Chapter 28

You tell me that you begin the study of English Literature next term. Let me assume the relation of an older brother, and tender you a word of counsel.

Study literature, primarily, for the thoughts it contains. Attend to these thoughts until you understand them and see their connection one with another. Accept only such as seem to you just and true, and accept these at their proper value.

Notice carefully the words each author uses, see how he arranges them, whether he puts his thought clearly, what imagery he employs, what allusions he makes, what acquaintance with men, with books, and with nature he shows, and in what spirit he writes.

Your study of the author should put you in possession of his thought and his style, and should introduce you to the man himself.

Pardon me these words of unsought advice, and believe me.

Your true friend, John Schuyler.

Master H. Buckman, Andover, Mass.]

A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

We here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references to the Lessons which treat of Construction.

I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.

II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.

III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case.

IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective complement, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, or used adverbially [Footnote: See Lesson 35.] is in the objective case.

V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained.

+For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 123. For Cautions and Examples to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Lessons 86, 87.+

VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.

+For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons 118,142.+

VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.

+For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142.+

VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun.

+For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39.+

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

+For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42.+

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.

+For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of comparative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90, 91, 128.+

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.

+For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93.+

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.

+For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99.+

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.

+For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons 100, 107.+

XIV. Interjections are used independently.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.

+Remarks+.--The scheme of conjugation presented below is from English text-books. In some of these books the forms introduced by _should_ are classed, not as Future, but as Secondary Past Tense forms of the Subjunctive.

If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in the preceding pages, we still fail to get a classification in which every form corresponds in use to its name. The following examples will illustrate:--

He _returns_ to-morrow. (Present = Future.)

When I _have performed_ this, I will come to you. (Present Perfect = Future Perfect.)

If any member _absents_ himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative = Subjunctive.)

You _shall_ go. (Indicative = Imperative.)

After memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conjugation here outlined, the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the use of language. For instance, in this synopsis of the Subjunctive are found nineteen forms. As there are three persons in the singular and three in the plural, we have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms! How confusing all this must be to the student, who, in his use of the subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as these: If he _be_, If he _were_, If he _teach_! Beyond these, the subjunctive manner of assertion is discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses, not from the conjugation of the verb.

Those English authors and their American copyists who eliminate the Potential Mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are subjunctive auxiliaries. With the meager instruction given by any one or by all of these authors, the student will find it exceedingly difficult to determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. To illustrate:--

1. _May_ you be happy. 2. I learn that I _may_ be able to teach. 3. He _might_ have done it if he had liked. 4. If he _should_ try, he _would_ succeed. 5. I _would_ not tell you if I _could_. 6. I _could_ not do this if I were to try.

The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries; those below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative.

7. He _may_ be there. 8. He _might_ ask you to go. 9. You _should_ not have done that. 10. He _would_ not come when called. 11. I _could_ do this at one time.

We are told that _can_ and _must_ are always independent verbs in the indicative, and that _may, might, could, would_, and _should_ are either subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative, separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine. But in parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to whether they are transitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the infinitives that follow.

_Shall_ (to owe) and _will_ (to determine) are, in their original meaning, transitive. _May, can_, and _must_ denote power (hence potential); and, as the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is exercised, some philologists regard them as originally transitive. Among these is our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. _May_ denotes power from without coming from a removal of all hindrance,--hence permission or possibility. _Can_ denotes power from within,--hence ability. _Must_ denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature of things,--hence necessity or obligation. _Should, would, might_, and _could_ are past forms of _shall, will, may_, and _can_.

The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some constructions the meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others. To say just how little of its common or original meaning _may, can, must, shall_, or _will_ must have to be an auxiliary, and how much to be a "notional," or independent, verb would be extremely venturesome For instance, _could_ in (6) above expresses power or ability to do, as does _could_ in (11), yet we are told that the former _could_ is a mere auxiliary, while the latter is an independent verb. _May_ in (1) denotes a desired removal of all hindrance; _may_ in (7) denotes a possible removal of hindrance. It is hard to see why the former _may_ is necessarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter a "notional," or independent, verb. These are some of the difficulties--not to say inconsistencies--met by the student who is taught that there is no Potential Mode.

In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, Wrightson, speaking of _I may, can, shall, or will love_, says, "These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a clear and definite meaning that it would have been tolerably easy to determine the case function discharged by the infinitive; but these verbs, after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little more than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses of our moods."

A CONJUGATION OF TEACH.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............He teaches. Present Imperfect.............He is teaching. Present Perfect...............He has taught. Present Perfect Continuous....He has been teaching.

Past Indefinite...............He taught. Past Imperfect................He was teaching. Past Perfect..................He had taught. Past Perfect Continuous.......He had been teaching.

Future Indefinite.............He will teach. Future Imperfect..............He will be teaching. Future Perfect................He will have taught. Future Perfect Continuous.....He will have been teaching.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............(If) he teach. Present Imperfect.............(If) he be teaching. Present Perfect...............(If) he have taught. Present Perfect Continuous....(If) he have been teaching.

Past Indefinite...............(If) he taught. Past Imperfect................(If) he were teaching. Past Perfect..................(If) he had taught. Past Perfect Continuous.......(If) he had been teaching.

Future Indefinite.............(If) he should teach. Future Imperfect..............(If) he should be teaching. Future Perfect................(If) he should have taught. Future Perfect Continuous.....(If) he should have been teaching.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present.......................Teach [thou].

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............(To) teach. Present Imperfect.............(To) be teaching. Present Perfect...............(To) have taught. Present Perfect Continuous....(To) have been teaching.

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect.....................Teaching. Perfect.......................Having taught. Perfect Continuous............Having been teaching.

Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............He is taught. Present Imperfect.............He is being taught. Present Perfect...............He has been taught.

Past Indefinite...............He was taught. Past Imperfect................He was being taught. Past Perfect..................He had been taught.

Future Indefinite.............He will be taught. Future Imperfect..............------------------------ Future Perfect................He will have been taught.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............(If) he be taught. Present Imperfect.............------------------------ Present Perfect...............(If) he have been taught.

Past Indefinite...............(If) he were taught. Past Imperfect................(If) he were being taught. Past Perfect..................(If) he had been taught.

Future Indefinite.............(If) he should be taught. Future Imperfect..............------------------------ Future Perfect................(If) he should have been taught.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present.......................Be [thou] taught.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present Indefinite............(To) be taught. Present Perfect...............(To) have been taught.

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect.....................Being taught. Perfect.......................Taught. Compound Perfect..............Having been taught.

INDEX.

_A_, or _an_, uses of _A_ and _the_ uses of distinguished _A_ (day) _or two_, or _one or two_ (days) +Abbreviations+ common ones how made and written of names of states +Absolute Phrases+ definition of diagram of expansion of +Adjective+ an, definition of +Adjectives+ apt ones to be used +classes+ definitive (numeral) descriptive +comparison+ adjectives not compared adjectives irregularly compared form preferred in _er_ and _est_ with adverb descriptive, used as nouns errors in use of having number forms needless ones avoided not always limiting not used for adverbs numeral cardinal ordinal proper order of scheme for general review used as abstract nouns +Adjective Clauses+ connectives of definition of = adjectives = explanatory modifiers = independent clauses = infinitive phrases = participle phrases = possessives modifying omitted words position of restrictive and unrestrictive unrestrictive, punctuation +Adjective Complement+ distinguished from adverb modifier +Adjective Modifiers+ analysis of nouns as +Adverb+ an definition of +Adverbs+ apt ones to be used classes of comparison of errors in use of expressing negation irregular comparison of modifying clauses phrases prepositions sentences not used for adjectives not used needlessly position of scheme for general review sometimes like adjective attributes +used+ independently (note) interrogatively (note) with connective force (note) +Adverb Clause+, definition of +Adverb Clauses+ +classes+ cause, real concession condition degree (result) evidence manner place purpose time +contracted+ by omitting words to absolute phrases to participles and participle phrases to prepositional phrases = adjective clauses and phrases (note) = adverbs = independent clauses (note) position of punctuation of +Adverbial Modifiers+ analysis of nouns as parsing of +Adversative Connectives+, list +Adversative+, meaning of (note) _A few, a little_, vs. _few_ and _little_ +Agreement+ of parts of a metaphor of pronoun with its antecedent of verb with the subject +Allusion+ (note) +Alphabet+ definition of perfect one what the English imperfect how +Alternative+, meaning of (note) +Alternative Connectives+, list +Ambiguity+ of pronouns, how avoided +Analysis+ examples for, additional of a sentence of subjects of themes +Antecedent+, a clause, phrase, or word (note) +Antithesis+ (note) _Any body_ (or _one_) _else's_ (note) +Apostrophe+ the +Appositives+ +Argumentative Style+ +Arrangement+ +Articles+ +classes+ definite indefinite errors in use of repeated when uses of _a_, or _an_, and _the_ _As_ introductory conjunction relative pronoun (note) with clauses of degree, manner, and time with variety of clauses _As ... as_, construction of _As it were_, construction of +Aspirates+ +Assumed Subject+, what +Attribute Complement+ definition of diagram of +Auxiliary Verbs+

_Be_, conjugation of derivation of (note) _Beside_ and _besides_ distinguished (note) _Best of the two_ _Between_ with three or more (note) +Brackets+, use of _But_ adversative conjunction a preposition various uses of with or without _that_ with _what_ incorrect for _but that_ or _but_ _Can_ +Capital Letters+ in abbreviations in beginning sentences in class names in compound names in names of the Deity in proper names in titles rule for _I_ and _O_ summary of rules for +Case+ defined of attribute complement of explanatory modifier of noun or pronoun independent of noun or pronoun used adverbially of objective complement +Cases+ definitions of in Anglo-Saxon and in Latin +Case Forms+ errors in use of five pronouns have three nouns have two only eight nominative only seven objective +Cause+, adverbs of +Cause Clauses+, divisible +Classification+ necessity of not governed by logical relation +Clauses+ classes dependent independent complex and compound +dependent+ adjective adverb noun +independent+ (the thought) in alternation in contrast in same line inferred +Collective Nouns+ form of verb with of what number +Colon+ +Comma+, rules for +Comparison+ adjectives without it cautions to guide in definition of degree used with two degrees of, defined...257. 268 double, origin of double, to be shunned errors in use of forms of irregular when adverb used which form preferred +Complement+ is what the modified is what +Complements+ attribute (subjective) object objective +Complex Sentences+ definition treatment of +Compound Attribute Complement+ +Compound Object Complement+ +Compound Personal Pronouns+ +Compound Predicate+, defined +Compound Relative Pronouns+ +Compound Sentence+ changed to complex contracted defined treatment of +Compound Subject+, defined +Condition Clauses without conjunction+ +Conjugation+ definition of forms of more elaborate form +Conjunction a, definition of+ +Conjunctions+ +classes+ co-ordinate subordinate +co-ordinate+ adversative alternative +Conjunctions+ (cont.) +co-ordinate+ copulative co-ordinate connect sentences and paragraphs scheme for review +Conjunctive Adverbs+ are what offices of +Connectives+ apt ones to be chosen +co-ordinate+ adversative alternative copulative errors in use of in correlation introductory +subordinate+ of adjective clauses of adverb clauses of noun clauses +Consonants+, classes of +Contraction+ of +Sentences+ +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+ +Copulative+, meaning of +Copula+, what +Correlatives+, errors in use of

_D_ of the _ed_ of verbs in past tense _D_ of the _ed_ of past participles _Dare_, without _s_ form +Dash+ the +Declarative Sentence+, defined +Declension+ defined of interrogative pronouns of nouns of personal pronouns of relative pronouns +Degree+, adverbs of +Descriptive Style+ +Diminution+, degrees of +Diagram+ a, what may be omitted _Do,_ idiomatic use of

