Part 41

See NORMANS.—NORTHMEN: A. D. 860-1100.

ICELAND: A. D. 1800-1874. Political relations with Denmark.

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK-ICELAND): A. D. 1849-1874.

ICELAND: End--------

ICELANDIC "THING," The.

See THING.

ICENI, The.

See BRITAIN: CELTIC TRIBES; and A. D. 61.

ICONIUM, Sultans of.

See TURKS (THE SELJUKS): A. D. 1073-1092.

ICONOCLASTIC CONTROVERSY, The.

"Of the controversies that disquieted this age [the eighth century], the greatest and the most pernicious related to the worship of sacred images. Originating in Greece, it thence spread over the East, and the West, producing great harm both to the state and to the church. The first sparks of it appeared under Phillippicus Bardanes, who was emperor of the Greeks near the beginning of this century. With the consent of the patriarch John, in the year 712, he removed from the portico of the church of St. Sophia a picture representing the sixth general council, which condemned the Monothelites, whom the emperor was disposed to favour; and he sent his mandate to Rome, requiring all such pictures to be removed out of the churches. But Constantine, the Roman pontiff, not only protested against the emperor's edict, but … , having assembled a council at Rome, he caused the emperor himself to be condemned as an apostate from the true religion. These first commotions, however, terminated the next year, when the emperor was hurled from the throne. Under Leo the Isaurian, a very heroic emperor, another conflict ensued; which was far more terrific, severe, and lasting. Leo, unable to bear with the extravagant superstition of the Greeks in worshipping religious images, which rendered them a reproach both to the Jews and the Saracens; in order to extirpate the evil entirely, issued an edict in the year 726, commanding all images of saints, with the exception of that of Christ on the cross, to be removed out of the churches, and the worship of them to be wholly discontinued and abrogated. {1693} … A civil war broke out; first in the islands of the Archipelago and a part of Asia, and afterwards in Italy. For the people, either spontaneously, or being so instructed by the priests and monks, to whom the images were productive of gain, considered the emperor as an apostate from true religion. … In Italy, the Roman pontiffs, Gregory II. and Gregory III., were the principal authors of the revolt. … The Romans and the other people of Italy who were subjects of the Greek empire, violated their allegiance, and either massacred or expelled the viceroys of Leo. Exasperated by these causes, the emperor contemplated making war upon Italy, and especially upon the pontiff: but circumstances prevented him. Hence in the year 730, fired with resentment and indignation, he vented his fury against images and their worshippers, much more violently than before. For having assembled a council of bishops, he deposed Germanus, bishop of Constantinople, who favoured images, and substituted Anastasius in his place; commanded that images should be committed to the flames, and inflicted various punishments upon the advocates of them. The consequence of this severity was, that the Christian church was unhappily rent into two parties; that of the Iconoduli or Iconolatrae, who adored and worshipped images, and that of the Iconomachi or Iconoclastae, who would not preserve but destroyed them; and these parties furiously contended with mutual invectives, abuses, and assassinations. The course commenced by Gregory II. was warmly prosecuted by Gregory III., and although we cannot determine at this distance of time the precise degree of fault in either of these prelates, thus much is unquestionable, that the loss of their Italian possessions in this contest by the Greeks, is to be ascribed especially to the zeal of these two pontiffs in behalf of images. Leo's son Constantine, surnamed Copronymus by the furious tribe of Image-worshippers, after he came to the throne, A. D. 741, trod in his father's steps; for he laboured with equal vigour to extirpate the worship of images, in opposition to the machinations of the Roman pontiff and the monks. Yet he pursued the business with more moderation than his father had done: and being, aware that the Greeks were governed entirely by the authority of councils in religious matters, he collected a council of eastern bishops at Constantinople in the year 754, to examine and decide this controversy. By the Greeks this is called the seventh general council. The bishops pronounced sentence, as was customary, according to the views of the emperor; and therefore condemned images. … Leo IV., who succeeded to the throne on the death of Constantine, A. D. 775, entertained the same views as his father and grandfather. For when he saw, that the abettors of images were not to be moved at all by mild and gentle measures, he coerced them with penal statutes. But Leo IV. being removed by poison, through the wickedness of his perfidious wife Irene, in the year 780, images became triumphant. For that guilty woman, who governed the empire during the minority of her son Constantine, with a view to establish her authority, after entering into a league with Hadrian the Roman pontiff, assembled a council at Nice in Bithynia in the year 786, which is known by the title of the second. Nicene council. Here the laws of the emperors, together with the decrees of the council of Constantinople, were abrogated; the worship of images and of the cross was established. … In these contests most of the Latins,—as the Britons, the Germans, and the French, took middle ground between the contending parties; for they decided, that images were to be retained indeed, and to be placed in the churches, but that no religious worship could be offered to them without dishonouring the Supreme Being. In particular Charlemagne, at the suggestion of the French bishops who were displeased with the Nicene decrees, caused four Books concerning images to be drawn up by some learned man, and sent them in the year 790 to the Roman pontiff Hadrian, with a view to prevent his approving the decrees of Nice. In this work, the arguments of the Nicene bishops in defence of image-worship, are acutely and vigorously combated. But Hadrian was not to be taught by such a master, however illustrious, and therefore issued his formal confutation of the book. Charlemagne next assembled, in the year 794, a council of 300 bishops, at Frankfort on the Maine, in order to re-examine this controversy. This council approved the sentiments contained in the Books of Charlemagne, and forbid the worship of images."

