Chapter 9

1. _That which_ is seen is temporal. 2. _What_ God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 3. _Whoever_ lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. _Whatever_ we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot _where_ brave men died. 6. The year _when_ Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing _wherein_ I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means _whereby_ I live.

+Direction+.--_Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers into adjective clauses_:--

1. A man's heart deviseth _his_ way. 2. _Reason's_ whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words--_health, peace_, and _competence_.

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LESSON 62.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Lesson, and write illustrative sentences as here directed_:--

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject; one modifying a complement; one modifying the principal word of a phrase; one modifying some word omitted; one whose connective is a subject; one whose connective is a complement; one whose connective is the principal word of a phrase; one whose connective is a possessive modifier; one whose connective is omitted; one whose connective is an adverb.

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LESSON 63.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He arrived late_. You have learned that you can expand the adverb _late_ into a phrase, and say, He arrived _at midnight_. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of +Time+, and say, He arrived _when the clock struck twelve_.

_He stood where I am_. The clause introduced by _where_ expresses +Place+, and is equivalent to the adverb _here_ or to the phrase _in this place_.

_This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant_. The clause introduced by _as ... as_ modifies _profitable_, telling the +Degree+ of the quality expressed by it.

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an +Adverb Clause+.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +time+.

1. When pleasure calls, we listen.

we | listen ===|========= | \ `When ` pleasure | \ calls ---------|---\------- |

+Explanation+.--_When_ modifies both _listen_ and _calls_, denoting that the two acts take place at the same time. It also connects _pleasure calls_, as an adverb modifier, to _listen_. The offices of the conjunctive adverb _when_ may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus: We listen _at the time at which_ pleasure calls. _At the time_ modifies _listen_, _at which_ modifies _calls_, and _which_ connects.

The line representing _when_ is made up of three parts to picture these three offices. The part representing _when_ as a modifier of _calls_ is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it.

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then ths Lord will take me up.

Lord | will take | me ======|===================== \The | \up \ ..\ then ` \ ` `When father \ ------------'\ \ \my ' \ \ ' \ \ ' \ | \ forsake | me 'and \----|--------------------- ' / | ' / mother ' / ------------'/ \my

+Explanation+.--By changing _then_ into _at the time_, and _when_ into _at which_, the offices of these two words will be clearly seen. For explanation of the line representing _when_, see Lesson 14 and (1) above.

4. Cato, before he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading Plato's "Immortality." [Footnote: Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat _before_, _ere_, _after_, _till_, _until_, and _since_ as prepositions followed by noun clauses.] 5. Many a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. [Footnote: See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ here modifies _year_, or, rather, _year_ as modified by _a_.

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon.

Blucher | arrived ===========|=========== | \ \------\ \ `as \ just ` \ ` \ Wellington | \ was meeting | onslaught --------------|-----\------------------------ |

+Explanation+.--_Just_ may be treated as a modifier of the dependent clause. A closer analysis, however would make it a modifier of _as_. _Just as_=_just at the time at which_. _Just_ here modifies _at the time_. _At the time_ is represented in the diagram by the first element of the _as_ line.

The +adverb clause+ may express +place+.

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +degree+.

10. Washington was as good as he was great.

+Explanation+.--The adverb clause _as he was great_ modifies the first _as_, which is an adverb modifying _good_. The first _as_, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree? The second _as_ modifies _great_ and performs the office of a conjunction, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding _as ... as_ into two phrases, we have, Washington was good _in the degree in which_ he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20).

11. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became. [Footnote: _The_, here, is not the ordinary adjective _the_. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first _the_ = _by how much_, and modifies _wiser_; the second _the_ = _by so much_, and modifies _humbler_.]

+Explanation+.--The words _the ... the_ are similar in office to _as ... as_--He became humbler _in that degree in which_ he became wiser.

12. Gold is heavier than iron.

Gold | is \ heavier =======|============== | \ ` than ` iron | x \ \ x -------|---------------

+Explanation+.--_Heavier_ = _heavy beyond the degree_, and _than_ = _in which_. The sentence = _Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron is heavy_. _Is_ and _heavy_ are omitted. Frequently words are omitted after _than_ and _as_. _Than_ modifies _heavy_ (understood) and connects the clause expressing degree to _heavier_, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

13. To be right is better than to be president.

+Explanation+.--To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good).

