Chapter 23

+Caution+.--A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a contingency, or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses.

+Examples+.-- 1. If (= _since_) it rains, why do you go? 2. If it _rains_ (now), I cannot go out. 3. If it _rain_, the work will be delayed. 4. Though it _rain_ to-morrow, we must march. 5. If there _be_ mountains, there must be valleys between. 6. Though honey _be_ sweet, one can't make a meal of it. 7. If my friend _were_ here, he would enjoy this. 8. Though immortality _were_ improbable, we should still believe in it. 9. One may doubt whether the best men _be known_. 10. I wish the lad _were_ taller. 11. Oh! that I _were_ a Samson in strength. 12. It _were_ better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck.

+Explanation+.--In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere contingency. The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for something not at once attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential.

+Remarks+.--When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative.

The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete omitted auxiliaries; as, If it (_should_) _rain_, the work will be delayed; Till one greater man (_shall_) _restore_ us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive mode.

_If, though, lest, unless_, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunctive.

+Direction+.--_Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the following sentences_:--

1. If this _were_ so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he _was_ there, I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow _be_ fine, I will walk with you. 4. Though this _seems_ improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend _is_ in town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever _comes_, we shall know it.

+Explanation+.--In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in future time.

7. If he _comes_ by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it _were_, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou _speak_ not to Jacob. 10. If a pendulum _is drawn _to one side, it will swing to the other.

+Explanation+.--_Be_ is often employed in making scientific statements like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed, _If a pendulum is drawn = Whenever a pendulum is drawn_.

11. I wish that I _were_ a musician. 12. _Were_ I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou _yield_. 14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin _surprise_ thee. 15. I know not whether it _is_ so or not. 16. Would he _were_ fatter! 17. If there _were_ no light, there would be no colors. 18. Oh, that he _were_ a son of mine! 19. Though it _be_ cloudy to-night, it will be cold. 20. Though the whole _exceed_ a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the whole. 21. Whether he _go_ or not, I must be there. 22. Though an angel from heaven _command_ it, we should not steal. 23. If there _be_ an eye, it was made to see. 24. It _were_ well it _were done_ quickly.

+Direction+.--_Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your choice_:--

1. I wish it ---- in my power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he ----. 3. If he ---- guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He deserves our pity, unless his tale ---- a false one. 5. Though he ---- there, I did not see him. 6. If he ---- but discreet, he will succeed. 7. If I ---- he, I would do differently. 8. If ye ---- men, fight.

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LESSON 141.

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper order of time.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain? 5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. 9. I intended to have called.

+Explanation+.--This is incorrect; it should be, _I intended to call_. The act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by _intended_.

+Remark+.--Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intending, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future time. [Footnote: The "Standard Dictionary" makes this restriction: "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of _have_ with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of something else mentioned or thought of. Attention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, 'I meant _to have visited_ Paris and _to have returned_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. 'I meant _to visit_ Paris and _to return_ to London before my father _arrived_ from America,' may convey suggestively the thought intended, but does not express it."]

The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I _am glad to have met you_ is correct, because the meeting took place before the time of being glad.

I _ought to have gone_ is exceptional. _Ought_ has no past tense form, and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time.

10. We hoped to have seen you often. 11. I should not have let you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have done it. 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 16. The experiment proved that air had weight.

+Remark+.--What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present tense, whatever tense precedes.

There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition, he may use the past tense, giving it the form of an indirect quotation; as, He said that iron _was_ the most valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb; as, I _knew_ where the place _was_.

17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General maintained that there was not; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was. 19. I have already told you that I was a gentleman. 20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal.

+Caution+.--Use _will_ and _would_ to imply that the subject names the one whose will controls the action; use _shall_ and _should_ to imply that the one named by the subject is under the control of external influence.

+Remark+.--The original meaning of _shall_ (to _owe_, to _be obliged_) and _will_ (to _determine_) gives us the real key to their proper use.

The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of _will_ names something incapable of volition; as, The _wind will blow_. Even this may be a kind of personification.

+Examples+.--I _shall go_; You _will go_; He _will go_. These are the proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of _shall_ and _will_. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will. In the second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their duty.

I _will go_. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either promises or determines to go.