_J. L. von Mosheim, Institutes of Ecclesiastical History, book 3, century 8, part 2, chapter 3 (volume 2)._

ALSO IN: _P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, volume 4, chapter 10, section 101._

_E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 49._

_G. Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire, book 1._

_H. F. Tozer, The Church and the Eastern Empire, chapter 6._

See, also, PAPACY: A. D. 728-774.

ICONOCLASTS OF THE NETHERLANDS.

See NETHERLANDS: A. D. 1566-1568.

ICTIS.

An island off the coast of Britain, to which tin is said to have been brought from the main shore by natives to be sold to Greek merchants. Whether it was the Isle of Thanet, at the mouth of the Thames, or the Isle of Wight, or St. Michael's Mount, is a disputed question.

IDA, Mount.

See TROJA.

IDAHO: Start--------

IDAHO: The Aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: SHOSHONEAN FAMILY.

IDAHO: A. D. 1803. Was it embraced in the Louisiana Purchase? Grounds of American possession.

See LOUISIANA: A. D. 1798-1803.

IDAHO: A. D. 1863. Organized as a Territory.

The Territory of Idaho was created by an act of Congress passed March 3, 1863.

IDAHO: A. D. 1890. Admission to the Union as a State.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1889-1890.

IDAHO: End--------

IDES.

See CALENDAR, JULIAN.

IDLE, Battle of the.

Fought A. D. 617, between the East English, or East Angles, and the Northumbrians; the former victorious.

IDOMENE, Battle of.

One of the battles of the Peloponnesian War, in which the Ambrakiots were surprised and almost totally destroyed by Messenians and Akarnanians, under the Athenian general Demosthenes, B. C. 426.

_G. Grote, History of Greece, part 2, chapter 51 (volume 6)._

IDSTEDT, Battle of (1850).

See SCANDINAVIAN STATES (DENMARK): A. D. 1848-1862.

IDUMEANS, The.

See EDOMITES.

IERNE.

See IRELAND: THE NAME.

{1694}

IGANIE, Battle of (1831).

See POLAND: A. D. 1830-1832.

IGUALA, The Plan of.

See MEXICO: A. D. 1820-1826.

IGUALADA, Battle of (1809).

See SPAIN: A. D. 1808-1809 (DECEMBER-MARCH).

IKENILD-STRETE.

See ROMAN ROADS IN BRITAIN.

ILA. ILARCH.

The Spartan boys were divided into companies, according to their several ages; each company was called an Ila, and was commanded by a young officer called an Ilarch.

_G. Schömann, Antiquity of Greece: The State, part 3, chapter 1._

ILERDA.

Modern Lerida, in Spain, the scene of Cæsar's famous campaign against Afranius and Petreius, in the civil war.

See ROME: B. C. 49.

ILIAD, The.

See HOMER.

ILIUM.

See TROJA.

ILKHANS, The.

See PERSIA: A. D. 1258-1393.

ILLINOIA, The proposed State of.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

ILLINOIS: Start--------

ILLINOIS: The aboriginal inhabitants.

See AMERICAN ABORIGINES: ALLEGHANS, ALGONQUIAN FAMILY, and ILLINOIS.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1673. Traversed by Marquette and Joliet.

See CANADA: A. D. 1634-1673.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1679-1682. LaSalle's fort and colony.

See CANADA: A. D. 1669-1687.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1679-1735. The French occupation.

See CANADA: A. D. 1700-1735.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1700-1750. The "Illinois country" under the French.

"For many years the term 'Illinois country' embraced all the region east of the Upper Mississippi as far as Lake Michigan, and from the Wisconsin on the north to the Ohio on the south. The extent of the Illinois country under the French varied but little from the extent of the present State of Illinois. At a later date, its limits on the east were restricted by the 'Wabash country,' which was erected into a separate government, under the commandant of 'Post St. Vincent,'on the Wabash River. … The early French on the Illinois were remarkable for their talent of ingratiating themselves with the warlike tribes around them, and for their easy amalgamation in manners and customs, and blood. … Their settlements were usually in the form of small, compact, patriarchal villages, like one great family assembled around their old men and patriarchs."