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze. [Footnote: In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical relations, and cannot always be classed under Degree.]

+Explanation+.--The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb _so_, modified by the adverb clause _that the mercury froze_, answers the question, Cold to what degree? The sentence = It was cold _to that degree in which_ the mercury froze. _That_, as you see, modifies _froze_ and connects the clauses; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.

+Explanation+.--It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require).

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep of hell resounded. 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more than in his religion. [Footnote: For the use of _he_ instead of the indefinite pronoun _one_ repeated, see Lesson 124.] 20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it.

I | like | it =====|=========== | \ \----\ better \the \ ...\ ` \ ` I | ` see | it ----|--`-------------- ` \ `The \ `.....\oftener \

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LESSON 64.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He lived as the fool lives_. The adverb clause, introduced by _as_, is a clause of +Manner+, and is equivalent to the adverb _foolishly_ or to the phrase _in a foolish manner_.

_The ground is wet because it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _because_, assigns the +Real Cause+ of the ground's being wet.

_It has rained, for the ground is wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _for_, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our believing that it has rained; it gives the +Evidence+ of what is asserted. [Footnote: Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect; Evidence produces knowledge of an effect.

Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent.]

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +manner+.

1. He died as he lived.

+Explanation+.--He died _in the manner in which_ he lived. For diagram, see (1), Lesson 63.

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks.

(For diagram of _as_ ... _so_, see _when_ ... _then_ (3), Lesson 63.)

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore.

The +adverb clause+ may express +real cause+.

6. The ground is wet because it has rained.

ground | is \ wet ==========|============= \The | ` ` ` because ` it | ` has rained ----|---------------

+Explanation+.--_Because_, being a mere conjunction, stands on a line wholly dotted.

7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its impurities. 9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it combines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made from its flour.

The +adverb clause+ may express +evidence+.

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in the nests of other birds.

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LESSON 65.

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED.

+Introductory Hints+.--_If it rains, the ground will be wet_. The adverb clause, introduced by _if_, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a +Condition+ ready to become a cause.

_He takes exercise that he may get well_. The adverb clause, introduced by _that_, assigns the cause or the motive or the +Purpose+ of his exercising.

_The ground is dry, although it has rained_. The adverb clause, introduced by _although_, expresses a +Concession+. It is conceded that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry.

All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, purpose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of +Cause+, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper.

Analysis.

The +adverb clause+ may express +condition+.

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to produce combustion. 2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. (_Unless_ = _if not_.) 3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part of the year.

+Explanation+.--The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the _if_ unnecessary. This omission of _if_ is a common idiom.

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play.

The +adverb clause+ may express +purpose+.

6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to each other.

+Explanation+.--_That_, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction.

7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time.

+Explanation+.--The phrases _in order that_, _so that_ = _that_.

8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to reach the Orient. 9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth.

The +adverb clause+ may express +concession+.

10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one-sixth of the blood is sent to it. 11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. 12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his foolishness depart from him. 13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom, it arrested its progress for a hundred years.

+Explanation+.--_If_ here = _even if_ = _though_.

14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation.

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LESSON 66.

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES.

+COMMA--RULE.--An _Adverb Clause_ is set off by the comma unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies+.

+Explanation+.--I met him in Paris, _when I was last abroad_. I will not call him villain, _because it would be unparliamentary_. Paper was invented in China, _if the Chinese tell the truth_. In these sentences the adverb clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as afterthoughts.

Glass bends easily _when it is red-hot_. Leaves do not turn red _because the frost colors them_. It will break _if you touch it_. Here the adverb clauses are restrictive; each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the sentence.

When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off.

+Direction+.---_Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons_ 63 _and_ 64.

+Direction+.---_Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson _100_), and punctuate according to the Rule_:--

1. The leaves of the water-maple turn red--_time_. 2. Our eyes cannot bear the light--_time_. 3. Millions of soldiers sleep--_place_. 4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands--_place_. 5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew--_degree_. 6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far--_degree_. 7. The tree is inclined--_manner_. 8. The lion springs upon his prey--_manner_. 9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta--_cause_. 10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night--_cause_. 11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away--_evidence_. 12. We dream in our sleep--_evidence_. 13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise--_purpose_. 14. We put salt into butter and upon meat--_purpose_. 15. Iron bends and molds easily--_condition_. 16. Apples would not fall to the ground--_condition_. 17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last--_concession_. 18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws--_concession_.