_Each other_ construction of with two or more _Ed_ of past tense and participle _Either_ and _neither_, pronouns and conjunctions, with two or more _Either_ may be used for _each_ +Elocution+, object of +Energy+ defined exercises in secured how +English Grammar+, definition of +Epigrams+ are what +Evidence+ distinguished from +Cause+ +Exclamatory Sentences+ definition of order of words in +Expansion+ of absolute phrases of infinitive phrases of participles of sentences +Explanatory Modifier+ definition of punctuation of

+Figures of Speech+ basis of definition illustrations of names of uses of _First two_, etc. +Force+ (see +Energy+) _For to_

+Gender+ defined distinguished from sex of names of animals of what importance of pronouns, errors in used in personification +Gender Forms+ +Genders+, the three defined

_Had better, rather, sooner_ _Hand in hand_, construction of _Have written_, history of _He_ or _one_ after the indefinite _one_ +Humor+, in style +Hyphen+, use of

+Idea+ distinguished from object _If_ for even if, although for whether omission of variety of uses +Imagery+, discussion of +Imperative Sentence+ definition of order of words in _In_ and _Into_ distinguished _In case that_, construction of +Independent Clauses+ definition of joined without conjunction punctuated +Independent Expressions+, punctuated +Indirect+, or +Dative+, Object +Inference+, expressed by an independent clause +Infinitive+ (the), and assumed subject after _for_ definition of double nature of old dative of use of present perfect after past indicative why called infinitive +Infinitive Phrase+ after a preposition as adjective as adjective modifier as adverb modifier as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as objective complement as subject cleft or split does not with the noun form a clause expansion into clauses independent _In order that_, construction of +Interjections+ +Interrogation Point+, use of +Interrogative Pronouns+ declension definition list +Interrogative Sentences+ definition of order of words in +Intransitive Verbs+, definition +Introductory Words+ +Invitations+, form of +Irregular Verbs+ definition of inflections of list of persistence of _It_ for a clause idiomatic use of use for animals and children vague _It is me_, _him_, etc. _Just as_, construction of +Language+ definition of made up of words natural word _Last two_, etc. _Lay_ and _lie_ _Less_, the final _s_ of, and _lesser_ _Lest_ equaling that not various uses of with noun clause +Letters+, the alphabet +Letters+ body of conclusion of heading of illustration of introduction of parts of superscription of +Letter-Writing+ +Loose Sentence+ _Many a_, explanation of +Manner+, adverbs of +Masculine Gender+ distinguished +Masculine Pronoun+, use of _May_ +Metaphor+ definition of exercises in use of _Methinks_ +Metonymy+ definition of exercises in use of _Mine, thine, of mine_, etc +Mode+ is what +Modes+ +classes+, imperative indicative potential subjunctive definitions of imperative, no 2d and 3d persons indicative, uses of potential omitted subjunctive +Modifications+, definition +Modified Complement+ +Modifiers+, definition different rank explanatory, punctuation _Must_ _Myself_, explanatory

+N+, Saxon _ne_, the negative particle +Narrative Style+ +Natural Language+ _Need_, without _s_ form +Negation+ by adverbs +Negatives+, double _No_ and _yes_, sentence-words _No body_ (or _one_) _else's_ +Nominative Forms+, eight +Noun+ a, definition of +Nouns+ abstract as adjective modifiers as adverb modifiers cases of classes of collective common and proper declension gender of number, kinds of person of roots of scheme for general review +Noun Clauses+ as attribute complement as explanatory modifier as object complement as principal term of prepositional phrase as subject connectives of contraction of definition of position of punctuation of +Noun Modifier+ explanatory (appositive) explanatory of a sentence possessive +Number+ definition of kinds of of noun agreeing with adjective of nouns determined of verbs shows what