_J. W. Monette, History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Valley of the Mississippi, volume 1, pages 181-183._

See, also, LOUISIANA: A. D. 1719-1750.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1751. Settlements and population.

"Up to this time, the 'Illinois country,' east of the Upper Mississippi, contained six distinct settlements, with their respective villages. These were:

1. Cahokia, near the mouth of Cahokia Creek, and nearly five miles below the present site of St. Louis;

2. St. Philip, forty-five miles below the last, and four miles above Fort Chartres, on the cast side of the Mississippi;

3. Fort Chartres, on the east bank of the Mississippi, twelve miles above Kaskaskia;

4. Kaskaskia, situated upon the Kaskaskia River, five miles above its mouth, upon a peninsula, and within two miles of the Mississippi River;

5. Prairie du Rocher, near Fort Chartres;

6. St. Geneviève, on the west side of the Mississippi, and about one mile from its bank, upon Gabarre Creek.

These are among the oldest towns in what was long known as the Illinois country. Kaskaskia, in its best days, under the French regime, was quite a large town, containing 2,000 or 3,000 inhabitants. But after it passed from the crown of France, its population for many years did not exceed 1,500 souls. Under the British dominion the population decreased to 460 souls, in 1773."

_J. W. Monette, History of the Discovery and Settlement of the Mississippi Valley, volume 1, pages 167-168._

"The population of the French and Indian villages in the district of the Illinois, at the period of which we write, is largely a matter of conjecture and computation. Father Louis Vivier, a Jesuit missionary, in a letter dated June 8, 1750, and written from the vicinity of Fort Chartres, says: 'We have here whites, negroes, and Indians, to say nothing of the cross-breeds. There are five French villages, and three villages of the natives within a space of twenty-five leagues, situate between the Mississippi and another river called (Kaskaskia). In the French villages are, perhaps, eleven hundred whites, three hundred blacks, and sixty red slaves or savages. The three Illinois towns do not contain more than eight hundred souls, all told.' This estimate does not include the scattered French settlers or traders north of Peoria, nor on the Wabash. It is stated that the Illinois nation, then dwelling for the most part along the river of that name, occupied eleven different villages, with four or five fires at each village, and each fire warming a dozen families, except at the principal village, where there were three hundred lodges. These data would give us something near eight thousand as the total number of the Illinois of all tribes."

_J. Wallace, History of Illinois and Louisiana under the French Rule, chapter 16._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1763. Cession to Great Britain.

See SEVEN YEARS WAR.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1763. The king's proclamation excluding settlers.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1763.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765. Possession taken by the English.

"The French officers had, since the peace, been ready loyally to surrender the country to the English. But the Illinois, the Missouri, and the Osage tribes would not consent. At a council held in the spring of 1765, at Fort Chartres, the chief of the Kaskaskias, turning to the English officer, said: 'Go hence, and tell your chief that the Illinois and all our brethren will make war on you if you come upon our lands.' … But when Fraser, who arrived from Pittsburg, brought proofs that their elder brothers, the Senecas, the Delawares and the Shawnees, had made peace with the English, the Kaskaskias said: 'We follow as they shall lead.' 'I waged this war,' said Pontiac, 'because, for two years together, the Delawares and Shawnees begged me to take up arms against the English. So I became their ally, and was of their mind;' and, plighting his word for peace, he kept it with integrity. A just curiosity may ask how many persons of foreign lineage had gathered in the valley of the Illinois since its discovery by the missionaries. Fraser was told that there were of white men, able to bear arms, 700; of white women, 500; of their children, 850; of negroes of both sexes, 900. The banks of the Wabash, we learn from another source, were occupied by about 110 French families, most of which were at Vincennes. {1695} Fraser sought to overawe the French traders with the menace of an English army that was to come among them; but they pointed to the Mississippi, beyond which they would be safe from English jurisdiction [France having ceded to Spain her territory on the western side of the river]. … With Croghan, an Indian agent, who followed from Fort Pitt, the Illinois nations agreed that the English should take possession of all the posts which the French formerly held; and Captain Stirling, with 100 men of the 42d regiment, was detached down the Ohio, to relieve the French garrison. At Fort Chartres, St. Ange, who had served for fifty years in the wilderness, gave them a friendly reception; and on the morning of the 10th of October he surrendered to them the left bank of the Mississippi. Some of the French crossed the river, so that at St. Genevieve there were at least five-and-twenty families, while St. Louis, whose origin dates from the 15th of February 1764, and whose skilfully chosen site attracted the admiration of the British commander, already counted about twice that number, and ranked as the leading settlement on the western side of the Mississippi. In the English portion of the distant territory, the government then instituted was the absolute rule of the British army, with a local judge to decide all disputes among the inhabitants according to the customs of the country, yet subject to an appeal to the military chief."

