Chapter 4

+Introductory Hints.+--_Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England._ The three words _Edward, Mary,_ and _Elizabeth_ have the same predicate--the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens. _Edward, Mary_, and _Elizabeth_ are connected by _and_, _and_ being understood between Edward and Mary. Connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound Subject+.

_Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded._ The three predicates _was seized, was tried_, and _was beheaded_ have the same subject--the three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound Predicate.+

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate; as, _Mary_ and _Elizabeth lived_ and _reigned_ in England.

The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a compound predicate are called +Conjunctions+ (Lat. _con_, or _cum_, together, and _jungere_, to join).

A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word modifiers--A dark _and_ rainy night follows; Some men sin deliberately _and_ presumptuously.

It may connect two phrases; as, The equinox occurs in March _and_ in September.

It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, _but_ the leaves of the maple drop in autumn.

+Interjections+ (Lat. _inter_, between, and _jacere_, to throw) are the eighth and last part of speech.

_Oh! ah! pooh! pshaw!_ etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for deliberate sentences.

_Hail! fudge! indeed! amen! _etc., express condensed thought as well as feeling.

Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with other words, and may lapse into an interjection; _as, behold! shame! what!_

Professor Sweet calls interjections _sentence-words_.

Two or more connected subjects having the same predicate form a +Compound Subject+.

Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a +Compound Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling.+

Analysis and Parsing.

1. Ah! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news.

Ah ---- wives ========\ '\ ' \ | wait sisters 'x \=====|=========== ========' \ \anxious \for 'and/ \ ' / \news mothers ' / ----- ========'/ \the

+Explanation+.--The three short horizontal lines represent each a part of the compound subject. They are connected by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting word. The x shows that a conjunction is understood. The line standing for the word modifier is joined to that part of the subject line which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the connected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate.

+Oral Analysis+.---_Wives, sisters_, and _mothers_ form the compound subject; _anxious_ is a modifier of the compound subject; _and_ connects _sisters_ and _mothers_.

+Parsing+.--_And_ is a conjunction connecting _sisters_ and _mothers_; _ah_ is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling.

2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss.

(For diagram see the last sentence of the "Explanation" above.)

3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use.

powers came ================= ========= \The \ X \ and \ \ and \of \...\.....\ \.......\ parentage \ \ \muscular \ \----------- \ \moral \from \mental \ land \---------

4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. 5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and there spreads out. 6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body. 8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties. 9. Ugh! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is seen. 11. Tush! tush! 't will not again appear. 12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. 13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port and in every capital. 16. Both friend and foe applauded.

friend -------------------\ ' \ ' \ | applauded 'and.... Both >===|=========== ' / foe ' / --------'----------/

+Explanation+.--The conjunction _both_ is used to strengthen the real connective _and_. _Either_ and _neither_ do the same for _or_ and _nor_ in _either--or_, _neither--nor_.

+Remark.+--A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a +Complex Phrase+. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a +Compound Phrase+.

+Direction.+--_Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrases in the sentences above._

* * * * *

LESSON 21.

COMPOSITION---CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed.+

+Remark+.--When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not.

When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted.

When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, _i. e._, when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after the explanatory word, as well as before the _or_.

+Direction.+--_Justify the punctuation of these sentences:_--

1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well.

+Explanation.+--No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. _Oaken_ limits _bucket_, _old_ limits _bucket_ modified by _oaken_, and _the_ limits _bucket_ modified by _old_ and _oaken_. See Lesson 13.

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view.

+Explanation+.--No comma. _Up a mountain_ tells where we climbed, and _for a view_ tells why we climbed up a mountain.

10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of business or of pleasure. 11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, and the brothers and sons of the king.

+Direction+.--_Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and give your reasons_:--

1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life.

(Where is the conjunction omitted?)

4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. 6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and the Chaldee. 7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick succession. 10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village.

+EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _Exclamatory Expressions_ must be followed by the exclamation point.+

+Remark+.--Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection and the words following it form the exclamatory expression; as, _Oh! it hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow!_

_O_ is used in direct address; as, _O father, listen to me. Oh_ is used as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, however desirable, is not strictly observed, _O_ being frequently used in place of _Oh_.

+CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital letters.+

+Direction.+--_Correct these violations of the two rules given above:_--

1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable.

* * * * *

LESSON 22.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Beginning with the 8th sentence of the first group of exercises in Lesson_ 21, _analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the_ 4_th of the second group._

+Model+.--_A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe._

spirit |should be shown / Jew ===============|================ __/'-------- \A \Christian | \ /' \' Greek \ / ' \-------- \ / ' \to / x ' / male \--/ '_/'-------- \ ' \' female \ x ' \-------- \ ' \ ' / friend \__/'--------- \' foe \---------

* * * * *

LESSON 23.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTED TERMS.

Direction.+--_Using the nouns below, compose sentences with compound subjects; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall form compound modifiers:_--

In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something.

NOUNS.

Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lincoln, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily.

VERBS.

Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, loathe, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove.

ADJECTIVES.

+Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson_ 13.

Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous.

ADVERBS.

+Direction.+--_See Caution, Lesson 15._ Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter.

PHRASES.

On sea; in the city; by day; on land; by night; in the country; by hook; across the ocean; by crook; over the lands; along the level road; up the mountains.

