Chapter 22

We cannot see that _to_ is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition _to_" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) "placed before the infinitive," _i.e._, placed before that of which it forms a part --placed before itself.

In the Anglo-Saxon, _to_ was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition; as, nominative _etan_ (to eat); dative _to etanne_; accusative _e:tan_. When the dative ending _ne_ was dropped, making the three forms alike, the _to_ came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation.

This dative of the infinitive, with _to_, was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, after the dropping of the _ne_ ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place _for_ before the _to_, "And _for to_ deck heaven's battlements."-_Greene_. "What went ye out _for to_ see?"-_Bible_. "Shut the gates _for to_ preserve the town."--_K. Hen. VI., Part III_.]

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT PAST PAST PERFECT. /Pres./+ing+. /Past Par./ Having /Past Par./

+May+, +can+, and +must+ are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense; +might+, +could+, +would+, and +should+, in the past and the past perfect.

The +emphatic+ form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by prefixing +do+ and +did+ to the present. _Do_ is prefixed to the imperative also.

TO THE TEACHES.--Require the pupils to fill out these forma with other verbs, regular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above.

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LESSON 135.

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +BE+.

[Footnote: The conjugation of _be_ contains three distinct roots--_as, be, was_. _Am, art, is, are_ are from _as_. _Am_ = _as-m_ (_m_ is the _m_ in _me_). _Art_ = _as-t_ (_t_ is the _th_ in _thou_).

Be was formerly conjugated, I _be_, Thou _beest_, He _beth_ or _bes_; _We be_, _Ye be_, _They be_.]

+Direction+.--Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the right of each verb:--

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE. _Singular. Plural._

1. (I) am ----, 1. (We) are ----, 2. (You) are ---- _or_ 2. (You) are ----, (Thou) art ----, 3. (He) is ----; 3. (They) are ----.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) was ----, 1. (We) were ----, 2. (You) were ---- _or_ 2. (You) were ----, (Thou) wast ----, 3. (He) was ----; 3. (They) were ----.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. (I) shall be ----, 1. (We) shall be ----, 2. (You) will be ---- _or_ 2. (You) will be ----, (Thou) wilt be ----, 3. (He) will be ----; 3. (They) will be ----.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) have been ----, 1. (We) have been ----, 2. (You) have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) have been ----, (Thou) hast been ----, 3. (He) has been ----; 3. (They) have been ----.

PAST PERFECT

1. (I) had been ----, 1. (We) had been ----, 2. (You) had been ---- _or_ 2. (You) had been ----, (Thou) hadst been ----, 3. (He) had been ----; 3. (They) had been ----.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) shall have been ----, 1. (We) shall have been ----, 2. (You) will have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) will have been ----, (Thou) wilt have been ----, 3. (He) will have been ----; 3. (They) will have been ----.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 1. (I) may be ----, 1. (We) may be ----, 2. (You) may be ---- _or_ 2. (You) may be ----, (Thou) mayst be ----, 3. (He) may be ----; 3. (They) may be ----.

PAST TENSE.

1. (I) might be ----, 1. (We) might be ----, 2. (You) might be ---- _or_ 2. (You) might be ----, (Thou) mightst be ----, 3. (He) might be ----; 3. (They) might be ----.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. (I) may have been ----, 1. (We) may have been ----, 2. (You) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) may have been ----, (Thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (He) may have been ----; 3. (They) may have been ----.

PAST PERFECT TENSE,

1. (I) might have been ----, 1. (We) might have been ----, 2. (You) might have been ---- _or_ 2. (You) might have been ----, (Thou) mightst have been ----, 3. (He) might have been ----; 3. (They) might have been ----.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PBESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 1. (If I) may have been ----, 1. (If we) may have been ----, 2. (If you) may have been ---- _or_ 2. (If you) may have been ----, (If thou) mayst have been ----, 3. (If he) may have been ----; 3. (If they) may have been ----.

PAST TENSE.

_Singular._ 1. (If I) were -----, 2. (If you) were ----, _or_ (If thou) wert ----, 3. (If he) were ----;

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

_Singular. Plural._ 2. Be (you or thou) ----; 2. Be (you or ye) ----.

INFINITIVES.

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) be ----. (To) have been ----.

PARTICIPLES.

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Being ----. Been. Having been ----.

* * * * *

LESSON 136.

FORMS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.

CONJUGATION--PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.

A verb is conjugated in the +progressive form+ by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.

A transitive verb is conjugated in the +passive voice+ by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb _be_.

+Remark+.--The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being; as, The birds _are singing_.

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance--such as _love_, _respect_, _know_--should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say, I _love_ the child--not I _am loving_ the child.

+Remarks+.--The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning; as, The house _is building_. In such cases the word in _ing_ was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition _a_, a contraction from _on_ or _in_; as, While the ark _was a preparing_; While the flesh _was in seething_. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in _ing_ is treated adjectively.

Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb _be_ completed by the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language--The house _is being built_, or _was being built_. Although condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objectionable, it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England, Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be ambiguous, _i.e._, when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver; as, The child _is whipping_; The prisoner _is trying_. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio of three to one.

+Direction+.--_Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb be, in the preceding Lesson, with the present participle choosing; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle chosen_.

Notice that after the past participle of the verb _be_ no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of _be_; it is never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive except in such forms as _have chosen, had chosen_. (See _have written_, Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is wanting. All the participles of the verb _choose_ are arranged in order below.

_Present. Past. Past Perfect_.

_Simplest form_. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. _Progressive form_. Being choosing,* ------, having been choosing. _Passive form_. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen.

[Footnote *: This form is not commonly used.]

+Direction+.--_Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs break, drive, read, lift_.

TO THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use _it_ or some noun for the subject in the third person.

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LESSON 137.

CONJUGATION--CONTINUED.

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS.

A verb may be conjugated +interrogatively+ in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he sing?_

A verb may be conjugated +negatively+ by placing _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, He _does not sing_. _Not_ is placed before the infinitive and the participles; as, _not to sing, not singing_.

A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and _not_ after the first auxiliary; as, _Does he not sing?_

+Remark+.--Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: _Loves he? I know not_. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely used. We say, _Does he love?_ _I do not know_. The verbs _be_ and _have_ are exceptions, as they do not take the auxiliary _do_. We say, _Is it right? Have you another?_

+Direction+.--_Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of the verb walk conjugated_ (1) _interrogatively_, (2) _negatively, and _(3) _so as to express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be used interrogatively._

To THE TEACHER.--Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form. Require the pupils to give synopses of all the forms.

* * * * *

LESSON 138.

MODE AND TENSE FORMS.

COMPOUND FORMS--ANALYSIS.

The +compound+, or +periphrastic, forms+ of the verb consisting of two words may each be resolved into an +asserting word and a participle+ or an +infinitive+.

If we look at the original meaning of the forms +I do write, I shall write, I will write+, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that _write_ is an infinitive used as object complement. +I do write = I do+ or +perform+ the action (_to_) write. +I shall write = I owe+ (_to_) +write. I will write = I determine+ (_to_) +write+.

+May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, would write+, and +should write+ may each be resolved into an asserting word and an infinitive.

The forms +is writing, was written+, etc. consist each of an asserting word (the verb _be_), and a participle used as attribute complement.

The forms +have written+ and +had written+ are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They originated from such expressions as _I have a letter written_, in which _have_ ( = _possess_) is a transitive verb taking _letter_ for its object complement, and _written_ is a passive participle modifying _letter_. The idea of possession has faded out of _have_, and the participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs--Spring _has come_, Birds _have flown_, etc. being now regularly used instead of the more logical perfect tense forms, Spring _is come_, Birds _are flown_. (_Is come, are flown_, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) [Footnote: A peculiar use of _had_ is found in the expressions _had rather go_ and _had better go_, condemned by many grammarians who suppose _had_ to be here used incorrectly for _would_ or _should_. Of these expressions the "Standard Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says:--

"Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel Johnson, the critics insisting upon the substitution of _would_ or _should_, as the case may demand, for _had_; but _had rather_ and _had better_ are thoroughly established English, idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I _would rather_ not go' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the element of choice, or will, in the matter; but in all ordinary cases 'I _had rather_ not go' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood.

"If for 'You _had better_ stay at home' we substitute 'You _should better_ stay at home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation."

In the analysis of "_I had rather go_," _had_ is the predicate verb, the infinitive _go_ is the object complement, and the adjective _rather_ completes _had_ and belongs to _go_, i.e., is objective complement. _Had_ (= _should hold_ or _regard_) is treated as a past subjunctive. _Rather_ is the comparative of the old adjective _rathe_ = _early_, from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going preferable."

The expressions "You _had better_ stay," "I _had as lief_ not be," are similar in construction to "I _had rather_ go." "I _had sooner_ go" is condemned by grammarians because _sooner_ is never an adjective. If _sooner_ is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of _had_. The expression equals, "I should more willingly have going."]

Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus: +May have been written+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have been+ and the participle +written; may have been+ is composed of the compound auxiliary +may have+ and the participle +been+; and +may have+ is composed of the auxiliary +may+ and the infinitive +have+. _May_ is the asserting word--the first auxiliary is always the asserting word.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above and analyze the following verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements_:--

1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be contented. 4. Has it been decided? 5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will surely change.

TENSE FORMS--MEANING.

The +Present Tense+ is used to express (1) what is actually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking.