_G. Bancroft, History of the United States (Author's last revision), volume 3, pages 151-152._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1765-1774. Early years of English rule.

"Just before and during the first years of the English domination, there was a large exodus of the French inhabitants from Illinois. Such, in fact, was their dislike of British rule that fully one-third of the population, embracing the wealthier and more influential families, removed with their slaves and other personal effects, beyond the Mississippi, or down that river to Natchez and New Orleans. Some of them settled at Ste. Genevieve, while others, after the example set by St. Ange, took up their abode in the village of St. Louis, which had now become a depot for the fur company of Louisiana. … At the close of the year 1765, the whole number of inhabitants of foreign birth or lineage, in Illinois, excluding the negro slaves, and including those living at Post Vincent on the Wabash, did not much exceed two thousand persons; and, during the entire period of British possession, the influx of alien population hardly more than kept pace with the outflow. Scarcely any Englishmen, other than the officers and troops composing the small garrisons, a few enterprising traders and some favored land speculators, were then to be seen in the Illinois, and no Americans came hither, for the purpose of settlement, until after the conquest of the country by Colonel Clark. All the settlements still remained essentially French, with whom there was no taste for innovation or change. But the blunt and sturdy Anglo-American had at last gained a firm foot-hold on the banks of the great Father of Rivers, and a new type of civilization, instinct with energy, enterprise and progress, was about to be introduced into the broad and fertile Valley of the Mississippi. … Captain Thomas Stirling began the military government of the country on October 10, 1765, with fair and liberal concessions, calculated to secure the good-will and loyalty of the French-Canadians, and to stay their further exodus; but his administration was not of long duration. On the 4th of the ensuing December, he was succeeded by Major Robert Farmer, who had arrived from Mobile with a detachment of the 34th British infantry. In the following year, after exercising an arbitrary authority over these isolated and feeble settlements, Major Farmer was displaced by Colonel Edward Cole, who had commanded a regiment under Wolfe, at Quebec. Colonel Cole remained in command at Fort Chartres about eighteen months; but the position was not congenial to him. … He was accordingly relieved at his own request, early in the year 1768. His successor was Colonel John Reed, who proved a bad exchange for the poor colonists. He soon became so notorious for his military oppressions of the people that he was removed, and gave place to Lieutenant-Colonel John Wilkins, of the 18th, or royal regiment of Ireland, who had formerly commanded at Fort Niagara. Colonel Wilkins arrived from Philadelphia and assumed the command September 5, 1768. He brought out with him seven companies of his regiment for garrison duty. … One of the most noticeable features of Colonel Wilkins' administration was the liberality with which he parceled out large tracts of the domain over which he ruled to his favorites in Illinois, Philadelphia, and elsewhere, without other consideration than requiring them to re-convey to him a certain interest in the same. Lieutenant Colonel Wilkins' government of the Illinois country eventually became unpopular, and specific charges were preferred against him, including a misappropriation of the public funds. He asked for an official investigation, claiming that he was able to justify his public conduct. But he was deposed from office in September, 1771, and sailed for Europe in July of the following year. Captain Hugh Lord, of the 18th regiment, became Wilkins' successor at Fort Chartres, and continued in command until the year 1775. … On the 2d of June, 1774, Parliament passed an act enlarging and extending the province of Quebec to the Mississippi River so as to include the territory of the Northwest. … Who was the immediate successor of Captain Lord in command of the Illinois is not positively determined."

_J. Wallace, History of Illinois and Louisiana Under the French Rule, chapter 20._

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1774. Embraced in the Province of Quebec.

See CANADA: A. D. 1763-1774.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1778-1779. Conquest from the British by the Virginian General Clark and annexation to the Kentucky District of Virginia.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1778-1779, CLARK'S CONQUEST.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1784. Included in the proposed states of Assenisipia, Illinoia, and Polypotamia.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1784.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1785-1786. Partially covered by the western land claims of Massachusetts and Connecticut, ceded to the United States.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1781-1786.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1787. The Ordinance for the government of the Northwest Territory. Perpetual exclusion of Slavery.

See NORTHWEST TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1787.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1809. Detached from Indiana and organized as a distinct Territory.

See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818.

{1696}

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1818. Admission into the Union as a State.

See INDIANA: A. D. 1800-1818; and WISCONSIN: A. D. 1805-1848.

ILLINOIS: A. D. 1832. The Black Hawk War.