Chapter 8

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change_:--

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 5. A giant towered he among men.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. We are merry brides. 2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." 3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. had become a despot.

+Direction+.--_Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them_:--

Rock, desert, fortress.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places_:--

1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 3. Hotter grew the air. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 5. Dark rolled the waves. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 9. Wise are all his ways. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 11. Weary had he grown. 12. Faithful proved he to the last.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective complement and the verb_:--

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone.

+Direction+.--_Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the usual order_:--

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce.

* * * * *

LESSON 54.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Then burst his mighty heart. 2. Here stands the man. 3. Crack! went the ropes. 4. Down came the masts. 5. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 6. Tictac! tictac! go the wheels of thought. 7. Away went Gilpin. 8. Off went his bonnet. 9. Well have ye judged. 10. On swept the lines. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 12. Boom! boom! went the guns. 13. Thus waned the afternoon. 14. There thunders the cataract age after age.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb_:--

1. I will never desert Mr. Micawber. 2. The great event occurred soon after. 3. The boy stood there with dizzy brain. 4. The Spaniard's shot went whing! whing! 5. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. 6. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 7. It stands written so. 8. Venus was yet the morning star. 9. You must speak thus. 10. Lady Impudence goes up to the maid. 11. Thy proud waves shall be stayed here.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these adverbs_:--

Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss_:--

1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 2. Seven years after the Restoration appeared Paradise Lost. 3. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 4. To such straits is a kaiser driven. 5. Upon such a grating hinge opened the door of his daily life. 6. Between them lay a mountain ridge. 7. In purple was she robed. 8. Near the surface are found the implements of bronze. 9. Through the narrow bazaar pressed the demure donkeys. 10. In those days came John the Baptist. 11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was fought the battle of Bunker Hill. 12. Three times were the Romans driven back.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb_:--

1. The disciples came at the same time. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects was heard over our heads. 3. An ancient and stately hall stood near the village. 4. His trusty sword lay by his side. 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to Charles Martel. 6. The house stands somewhat back from the street. 7. Our sphere turns on its axis. 8. The bridle is red with the sign of despair. 9. I have served in twenty campaigns. 10. Touch proper lies in the finger-tips and in the lips.

+Direction+.--_Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and compare the two orders_:--

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning them with these words_:--

There (independent), nor, neither.

* * * * *

LESSON 55.

ARRANGEMENT--INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, the order is usual.

+Examples+.--_Who_ came last evening? _What star_ shines brightest?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below as a subject; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject_:--

Who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is object complement or attribute complement or a modifier of either, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Whom_ did you see? _What_ are personal consequences? _Which course_ will you choose?

+Direction+.--_Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement, and another with the second word as attribute complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as_ _complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complement_:--

Whom, who, which, what.

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed.

+Examples+.--_Why_ is the forum crowded? _Where_ are the flowers, the fair young flowers?

+Direction+.--_Write five interrogative sentences, using these adverbs_:--

How, when, where, whither, why.

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when this is simple; after the first word of it when it is compound.

+Examples+.--_Have you_ your lesson? _Has the gentleman_ finished?

+Direction+.--_Write six interrogative sentences, using these words_:--

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see.

+Direction+.--_Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declarative sentences_.

* * * * *

LESSON 56.

ARRANGEMENT--IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES.

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sentence; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_Praise ye_ the Lord. _Give_ (_thou_) me three grains of corn.

+Direction+.--_Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject shall be omitted; and in five, expressed_:--

Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote.

Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sentences ordinarily begin with _how_ or _what_, and are usually in the transposed order.

+Examples+.--_How quietly_ the child sleeps! _How excellent_ is thy loving-kindness! _What visions_ have I seen! _What a life_ his was!

+Direction+.--_Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying (1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) an adverb--in three sentences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences with the word what modifying (1) an object complement and (2) an attribute complement--in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two precede, the subject_.

* * * * *

LESSON 57.

CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES.

+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated modifiers and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last_:--

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alliances, they became powerful. 3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostentatious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental! 5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remonstrances and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction_:--

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart.

+Direction+.--_Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the repetition and of the omission_:--

Poor, how, with, through, or, and.

+Direction+.--Expand these sentences by supplying subjects:--

1. Give us this day our daily bread. 2. Why dost stare so? 3. Thank you, sir. 4. Hear me for my cause. 5. Where hast been these six months? 6. Bless me! 7. Save us.

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of it_:--

1. Nobody there. 2. Death to the tyrant. 3. All aboard! 4. All hands to the pumps! 5. What to me fame? 6. Short, indeed, his career. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 8. I must after him. 9. Thou shalt back to France. 10. Whose footsteps these?

+Direction+.--_Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss in vivacity_:--

1. Upon them with the lance. 2. At your service, sir. 3. Why so unkind? 4. Forward, the light brigade! 5. Half-past nine. 6. Off with you. 7. My kingdom for a horse! 8. Hence, you idle creatures! 9. Coffee for two. 10. Shine, sir? 11. Back to thy punishment, false fugitive. 12. On with the dance. 13. Strange, strange! 14. Once more unto the breach. 15. Away, away! 16. Impossible!

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb_:--

1. Art thou gone? 2. Will you take your chance? 3. His career was ably run. 4. Are you a captain? 5. May long life be to the republic. 6. How great is the mystery! 7. Canst thou wonder? 8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. 9. Are you here?

