Chapter 7

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be,--that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and repairing its waste, is a necessity. 13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smoking and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling.

* * * * *

LESSON 43.

COMPOSITION--THE INFINITIVE.

+Direction+.--_Change the infinitives in these sentences into participles, and the participles into infinitives_:--

Notice that _to_, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is changed to _toward, for, of, at, in,_ or _on_, when the infinitive is changed to a participle.

1. I am inclined to believe it. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 4. They trembled to hear such words. 5. It will serve for amusing the children. 6. There is a time to laugh. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 9. They delight to do it. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 11. Stones are used in ballasting vessels.

+Direction+.--_Improve these sentences by changing the participles into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles_:--

1. We began ascending the mountain. 2. He did not recollect to have paid it. 3. I commenced to write a letter. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 5. It is not wise complaining.

+Direction+.--_Vary these sentences as in the model_:--

+Model+.--_Rising early_ is healthful; _To rise_ early is healthful; _It_ is healthful _to rise_ early; _For one to rise_ early is healthful.

(Notice that the explanatory phrase after _it_ is not set off by the comma.)

1. Reading good books is profitable. 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 3. Slandering is base. 4. Indorsing another's paper is dangerous. 5. Swearing is sinful.

+Direction.+--_Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a noun_.

+Direction.+--_Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an infinitive without the to_:--

+Model.+--We _saw_ the sun _sink_ behind the mountain.

Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see.

* * * * *

LESSON 44.

WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY.

+Introductory Hints.+--In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.

_The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus_ serves only to arrest attention, and is independent by address.

_Poor man! he never came back again. Poor man_ is independent by exclamation.

_Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me_. _Rod_ and _staff_ simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are independent by pleonasm--a construction used sometimes for rhetorical effect, but out of place in ordinary speech.

_His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being absent_ logically modifies the verb _was neglected_ by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore grammatically independent. This is called the _absolute phrase_. An _absolute phrase_ consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a modifying participle.

_His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking_ is a participle without connection, and with the adverb _generally_ forms an independent phrase.

_To confess the truth, I was wrong._ The infinitive phrase is independent.

The adverbs _well, now, why, there_ are sometimes independent; as, _Well_, life is an enigma; _Now_, that is strange; _Why_, it is already noon; _There_ are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees.

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and hence are independent.

Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independent of the rest of the sentence; as, I stake my fame (_and I had fame_), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast.

+Analysis+.

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows.

+Explanation.+--_Tom_ is independent by address. _But_ is an adjective modifying _shadows_.

2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three-story intellects with skylights.

+Explanation+.--Often, as in this sentence, _there_ is used idiomatically, merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of the word. To express place, another _there_ may follow the predicate; as, _There_ is gold _there_.

3. Ah! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 14. But the enemies of tyranny--their path leads to the scaffold. 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed the matter extremely well.

retreat | began =========|======= \later \---\ \ day \------- \A

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Moscow.

See Lesson 35.

* * * * *

LESSON 45.

COMPOSITION--INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words and phrases independent or nearly so are set off by the comma.+

+Remark+.--Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation point; and _there_, used merely to introduce, is never set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expression can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.)

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like _however, of course, indeed, in short, by the bye, for instance_, and _accordingly_, do not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole; as, Lee did not, _however_, follow Washington's orders.

+Direction.+--_Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of independent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained_.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used in a manner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them properly_:--

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore.

+Direction.+--_Write short sentences in which these words shall modify same particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off by the comma_:--

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still.

+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.+

(SEE PAGES 160-162.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30,150.

* * * * *

LESSON 46.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+Introductory Hints+.--In the previous Lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let us now look at it as a whole.

_The mountains lift up their heads_. This sentence is used simply to affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a +Declarative Sentence.+

_Do the mountains lift up their heads?_ This sentence expresses a question, and is called an +Interrogative Sentence.+

_Lift up your heads_. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an +Imperative Sentence+. Such expressions as _You must go_, _You shall go_ are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form.

_How the mountains lift up their heads!_ In this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an +Exclamatory Sentence+. _How_ and _what_ usually introduce such sentences; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may become exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings; as, _It is impossible! How can I endure it! Talk of hypocrisy after this!_

+DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to deny.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a question.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or an entreaty.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.+ [Footnote: For punctuation, see page 42.]

+INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point.+

+Remark.+--When an interrogative sentence is made a part of another sentence, it may be direct; as, He asked, "_What is the trouble?_" or indirect; as, He asked _what the trouble was_. (See Lesson 74.)

Analysis.

+Direction.+--_Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify the terminal marks of punctuation:_--

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal part? 3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss.

(The subject is _you_ understood.)

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring! 5. Oh! a dainty plant is the ivy green! 6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to himself! 9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has! 12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character? 13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead! 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph?

* * * * *

LESSON 47.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW

Analysis.