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LESSON 67.

+COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLASSES+.

ARRANGEMENT.

The adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between the parts of it, or after it.

+Direction+.---_Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow each independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a caret (^) indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the sentence. Note its force in its several positions, and attend to the punctuation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end_.

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LESSON 68.

COMPOSITION--ADVERB CLAUSES.

An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle or a participle phrase.

+Example+.--_When he saw me_, he stopped = _Seeing me_, he stopped.

+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their bodies. 2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32 deg. 3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. 4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his worshipers. 5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb heat.

An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute phrase.

+Example+.--_When night came_ on, we gave up the chase = _Night coming_ on, we gave up the chase.

+Direction+.--_Contract these complex sentences to simple ones_:--

1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat is produced. 2. It will rain to-morrow, for "Probabilities" predicts it. 3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was outnumbered. 4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry, Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose.

An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional phrase having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an infinitive, or (3) a noun.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a participle for its principal word_:--

+Model+.--They will call _before they leave_ the city = They will call _before leaving_ the city.

1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the Atlantic. 2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. 4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate them.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive phrase_:--

+Model+.--She stoops _that she may conquer_ = She stoops _to conquer_.

1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 4. What would I not give if I could see you happy! 5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently.

+Direction+.--_Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional phrase having a noun for its principal word_:--

+Model+.--He fought _that he might obtain glory_ = He fought _for glory_.

1. Luther died where he was born. 2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 3. The general marched as he was ordered. 4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age.

An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting such words as may easily be supplied.

+Example+.--_When you are right_, go ahead = _When right_, go ahead.

+Direction+.--_Contract these adverb clauses_:--

1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended.

+Explanation+.--_However_ modifies _strongly_, and connects a concessive clause.

3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as Shakespeare has uttered.

(Frequently, clauses introduced by _as_ and _than_ are contracted.)

5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large.

(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.)

6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era.

An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an adjective clause or phrase.

+Example+.--This man is to be pitied, _because he has no friends_ = This man, _who has no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _having no friends_, is to be pitied = This man, _without friends_, is to be pitied.

+Direction+.--_Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase_:--

1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three good things.

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LESSON 69.

ANALYSIS.

+Direction.+--_Tell the kind of adverb clause in each of the sentences in Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses stand.

Select two sentences containing time clauses; one, a place clause; two, degree; one, manner; two, real cause; two, evidence; two, purpose; two, condition; and two, concession, and analyze them_.

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LESSON 70.

REVIEW.

+Direction.+--_Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of adverb clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office of each. For connectives, see Lesson 100. Tell why the adverb clauses in Lesson 68 are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences illustrating the different ways of contracting adverb clauses_.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+

(SEE PAGES 165-168.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

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LESSON 71.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints.+--In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an infinitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are now to learn that a clause may do the same.

_Obedience_ is better than sacrifice = _To obey_ is better than sacrifice = _That men should obey_ is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause _that men should obey_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Subject+ of _is_.

_Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning_. The dependent clause, introduced by _that_, is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Object Complement+ of _believe_.

_The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is +Explanatory+ of _fact_.

_A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words_. The clause introduced by _that_ is equivalent to a noun, and is an +Attribute Complement+ relating to _peculiarity_.

_Your future depends very much on who your companions are_. The clause _who your companions are_ is equivalent to a noun, and is the +Principal Term+ of a +Phrase+ introduced by the preposition _on_.

A clause that does the work of a noun is a +Noun Clause+.

Analysis.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +subject+.

1. That the earth is round has been proved.

That -------- ' earth | is ' \ round -------|-------------- \the | | | / \ | has been proved =============|================= |

+Explanation+.--The clause _that the earth is round_ is used like a noun as the subject of _has been proved_. The conjunction _that_ [Footnote: "_That_ was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact stated in an independent sentence; as, It was good; he saw _that_. By an inversion of the order this became, He saw _that_ (namely) it was good, and so passed into the form _He saw that it was good_, where _that_ has been transferred to the accessory clause, and has become a mere sign of grammatical subordination."--_C. P. Mason._] introduces the noun clause.

This is a peculiar kind of complex sentence. Strictly speaking, there is here no principal clause, for the whole sentence cannot be called a clause, _i.e._, a part of a sentence. We may say that it is a complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place of a principal clause.