* * * * *

LESSON 24.

REVIEW.

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.

Direction.+--_Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punctuation used below:_--

1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges and the universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so happy! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air. 6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large estate in the South.

+Direction.+--_Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of punctuation where they belong:_--

1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o father o father i cannot breathe here 4. ha ha that sounds well 5. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france 6. mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars 9. the baltic sea lies between sweden and russia 10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790

+Direction.+--_Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctuation, and give your reasons:_--

1 Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo. I must speak to You! 3. john Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel consists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for Pleasure and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches 7. hark they are coming! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and cool, and mossy, trout stream.

* * * * *

LESSON 25.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

ANALYSIS.

1. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the house of Never.--_Spanish Proverb_ [Footnote: By-and-by has no real streets, the London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. _Streets, house, colored, thunder_, and _scorched_ are not, then, used here in their first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. These words we call +Metaphors+. By what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression.

For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150.]

2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navigators.--_Gibbon_. 3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city.--_Holmes_. 4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever of little Thermopylae.--_De Quincey_. 5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain.--_Hamilton_. 6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every clime.--_Marsh_. 7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes.--_Irving_. 8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand with the culture of the imagination.--_Tyndall_. [Footnote: _Hand in hand_ may be treated as one adverb, or _with_ may be supplied.] 9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea.--_Swain_. 10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian Ocean.--_Draper_. 11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen.--_Cooke_. 12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down on the plain of Memphis.--_Stanley_.

* * * * *

LESSON 26.

WRITTEN PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this +Model for Written Parsing_.

| Nouns. | Pron. | Verbs. | Adj. | Adv. | Prep. | Conj.| Int.| |--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| 1st |streets,| | |the,the.| |By,of, | | | sentence|By-and- | one. |arrives.| | |at,of | | | | by, | | | | | | | | |house, | | | | | | | | |Never. | | | | | | | | --------|--------|-------|--------|--------|------|-------|------|-----| | | | | | | | | | 2d | | | | | | | | | sentence| | | | | | | | |

TO THE TEACHER.--Until the +Subdivisions+ and +Modifications+ of parts of speech are reached, +Oral and Written Parsing+ can be only a classification of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed, and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In their +Oral Analysis+ let the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken.

Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which any word belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not from its form. Such exercises as the following are suggested:--

Use _right_ words. Act _right_. _Right_ the wrong. You are in the _right_.

Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the different uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make lists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnish abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words in the regular exercises for analysis.

* * * * *

LESSON 27.

REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions, Lesson 16.

+Direction+.--_Review from Lesson_ 17 _to Lesson_ 21, _inclusive_.

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what such words as _long_ and _there_ may be expanded into, how these expanded forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introductory words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules; illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. How many parts of speech are there?

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

(SEE PAGES 153-156.)

TO THE TEACHER.--See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150.

* * * * *

LESSON 28.

NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS.

Introductory Hints.+--In saying _Washington captured_, we do not fully express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say, _Washington captured Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act.

Whatever fills out, or completes, is a +Complement+. As _Cornwallis_ completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon--the object--we call it the +Object Complement+. Connected objects completing the same verb form a +Compound Object Complement+; as, Washington captured _Cornwallis_ and his _army_.

+DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a Sentence_ completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act.+

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified Complement.+

+Analysis.+

1. Clear thinking makes clear writing.

thinking | makes | writing ============|===================== \ clear | \clear

+Oral Analysis+.---_Writing_ is the object complement; _clear writing_ is the modified complement, and _makes clear writing_ is the entire predicate.

2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 4. Liars should have good memories. 5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe.

took /---------\ Oxford | / ' \ | rank ========|=and' ========== | \ ' / \ ' held / \-------/

revolves /------------ moon | / ' ======|== and' | \ ' \ ' keeps | side \---------------

9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic.

James study grammar =========\ /===========\ /=============== ' \ | / ' \ | / ' 'and ==|== and' ===== and' John ' / | \ ' recite / \ ' arithmetic =========/ \===========/ \===============

* * * * *

LESSON 29.

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS.

+Introductory Hints+.--The subject presents one idea; the predicate presents another, and asserts it of the first. _Corn is growing_ presents the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts the act of the thing. _Corn growing_ lacks the asserting word, and _Corn_ is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted.

In logic, the asserting word is called the _copula_--it shows that the two ideas are coupled into a thought--and the word expressing the idea asserted is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. g., Corn _grows_, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted, by one name--the predicate. [Footnote: We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by a complement, it is an incomplete predicate.]

The _maple leaves become_. The verb become does not make a complete predicate; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective _red_, denoting the quality we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them--_The maple leaves become red_.

_Lizards are reptiles_. The noun _reptiles_, naming the class of the animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. _Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas_. _Pocahontas_ completes the predicate by presenting a second idea, which _was_ asserts to be identical with that of the subject.

When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the +Attribute Complement.+ [Footnote: _Subjective Complement_ may, if preferred, be used instead of Attribute Complement.] Connected attribute complements of the same verb form a +Compound Attribute Complement+.

Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the +Predicate Adjective+ and the +Predicate Noun+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a Sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject.+

Analysis.

1. Slang is vulgar.

Slang | is \ vulgar ==========|================= |