1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion.--_Wordsworth_. 2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. --_Stephen_. 3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry; a flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory ministry to-day.--_Conway_. 4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming phrase.--_Lowell_. 5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art.--_De Quincey_. 6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words-- health, peace, and competence.--_Pope_. 7. Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye.--_Tyler_. [Footnote: Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this Lesson, are called Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to one's style?] 8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun.-- _Longfellow_. 9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plantagenets, become noble by association.--_F. W. Robertson_. 10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.-- _Beecher_. 11. In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair.--_Curtis_. [Footnote: In _Ruth_ of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called +Personification+--a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being.

Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an +Allusion+. All the interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so common a thing as memory.]

* * * * *

LESSON 48.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of Aeolus's bag, and carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat.--_Emerson_. 2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrection.--_Holmes_. 3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old.--_Canning_. 4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant linguistic exercise of that organ.--_Warner_. 5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it.--_Earle_. 6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of despotism.--_Phillips_. 7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so.--_Gail Hamilton_. 8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.--_Lamb_. 9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm.--_Addison_. 10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science.

+Explanation+.--_Beyond the power of science = impossible_, and is therefore an attribute complement. The preposition _beyond_ shows the relation, in sense, of _power_ to the subject phrase.

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air.--_Longfellow_.

* * * * *

LESSON 49.

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the marks of punctuation used in Lessons_ 44, 46, 47, _and_ 48.

* * * * *

LESSON 50.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 37 _to Lesson_ 46, _inclusive_.

Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the use of the participle; illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuation of these independent elements.

* * * * *

LESSON 51.

ARRANGEMENT--USUAL ORDER.

TO THE TEACHER.--If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required changes orally.

The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three.

Let us recall the +Usual Order+ of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence.

The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb.

+Example+.--_Drake circumnavigated the globe_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences each with an object complement._

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory modifier follows it.

+Examples+.--_Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver_, came down from the Mount.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective._

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object precedes the direct.

+Examples+.--Egypt _is the valley_ of the Nile. Eastern life _is dreamy_. They made _Bonaparte consul_. They offered _Caesar a crown_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating the positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these offices_.

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their length--the shortest first.

+Examples+.--_Two honest young_ men enlisted. Cassino has a _lean_ and _hungry_ look. A rock, _huge_ and _precipitous_, stood in our path.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun_.

An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it modifies; precedes or follows (more frequently follows) the simple verb or the verb with its complement; and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound.

+Examples+.--The light _far in the distance_ is _so very bright_. I _soon found him_. I _hurt him badly_. He _had often been there_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb_.

Phrases follow the words they modify; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it.

+Examples+.--_Facts once established_ are facts forever. He _sailed for Liverpool on Monday_.

+Direction+.--_Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of participle and prepositional phrases_.

* * * * *

LESSON 52.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Introductory Hints+.--The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an English sentence; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate widely from this order.

A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words; more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting attention to them, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer.

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what we may call the +Transposed Order+. _I dare not venture to go down into the cabin--Venture to go down into the cabin I dare not. You shall die--Die you shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people--Their names will, on the lips of the people, forever live_.

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the transposed order; as, _A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban._ The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry; as, _Flashed all their sabers bare_.

TO THE TEACHER.----Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, we say _change, transpose_, or _restore_, the pupils need not write the sentences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the usual to the transposed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect_:--

1. He could not avoid it. 2. They were pretty lads. 3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. 4. He would not escape. 5. I must go. 6. She seemed young and sad. 7. He cried, "My son, my son!" 8. He ended his tale here. 9. The moon shone bright. 10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. 11. He was a contentious man. 12. It was quoted so. 13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice.

+Direction+.--_Change these sentences from the transposed order to the usual, and explain the effect_:--

1. Him, the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 2. Volatile he was. 3. Victories, indeed, they were. 4. Of noble race the lady came. 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 7. This double office the participle performs. 8. That gale I well remember. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 10. One strong thing I find here below. 11. Overhead I heard a murmur. 12. To their will we must succumb. 13. Him they hanged. 14. Freely ye have received.

+Direction+.--_Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjectives as a complement; and five, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier; then transpose the ten with these same words moved to the front, and explain the effect_:--

Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and deeply, then, under foot.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized words last, and note the effect_:--

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are _buried_ in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. Aeneas did _bear_ from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart _beats_ in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire _roared_ up the deep and wide chimney.

+Direction+.--_Change these to the usual order_:--

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.

+Direction+.--_Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go_:--

Mountains, glad, by and by.

* * * * *

LESSON 53.

ARRANGEMENT--TRANSPOSED ORDER.

+Direction+.--_Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is lost by the change_:--

1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have we. 5. These evils hath sin wrought.

+Direction+.--_Transpose these sentences by moving the object complement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change_:--

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!" 2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey.

+Direction+.--_Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object complements, and then restore them to their usual order_:--

Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift.