Chapter 6

Others call these words _Gerunds_. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in the accusative (objective) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active voice--the dative case of the infinitive merely--used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by the preposition _to_. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch the term _gerund_ immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded; sometimes (2) are used in the passive voice; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than _to_; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition; sometimes (5) are objects of verbs; sometimes (6) are subjects of verbs; sometimes (7) are modified by _the_; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the possessive; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent except that furnished above in the extension of the term _infinitive_ or of the term _verbal noun_!

Still others call some of these words _Infinitives_; some of them _Verbal Nouns_; and some of them _Gerunds_.

The forms in question--_seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen_, and _having been seeing_, for instance--are now made from the verb in precisely the same way when partaking the nature of the noun as when partaking the nature of the adjective. What can they possibly be but the forms that all grammarians call _participles_ extended to new uses? If the uses of the original participles have been extended, why may we not carry over the name? The name _participle_ is as true to its etymology when applied to the nounal use of the verb as when applied to the adjectival use. For convenience of classification we call these disputed forms _participles_, as good grammarians long ago called them and still call them, though some of them may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle was adjectival. The name _participle_ neither confounds terms nor misleads the student. The nounal and the adjectival uses of participial forms we distinguish very sharply.] one sharing the nature of the verb and that of the adjective; the other, the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in _ing_, _ed_, or _en_.

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+.

1. Hearing a step, I turned.

I | turned ===|========= \ | \ hea \ ring | step --------|------ \a

+Explanation+.--The line standing for the participle is broken; one part slants to represent the adjective nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal to represent its verbal nature.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _hearing a step_ is a modifier of the subject; [Footnote: Logically, or in sense, _hearing a step_ modifies the predicate also. I _turned when_ or _because_ I heard a step. See Lesson 79.] the principal word is _hearing_, which is completed by the noun _step_; _step_ is modified by _a_.

+Parsing+.--_Hearing_ is a form of the verb called participle because the act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb.

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use.

+Explanation+.--The complement is here modified by a participle phrase.

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down-ward through the back-bone. 4. Van Twiller sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the celebrated forest of the Hague.

+Explanation+.--The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase.

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the populace with the sports of the amphitheater.

The +participle+ may be used as an +attribute complement+.

6. The natives came crowding around.

+Explanation+.--_Crowding_ here completes the predicate _came_, and belongs to the subject _natives_. The natives are represented as performing the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate _came_ seems to extend over both verbs. [Footnote: Some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adverbial. But is _crowding_ any more adverbial here than are _pale_ and _trembling_ in "The natives came _pale_ and _trembling_"?]

7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in thought.

\and \and \ \....\....\ \ \ \star \ \ \ ving \ \sav \------- \ \ ing \gru \---------- \ bbing \------------- | miser | kept \ / \ ======|====================== |

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving.

The +participle+ may be used as an +objective complement+.

11. He kept me waiting.

+Explanation+.--_Waiting_ completes _kept_ and relates to the object complement _me_. _Kept-waiting_ expresses the complete act performed upon me. _He kept-waiting me_=_He detained me_. The relation of _waiting_ to _me_ may be seen by changing the form of the verb; as, I _was kept waiting_. See Lesson 31.

12. I found my book growing dull. [Footnote: It will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of the term _objective complement_ beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In "I struck the man _dead_," the condition expressed by _dead_ is the result of the act expressed by _struck_. In "I found the man _dead_," the condition is not the result of the act, and so grammarians say that in this second example _dead_ should be treated simply as an "appositive" adjective modifying _man_. While _dead_ does not belong to _man_ as expressing the result of the act, it is made to belong to _man_ through the asserting force of the verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of _man_. _Dead_ helps _found_ to express the act. Not _found_, but _found-dead_ tells what was done to the man.

If we put the sentence in the passive form, "The man was found _dead_," it will be seen that _dead_ is more than a mere modifier; it belongs to _man_ through the assertive force of _was found_. If _dead_ is here merely an "appositive" adjective, "I found the man dead" must equal "I found the man, who was dead" (or, "and he was dead"). The two sentences obviously are not equal. "I caught him asleep" does not mean, "I caught him, and he was asleep."

If, in the construction discussed above, _dead_ is an objective complement, _quiet_, _stirring_, and (to) _stir_ in the following sentences are objective complements:--

I saw the leaves quiet. I saw the leaves stirring. I saw the leaves stir.

The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essentially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78.]

\grow \ wing \ dull \--------------- | I | found / / \ | book =====|============================== | \my

+Explanation+.--The diagram representing the phrase complement is drawn above the complement line, on which it is made to rest by means of a support. All that stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement. The adjective _dull_ completes _growing_ and belongs to _book_, the assumed subject of _growing_.

13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king.

* * * * *

LESSON 38.

PARTICIPLES--CONTINUED.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +participle+ may be used as +principal word+ in a +prepositional phrase+.

1. We receive good by doing good.

We | receive | good =====|==================== | \by \-----,doing | good --------------

+Explanation+.--The line representing the participle here is broken; the first part represents the participle as a noun, and the other as a verb.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _by doing good_ is a modifier of the predicate; _by_ introduces the phrase; the principal word is _doing_, which is completed by the noun _good_.

+Passing+.--_Doing_ is a participle; like a noun, it follows the preposition _by_, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement.

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand persons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suffered. (_Suffering_ is here a noun.)

The +participle+ may be the +principal word+ in a phrase used as a +subject+ or as an +object complement+.

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position.

---, writing | letter '------------------------ \Your | \neatly \that | \so | / \ | secured | position =========|========='=========== | \the

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the subject line. All that rests on the subject line is regarded as the subject.

+Oral Analysis+.--The phrase _your writing that letter so neatly_ is the subject; the principal word of it is _writing_, which is completed by _letter; writing_, as a noun, is modified by _your_, and, as a verb, by the adverb phrase _so neatly_.

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment.

The +participial form+ may be used as a +mere noun+ or a +mere adjective+.

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome.

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many a long-forgotten song. [Footnote: "_Manig man_ in Anglo-Saxon was used like German _mancher mann_, Latin _multus vir_, and the like, until the thirteenth century; when the article was inserted to emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number."--_Prof. F. A. March._]

+Explanation+.--_Many_ modifies _song_ after _song_ has been limited by _a_ and _long-forgotten_.

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner.

The +participle+ may be used in +independent+ or +absolute phrases+.

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river.

+Explanation+.--The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See lesson 44.

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's "constitutionals."

* * * * *

LESSON 39.

COMPOSITION--PARTICIPLES.

+COMMA--RULE.--The Participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off+ [Footnote: An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas; at the beginning or at the end, by one comma.] +by the comma unless restrictive+.

+Explanation+.--_A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting_ describes without restricting; _sitting_ restricts--limits the application of _bird_ to a particular bird.

+Direction+.--_Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson_ 37.

+Caution+.--In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your reasons:--_

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. 3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor handsomely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger.

+Direction+.--_Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly_:--

+Model+.--_Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen._ Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing.

_Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean_.

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock.

+Direction+.--_Compose sentences in which each of these three participles shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase_:--

Buzzing, leaping, waving.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

VERBS AS NOUNS--INFINITIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--_I came to see you_. Here the verb _see_, like the participle, lacks asserting power--_I to see_ asserts nothing. _See_, following the preposition _to_, [Footnote: For the discussion of _to_ with the infinitive, see Lesson 134.] names the act and is completed by _you_, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has received the same name--some calling both _gerunds_, and others calling both _infinitives_. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition _to_. Came _to see_=came _for seeing_.

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase used as a subject or as an object, complement; as, _To read good books_ is profitable; I like _to read good books_. Here also the form with _to_ is equivalent to the participle form _reading_. _Reading good books_ is profitable.

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the +Infinitive+ (Lat. _infinitus_, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the participle, may have what is called an _assumed subject_. The _assumed subject_ denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs.

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases _to_ expresses relation, and performs its full function as a preposition; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the _to_ expresses no relation. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb.

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements.

Analysis and Parsing.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +adjective modifier+ or an +adverb modifier+.

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams.

hot-house | is \ trap ============|================ \The | \a \to \ catch | sunbeams \-------'----------

+Oral Analysis+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _catch_ is the principal word, and _sunbeams_ completes it.

