole standard of value and legal tender money in British India, and gold was demonetized. … During the last fifty odd years, India has absorbed vast quantities of silver."

_E. O. Leech, The Doom of Silver (The Forum, August, 1893)._

INDIA: End--------

INDIAN EMPIRE, The Order of the.

An Order instituted by Queen Victoria in 1878.

INDIAN TERRITORY: Start--------

INDIAN TERRITORY: 1803. Embraced in the Louisiana Purchase.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

INDIAN TERRITORY: A. D. 1824. Set off from Arkansas Territory.

See ARKANSAS: A. D. 1819-1836.

INDIAN TERRITORY: End--------

INDIANA. The Aboriginal Inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, ALLEGHANS, and DELAWARES.

INDIANA: A. D. 1700-1735. Occupation by the French.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

INDIANA: A. D. 1763. Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR: THE TREATIES.

INDIANA: A. D. 1763. The King's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1763.

INDIANA: A. D. 1765. Possession taken by the English.

See ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765.

INDIANA: A. D. 1774. Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

INDIANA: A. D. 1778-1779. Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark, and annexation to the Kentucky district of Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779, CLARK'S CONQUEST.

INDIANA: A. D. 1784. Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Metropotamia, Illinoia and Polypotamia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1784.

INDIANA: A. D. 1786. Partially covered by the western land claims of Connecticut, ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

INDIANA: A. D. 1787. The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory. Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1787.

INDIANA: A. D. 1790-1795. Indian War. Disastrous expeditions of Harmar and St. Clair, and Wayne's decisive victory.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1790-1795.

INDIANA: A. D. 1800. The Territory of Indiana organized.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY: A. D. 1788-1802.

{1749}

INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818. Successive partitions of the Territory. Michigan and Illinois detached. The remaining Indiana admitted as a State.

"Indiana Territory as originally organized [in 1800] … included the county of Knox, upon the Wabash, from which has sprung the State of Indiana; the county of St. Clair, on the Upper Mississippi, or Illinois River, from which has sprung the State of Illinois; and the county of Wayne, upon the Detroit River, from which has sprung the State of Michigan. … At this time, the inhabitants contained in all of them did not amount to more than 5,640 souls, while the aggregate number of the Indian tribes within the extreme limits of the territory was more than 100,000. … By successive treaties, the Indian title was extinguished gradually to all the country lying upon the waters of the White River, and upon all the lower tributaries of the Wabash, upon the Little Wabash, the Kaskaskia, and east of the Mississippi, below the mouth of the Illinois. Thus, before the close of the year 1805, nearly all the southern half of the present State of Indiana, and one third of the State of Illinois, was open to the advance of the enterprising pioneer. … In 1807, the Federal government, in like manner, purchased from the Indians extensive regions west of Detroit River, and within the present State of Michigan, far beyond the limits of the white settlements in that quarter. Meantime, the settlements formerly comprised in Wayne county, having increased in inhabitants and importance, had been erected into a separate territorial government, known and designated as the 'Territory of Michigan.' On the 1st of July, 1805, the territory entered upon the first grade of territorial government, under the provisions of the ordinance of 1787; and William Hull, formerly a lieutenant in the Revolutionary army, was made the first governor. … Detroit … was made the seat of the territorial government. … By the close of the year 1808, the Indiana Territory east of the Wabash had received such an increase in numbers that it was desirable to assume the second grade of territorial government. Having a population of 5,000 free white males, Congress, with a view to a future state government, by an act approved February 3d, 1809, restricted its limits, and authorized a territorial Legislature. … The Indiana Territory, from this time, was bounded on the west by a line extending up the middle of the Wabash, from its mouth to Vincennes, and thence by a meridian due north to the southern extremity of Lake Michigan. On the north, it was bounded by the southern line of the Michigan Territory. That portion west of the Wabash was erected into a separate territorial government of the first grade, known and designated as the 'Illinois Territory.' The inhabitants of the Indiana Territory soon began to augment more rapidly. … In 1810 the people had increased in numbers to 24,500, and in the newly-erected Territory of Illinois there was an aggregate of 12,300 persons." In 1816 "it was ascertained that the Indiana Territory possessed a population which entitled it to an independent state government. Congress authorized the election of a convention to form a state Constitution," and "the new 'State of Indiana' was formally admitted into the Union on the 19th of April, 1816." Two years later, on the 3d of December, 1818, the Territory of Illinois was similarly transformed and became one of the states of the Union.

_J. W. Monette, The Discovery and Settlement of the Mississippi Valley, book 5, chapter 16 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN: _J. B. Dillon, History of Indiana, chapters 31-47._

_A. Davidson and B. Stuvé, History of Illinois, chapters 20-26._

_T. M. Cooley, Michigan, chapter 8._

INDIANA: A. D. 1811. General Harrison's campaign against Tecumseh and his League. The Battle of Tippecanoe.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1811.

INDIANA: A. D. 1863. John Morgan's Rebel Raid.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1863 (JULY: KENTUCKY).

INDIANS: Start--------

INDIANS: American: The Name.

"As Columbus supposed himself to have landed on an island at the extremity of India, he called the natives by the general appellation of Indians, which was universally adopted before the true nature of his discovery was known, and has since been extended to all the aboriginals of the New World."

_W. Irving, Life and Voyages of Columbus, book 4, chapter 1 (volume 1)._

"The Spanish writers from the outset, beginning with Columbus in his letters, call the natives of America, Indians, and their English translators do the same. So, too, Richard Eden, the earliest English writer on American travel, applies the name to the natives of Peru and Mexico. It is used in the same way, both in translations and original accounts, during the rest of the century, but it is always limited to those races with whom the Spaniards were in contact. In its wider and later application the word does not seem to have established itself in English till the next century. The earliest instance I can find, where it is applied to the natives of North America generally in any original work, is by Hakluyt. In 1587 he translated Laudonnière's 'History of the French Colony in Florida,' and dedicated his translation to Sir Walter Raleigh. In this dedication he once uses the term Indian for the natives of North America. Heriot and the other writers who describe the various attempts at settlement in Virginia during the sixteenth century, invariably call the natives 'savages.' Perhaps the earliest instance where an English writer uses the name Indian specially to describe the occupants of the land afterwards colonized by the English is in the account of Archer's voyage to Virginia in 1602. This account, written by James Rosier, is published in Purchas (volume iv. b. viii.). From that time onward the use of the term in the wider sense becomes more common. We may reasonably infer that the use of it was an indication of the growing knowledge of the fact that the lands conquered by the Spaniards and those explored by the English formed one continent."

_J. A. Doyle, The English in America: Virginia, &c., appendix A._

INDIANS: The tribes and families.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES.

INDIANS: End--------

INDICTIONS, The.

The indiction "was a cycle of 15 years, used only by the Romans, for appointing the times of certain public taxes; as appears from the title in the Code, 'De tributo indicto.' It was established by Constantine, A. D. 312, in the room of the heathen Olympiads; and was used in the acts of the General Councils, Emperors, and Popes."

_W. Hales, New Analysis of Chronology, volume 1, book 1._

"The indictions consisted of a revolution of 15 years, which are separately reckoned as indiction 1, indiction 2, &c., up to 15; when they recommence with indiction 1. … Doubt exists as to the commencement of the indictions; some writers assigning the first indiction to the year 312; the greater number to the year 313; others to 314; whilst some place it in the year 315. {1750} In 'L'Art de vérifier les Dates,' the year 313 is fixed upon as that of the first indiction. There are four descriptions of indictions. The first is that of Constantinople, which was instituted by Constantine in A. D. 312, and began on the 1st of September. The second, and more common in England and France, was the Imperial or Cæsarean indiction, which began on the 24th of September. The third kind of indiction is called the Roman or Pontifical, from its being generally used in papal bulls, at least from the ninth to the fourteenth century; it commences on the 25th of December or 1st of January, accordingly as either of these days was considered the first of the year. The fourth kind of indiction, which is to be found in the register of the parliaments of Paris, began in the month of October. … After the 12th century, the indiction was rarely mentioned in public instruments. … But in France, in private charters, and in ecclesiastical documents, the usage continued until the end of the 15th century."

_Sir H. Nicolas, Chronology of History, pages 6-7._

_ALSO IN: E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 17._

INDO-EUROPEAN. INDO-GERMANIC.

See ARYAN.

INDULGENCE: Declarations of: by Charles II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1672-1673.

INDULGENCE: By James II.

See ENGLAND: A. D. 1687-1688.

INDULGENCES: The Doctrine. Tetzel's sale. Luther's attack.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1516-1517; and 1517.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

See EDUCATION, MODERN: REFORMS, &c.: A. D. 1865-1886.

INE, Laws of (or Dooms of).

See DOOMS OF INE.

INEXPIABLE WAR, The.

See CARTHAGE: B. C. 241-238.

INFALLIBILITY, Promulgation of the Dogma of Papal.

See PAPACY: A. D. 1869-1870.

INGÆVONES, The.

See GERMANY: AS KNOWN TO TACITUS.

INGAGO, Battle of (1881).

See SOUTH AFRICA: A. D. 1806-1881.

INGE I., King of Norway, A. D. 1157-1161.

Inge I. (called the Good), King of Sweden, 1090-1112.

Inge II., King of Norway, 1205-1207.

Inge II., King of Sweden, 1118-1129.

INGENUI. LIBERTINI.

"Free men [among the Romans] might be either persons born free (ingenui) and who had never been in slavery to a Roman, or persons who had once been slaves but had been emancipated (libertini)."

_W. Ramsay, Manual of Roman Antiquity, chapter 3._

INI, King of West Saxons, A. D. 688-726.

INIS-FAIL. INIS-EALGA.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

INITIATIVE, The Swiss.

See REFERENDUM.

INKERMANN, Battle of.

See RUSSIA: A. D. 1854 (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER).

INNOCENT II., Pope, A. D. 1130-1143. Innocent III., Pope, 1198-1216.

Innocent IV., Pope, 1243-1254.

Innocent V., Pope, 1276, January to June.

Innocent VI., Pope, 1352-1362.

Innocent VII., Pope, 1404-1406.

Innocent VIII., Pope, 1484-1492.

Innocent IX., Pope, 1591, October to December.

Innocent X., Pope, 1644-1655.

Innocent XI., Pope, 1676-1689.

Innocent XII., Pope, 1691-1700.

Innocent XIII., Pope, 1721-1724.

INNUITS, The.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ESKIMAUAN FAMILY.

INQUISITION: Start----------

INQUISITION, The: A. D. 1203-1525. Origin of the Holy Office. St. Dominic and the Dominicans. The Episcopal Inquisition. The Apostolical or Papal Inquisition. The Spanish Inquisition and its terrible rule. Estimate of victims. Expulsion of Jews and Moors.