+Examples+.--I _hear_ a voice (action as present). The sun _gives_ light (true at all times). He _writes_ for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips _speaks_ in Boston to-morrow night (future). He _mounts_ the scaffold; the executioners _approach_ to bind him; he _struggles, resists_, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden _are_ scattered in fight; they _rally_, they _bleed_, etc. (future events now seen in vision).

The +Past Tense+ may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time.

+Examples+.--The birds _sang_ (simply past action). He _wrote_ for the newspapers (past habit). If I _should go_, you _would miss_ me (future events). If he _were_ here, he _would enjoy_ this (refers to present time).

The +Future Tense+ may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time.

+Examples+.--I _shall write_ soon (simply future action). He _will sit_ there by the hour (indefinite in time).

The +Present Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time (_i.e._, a period of time--an hour, a year, an age--of which the present forms a part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period.

+Examples+.--Homer _has written_ poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). When I _have finished_ this, you _shall have_ it (action to be completed in a future period).

The +Past Perfect Tense+ expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a conditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time.

+Examples+.--I _had seen_ him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I _had had_ time, I _should have written_ (I _had_ not time--I _did_ not _write_.)

The +Future Perfect Tense+ expresses action to be completed at some specified future time.

+Example+.--I _shall have seen_ him by to-morrow noon.

+Direction+.--_Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs_:--

1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many important facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives, 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel.

+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+. _Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away._

[Transcriber's Note: The following two tables have been split to fit within Project Gutenberg line-width requirements. The first column of each table has been repeated for easier reference.]

|CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------|-----------------|---------------------------------------------| Sentence.|Class. |Sub-C. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| Gen. |Case.| | | | | | | | | | | Oh! |Int. | | | | | | | | | it |Pro. |Per. | | | |Sing.| ad.| Neut. |Nom. | has |Vb. |Ir., Tr. | Act. | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | a |Adj. |Def. | | | | | | | | voice |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | " |Obj. | for |Prep. | | | | | | | | | those |Pro. |Adj. | | | |Plu. | " |M. or F.| " | who |Pro. |Rel. | | | | " | " | " |Nom. | on |Prep. | | | | | | | | | their |Pro. |Per. | | | | " | " | " |Pos. | sick |Adj. |Des. | | | | | | | | beds |N. |Com. | | | | " | " | Neut. |Obj. | lie |Vb. |Ir.,Int. | -- | Ind.|Pres. | " | " | | | and |Conj. |Co-or. | | | | | | | | waste |Vb. |Reg.,Int.| -- | " | " | " | " | | | away. |Adv. |Place. | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------

| | SYNTAX. ---------|-------|----------------------------------- Sentence.|Deg. of| | Comp.| Oh! | |Independent. it | |Subject of _has_. has | |Predicate of _it_. a | -- |Modifier of _voice_. voice | |Object comp of _has_. for | |Shows Rel. of _has_ to _those_. those | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. who | |Subject of _lie_ and _waste_. on | |Shows Rel. of _lie_ to _beds_. their | |Possessive Mod. of _beds_. sick | Pos. |Modifier of _beds_. beds | |Prin. word in Prep. phrase. lie | |Predicate of _who_. and | |Connects _lie_ and _waste_. waste | |Predicate of _who_. away. | -- |Modifier of _waste_. -----------------------------------------------------

TO THE TEACHER.--For further exercises in parsing the verb and for exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on Analysis.

* * * * *

LESSON 139

PARSING.

+Direction+.--_Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the sentences of Lesson_ 42. _For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson_ 142.

+Model for Written Parsing--_Verbs_+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands_.

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATIONS. ---------------------------|------------------------------| Verbs. | Kind. |Voice.|Mode.|Tense.|Num. |Per.| *selling|Pr. Par., Ir., Tr.| Act. | -- | -- | -- | -- | wanders |Reg., Int. | -- |Ind. |Pres. |Sing.| 3d.| *seek |Inf., Ir., Tr. | Act. | -- | " | -- | | | | | | | | |

| SYNTAX --------|--------- Verbs. | selling |Mod. of _Yankee_. wanders |Pred. of _Yankee_. seek |Prin. word in phrase | Mod. of _wanders_.

[Footnote: Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number.]

(See Model for Written Parsing on opposite page.)

* * * * *

LESSON 140.

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS.

+Caution+.--Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following errors, and give your reasons_:--

1. I done it myself. 2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her.

+Explanation+.--_Lay_ (to place) is transitive, _lie_ (to rest) is intransitive; _set_ (to place) is transitive, _sit_ (to rest) is intransitive. _Set_ in some of its meanings is intransitive.

4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was lain. 8. Sit the plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hour. 13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there an hour. 15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valuable land was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. 24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. I knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. I expect that he has gone to Boston. 32. There ain't any use of trying. 33. I have got no mother. 34. Can I speak to you? 35. He had ought to see him.

+Explanation+.--As _ought_ is never a participle, it cannot be used after _had_ to form a compound tense.