+Parsing+.--_To_ is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to _trap; catch_ is a form of the verb called _infinitive_; like a noun, it follows the preposition _to_ and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by _sunbeams_.

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate.

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy.

+Explanation+.--_Happy_ completes _make_ and relates to _us_.

7. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective _hard_. _To heal = to be healed_.

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle palace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb _enough_. _To eat = to be eaten_.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +subject+ or +complement.+

10. To be good is to be great.

\To \to \ be \good \ be \ great \----------------------- | | / \ | is \ / \ ========|================== |

Explanation.--_To_, in each of these phrases, shows no relation--it serves merely to introduce. The complements _good_ and _great_ are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to relate to.

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. _To be innocent = innocent_.

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement.

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +after a preposition+ as the +principal term+ of another phrase.

1. My friend is about to leave me.

\to \ leave | me \-------'---- \ about | \ / \ \----------------- | friend | is \ / \ ========|===================== \My |

+Explanation+.--The preposition _about_ introduces the phrase used as attribute complement; the principal part is the infinitive phrase _to leave me_.

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on.

+Explanation+.--_But_ is here a preposition.

The +infinitive+ and its +assumed subject+ may form the +principal term+ in a phrase introduced by the preposition +for+.

4. For us to know our faults is profitable.

us ------- | \to \ | \ know | faults \For | \------'-------- \ / \ \our \------- | / \ | is \ profitable =============|====================== |

+Explanation+.--_For_ introduces the subject phrase; the principal part of the entire phrase is _us to know our faults;_ the principal word is _us_, which is modified by the phrase _to know our faults_.

5. God never made his work for man to mend.

+Explanation+.---The principal term of the phrase _for man to mend_ is not _man_, but _man to mend_.

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as an +explanatory modifier.+

7. It is easy to find fault.

\to \ find | fault \-----'------ | It (/ \) | is \ easy =========|=========== |

+Explanation+.--The infinitive phrase _to find fault_ explains the subject _it_. Read the sentence without _it_, and you will see the real nature of the phrase. This use of _it_ as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts.

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used as +objective complement.+

12. He made me wait.

+Explanation+.--The infinitive _wait_ (here used without _to_) completes _made_ and relates to _me_. _He made-wait me = He detained me_.

See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as objective complements, Lesson 37. Compare _I saw him do it_ with _I saw him doing it_. Compare also _He made the stick bend_--equaling _He made-bend _(= bent) _the stick_--with _He made the stick straight_--equaling _He made-straight _(= straightened) _the stick_.

The relation of these objective complements to _me, him_, and _stick_ may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus: I was made _to wait_; He was seen _to do it_, He was seen _doing it_; The stick was made _to bend_; The stick was made _straight_.

13.We found the report to be true. [Footnote: Some prefer to treat _the report to be true_ as an object clause because it is equivalent to the clause _that the report is true_. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction; as, I desire _his promotion_; I desire _him to be promoted_; I desire _that he should be promoted_. Besides, to teach that _him_ is the subject, and _to be promoted_ the predicate, of a clause would certainly be confusing.]

\to \ be \ true \-------------- | We | found / / \ | report ===|========================== |

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. [Footnote: Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence _He commanded him to lower the bridge_. _Him_ represents the one to whom the command is given, and _to lower the bridge_ is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded _him that he should lower the bridge_. Compare _He told me to go_ with _He told (to) me a story_; also _He taught me to read_ with _He taught (to) me reading._ In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This construction is similar to the Latin "accusative with the infinitive."]

15. I saw the leaves stir. [Footnote: See pages 68 and 69, foot-note.]

+Explanation+.--_Stir_ is an infinitive without the _to_.

16. Being persuaded by Poppaesa, Hero caused his mother, Agrippina, to be assassinated.

* * * * *

LESSON 42.

INFINITIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +infinitive phrase+ may be used +independently+. [Footnote: These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79.

For the infinitive after _as, than_, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives unite with other verbs to make compound forms; as, have _walked_, shall _walk_.]

+Explanation+.--In the diagram the independent element must stand by itself.

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed.

Infinitives and Participles.

MISCELLANEOUS.