+Direction+.--_Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and note the gain in force and animation_:--

1. I offer a world for sale. 2. Now, then, go you to breakfast. 3. Sit you down, soothless insulter. 4. I want a word with you, wife. 5. Those are my sentiments, madam. 6. Bring ye lights there. 7. It is true, sir. 8. We will drink a health to Preciosa. 9. I offer a penny for your thoughts. 10. Whither are you going so early?

+Direction+.--_Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting both subject and verb_:--

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for the guns, water.

* * * * *

LESSON 58.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 51 _to Lesson_ 57, _inclusive_.

Illustrate the different positions--Usual and Transposed--that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take; illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an exclamatory sentence; illustrate the different ways of contracting sentences.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 162-165.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCE--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Introductory Hints+.--The sentences given for analysis in the preceding Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called +Simple Sentences+.

_A discreet youth makes friends_. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could expand the adjective _discreet_ into a phrase, and say, A youth of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth _that is discreet_ makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, _A youth makes friends_, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call +Clauses+.

The adjective clause _that is discreet_, performing the office of a single word, we call a +Dependent Clause+; _A youth makes friends_, not performing such office, we call an +Independent Clause+.

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call a +Complex Sentence+.

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an +Adjective Clause+.

Analysis.

1. They that touch pitch will be defiled.

They | will be defiled =======|===================== ` | ` ` that ` | touch | pitch --------|--------'------- |

+Explanation+.--The relative importance of the two clauses is shown by their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shading of the lines. The pronoun _that_ is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. _That_ performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _that touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. _They will be defiled_ is the independent clause, and _that touch pitch_ is the dependent. _That touch pitch_ is a modifier of _they_ because it limits the meaning of _they_; the dependent clause is connected by its subject _that_ to _they_.

TO THE TEACHER.--Illustrate the connecting force of _who, which_, and _that_ by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connection.

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause does not always modify the subject.

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed.

+Explanation+.--The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject.

7. The guilt of the slave-trade, [Footnote: See Lesson 61, foot-note.] which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred.

I | found | place ====|================== | \the ` ` you | referred ` ------|---------- ` | \to ` \ which ` \-------

9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter. 10. It was the same book that I referred to.

+Explanation+.--The phrase _to that_ modifies _referred_. _That_ connects the adjective clause. When the pronoun _that_ connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8).

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him.

+Explanation+.--A preposition is wanting. _That = in which_. (Can you find a word that would here sound better than _that_?)

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak.

+Explanation+.--Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place--It is you that I speak _to_. _That I speak to_ modifies the subject.

15. It was from me that he received the information.

(_Me_ must be changed to _I_ when _from_ is restored to its usual position.)

16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base is in the bed of the ocean.

mountains ----------- ` ` base | is ` ------|----- ` \ `.....\whose

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of _base_.

17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting.

* * * * *

LESSON 60.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in the time you take to breathe.

+Explanation+.--The connecting pronoun _that_ [Footnote: When _whom_, _which_, and _that_ would, if used, be object complements, they are often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits them.] is omitted.

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent of _whom_. Supply _him_.

5. He did what was right.

He | did | x ====|====================== | ` ` what ` | was \ right ---------|-------------

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted word _thing_, or some word whose meaning is general or indefinite. [Footnote: Many grammarians prefer to treat _what was right_ as a noun clause (see Lesson 71), the object of _did_. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by _whoever_, _whatever_, _whichever_.

"_What_ was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative; it is confined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive _whose_ has, however, attained the full construction of a relative."--_Prof. F. A. March_.]

6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 8. What men he had were true.

The relative pronoun _what_ here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus: The men _what_ (= _that_ or _whom_) _he had_ were true.

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled.

+Explanation+.--The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (_man_ or _he_) of the independent clause.

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited.

depot | is \ place =======|============== \A | \a ` \where stores | ` are deposited -------|--------------------- |

+Explanation+.--The line representing _where_ is made up of two parts. The upper part represents _where_ as a conjunction connecting the adjective clause to _place_, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying _are deposited_. As _where_ performs these two offices, it may be called a _conjunctive adverb_. By changing _where_ to the equivalent phrase _in which_, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen.

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply _the place_ before _where_.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the operations of the universe are conducted.

* * * * *

LESSON 61.

COMPOSITION--ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _Adjective Clause_, when not restrictive, is set off by the comma.+

+Explanation+.--I picked the apple _that was ripe_. I picked the apple, _which was ripe_. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits _apple_, telling which one was picked; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, _and it_ was ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.[Footnote: There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to _and he_ or _and it_; as, I gave the letter to my friend, _who will return it to you_.

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the relative clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause.

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination; as, for instance, between the preceding sentence and the following: I gave the letter to my friend, _who can be trusted_.

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences:--

John, _who did not know the law_, is innocent. John is innocent; _he did not know the law_. John is innocent _because he did not know the law_.

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force? The student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.)]

+Caution+.--The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when needed_:--

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested.

+Direction+.--_Construct five complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives_:-- Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable.

+Direction+.--_Change the following simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphanage, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber.

+Direction+.--_Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses_:--

1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear.

+Direction+.--_Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses_:--

Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever.

When, where, and why.

+Direction+.--_Change "that which", in the following sentences to "what", and "what" to "that which"; "whoever" to "he who", and "whatever" to "anything" or "everything which"; "where" and "when" to "at", "on", or "in which"; "wherein" to "in which"; and "whereby" to "by which"_:--