You _shall go_; He _shall go_. Here the speaker either promises the going or determines to compel these persons to go; in either case the one who goes is under some external influence.

_Shall_ I _go?_ Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external influence--the will of another.

_Will_ I _go?_--_i. e_., Is it my will to go?--is not used except to repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is.

_Shall_ you _go_? Ans. I _shall_. _Will_ you _go_? Ans. I _will_. _Shall_ he _go?_ Ans. He _shall_. _Will_ he _go?_ Ans. He _will_. The same auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer.

No difficulty _shall hinder_ me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control of the speaker.

He says that he _shall go_; He says that he _will go_. Change the indirect quotations introduced by _that_ to direct quotations, and the application of the Caution will be apparent.

You _will see_ that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey.

They knew that I _should be_ there, and that he _would be_ there. The same principles apply to _should_ and _would_ that apply to _shall_ and _will_. In this example the events are future as to past time; making them future as to present time, we have, They know that I _shall be_ there, and that he _will be_ there.

My friend said that he _should_ not _set_ out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of _should_ will be seen.

+Direction+.--_Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following sentences_:--

1. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day? 4. I shall never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son.

+Direction+.--_Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, or would, and give the reasons for your choice_:--

1. He knew who ---- betray him. 2. I ---- be fatigued if I had walked so far. 3. You did better than I ---- have done. 4. If he ---- come by noon, ---- you be ready? 5. They do me wrong, and I ---- not endure it. 6. I ---- be greatly obliged if you ---- do me the favor. 7. If I ---- say so, I ---- be guilty of falsehood. 8. You ---- be disappointed if you ---- see it. 9. ---- he be allowed to go on? 10. ---- you be unhappy, if I do not come?

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. Where will I leave you? 2. Will I be in time? 3. It was requested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy? 6. I think we will have rain.

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LESSON 142.

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS.

AGREEMENT.--VERBS--PRONOUNS.

+Caution+.--A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

+Remarks+.--Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. +Are+ and +were+ are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding +s+ or +es+ (_has_, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indicative present--_ha_(_ve_)_s_). The verb _be_ has +am+ (first person) and +is+ (third person).

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending +est+, +st+, or +t+, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds +eth+. (See Lessons 134 and 135.)

_Need_ and _dare_, when followed by an infinitive without _to_, are generally used instead of _needs_ and _dares_; as, He _need_ not do it; He _dare_ not do it.

+Caution+.--A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of; but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should be singular.

+Examples+.-- l. The _multitude were_ of one mind. 2. The _multitude was_ too large to number. 3. A _number were_ inclined to turn back, 4. The _number_ present _was_ not ascertained.

+Caution+.--When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with them in the plural.

+Exceptions+.--l. When the connected subjects are different names of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be singular; as, My old _friend and schoolmate is_ in town. _Bread and milk is_ excellent food.

2. When the connected subjects are preceded by _each, every, many a_, or _no_, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the nearest; as, _Every man, woman, and child was_ lost.

3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, _Time, and patience also, is_ needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by _as well as_; as, _Time, as well as patience, is_ needed.)

4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, the verb agrees with the affirmative; as, _Books, and not pleasure_, occupy his time.

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest; as, Thine _is_ the _kingdom and_ the _power_ _and_ the _glory_.

+Remark+.--When one of two or more subjects connected by _and_ is of the first person, the verb is in the first person; when one of the subjects is of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the second person. _I, you, and he_ = _we_; _you and he_ = _you_. We say, _Mary and I shall_ (not _will_) be busy to-morrow.

+Caution+.--When two or more subjects are connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest; as, Neither _poverty nor wealth was_ desired; Neither _he nor they were_ satisfied.

When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence.

+Remarks+.--When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed next to the verb.

In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault.

+Caution+.--A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person; as, _Thou who writest_; _He who writes_; _They who write_, etc.

The three special Cautions given above for the agreement of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent.

+Remarks+.--The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the indefinite subject _it_ take, by attraction, the person and number of the complement when this complement immediately precedes the adjective clause; as, It is I _that am_ in the wrong; It is thou _that liftest_ me up; It is the dews and showers _that make_ the grass grow.

The pronoun _you_, even when singular, requires a plural verb.

+Direction+.--_Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns_:--

1. _Books is_ a noun. 2. The good _are_ great. 3. The committee _were_ unable to agree, and _they_ asked to be discharged. 4. The House _has_ decided not to allow _its_ members the privilege. 5. Three times four _is_ twelve. [Footnote: "Three times four _is_ twelve" and "Three times four _are_ twelve" are both used, and both are defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the number four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought of? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. _Times_ is a noun used adverbially.] 6. Five dollars _is_ not too much. 7. Twice as much _is_ too much. 8. Two hours _is_ a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the wretched _was_ his pride. 10. To profess and to possess _are_ two different things. 11. Talking and eloquence _are_ not the same. 12. The tongs _are_ not in _their_ place. 13. Every one _is_ accountable for _his_ own acts. 14. Every book and every paper _was_ found in _its_ place. 15. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs _bring_ conviction. 16. This orator and statesman _has_ gone to _his_ rest. 17. Young's "Night Thoughts" _is his_ most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood _hath_ not revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country _pursues_ him. 20. The second and the third Epistle of John _contain_ each a single chapter. 21. _Man is_ masculine because _it_ denotes a male. 22. Therein _consists_ the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom _is_ the chief thing. 24. Either you or I _am_ right. 25. Neither you nor he _is_ to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, _is_ going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, _is_ here protected in _his_ right. 28. There _are_ one or two reasons. [Footnote: When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed.] 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five minutes _is_ fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picture-writing, _represent_ things, not words. [Footnote: The verb here agrees with _figures_, as _picture-writing_ is logically explanatory of _figures_.] 31. Many a kind word and many a kind act _has_ been put to his credit.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. _Victuals_ are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" are his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels? 4. "No, no," says I. 5. "We agree," says they. 6. Where was you? 7. Every one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our welfare and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin. 31. He don't like it. 32. Many a heart and home have been desolated by drink.

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255*.

+Scheme for the Verb.+

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

VERB. Uses. To assert action, being, or state.--Predicate (4, 11) To assume action, being, or state. Participles (37) Infinitives (40) Classes. Form. Regular (92). Irregular (92, 132, 133). (Redundant and Defective) Meaning. Transitive (92). Intransitive (92). Modifications. Voice. Active (129, 130). Passive (129, 130). Mode. Indicative (131, 134-137). Potential (131, 134-137). Subjunctive (131, 134-137, 140). Imperative (131, 134-137). Tense. Present. | Past. | Future. + 131, 134-138, Present Perfect.| 140, 141. Past Perfect. | Future Perfect. | Number. Singular. + 131, 134, 135. Plural. | Person. First. | Second. + 131, 134, 135. Third. | Participles.--Classes. Present. | Past. + 131, 134, 136. Past Perfect. | Infinitives.-- Present. | Present Perfect.| 131, 134, 135.

+Questions on the Verb+.

1. Define the verb and its classes.--Lessons 92, 132.

2. Define the modifications of the verb.--Lessons 129, 131.

3. Define the several voices, modes, and tenses.--Lessons 129, 131.

4. Define the participle and its classes.--Lesson 131.

5. Define the infinitive.--Lesson 131.

6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the different forms.--Lessons 134, 135, 136, 137.

7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the functions of the different tenses.--Lesson 138.

8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms.--Lessons 140, 141, 142.

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LESSON 143.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

_Lesson_ 112.--What are Modifications? Have English words many inflections? Have they lost any? What is Number? Define the singular and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regularly formed? In what ways may the plural be formed irregularly? Illustrate.

_Lesson_ 113.--Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other languages. How do compounds form the plural? Illustrate the several ways. How do letters, figures, etc. form the plural? Illustrate.

_Lesson_ 114.--Give examples of nouns having each two plurals differing in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What is said of the number of collective nouns?

_Lesson_ 116.--In what four ways may the number of nouns be determined? Illustrate.

_Lesson_ 117.--What is Gender? Define the different genders. What is the difference between sex and gender? The gender of English nouns follows what? Have English nouns a neuter form? Have all English nouns a masculine and a feminine form? In what three ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished from the feminine? Illustrate. Give the three gender forms of the pronoun.