Chapter 20

+Exceptions.+--The _e_ is retained (1) after _c_ and _g_ when the suffix begins with _a_ or _o_; as, _peaceable, changeable;_ (2) after _o;_ as, _hoeing;_ and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as, _singeing, dyeing._

+RULE II.---Y after a consonant becomes _i_ before a suffix net beginning with _i;_ as,+ _witty, wittier; dry, dried._

Exceptions.---Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, _lady's,_ the _Marys,_ the _Henrys._

+RULE III.--In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _hot, hotter; begin, beginning._

Exceptions.--_X, k,_ and _v_ are never doubled, and _gas_ has _gases_ in the plural.

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and _most._ This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one.

+Remark+.--_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs _more_ and _most_ have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections _er_ and _est_ are added.

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing _less_ and _least_[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon superlative ending +st+ is in _most_ and _least_; and the Saxon comparative ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in _less_--changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the _r_ in _more_.

When it was forgotten that _less_ is a comparative, _er_ was added, and we have the double comparative _lesser_--in use to-day.

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, _worser_, _most boldest_. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times.]; as, _valuable_, _less valuable_, _least valuable_. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees.

Direction.--_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain:--_

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above.

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior.

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following_:--

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest.

Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, and some by prefixing _more_ and _most_.

+Direction+.--_Compare the following_:--

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison.

+Direction+.--_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:--

Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

_Pos. Comp. Superlative_. (Aft),* after, aftmost _or_ aftermost. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill | Far, farther, fartherest _or_ fathermost Fore, former, foremost _or_ first. (Forth), further, furtherest _or_ furthermost. Good, better, best. Hind, hinder, hindmost _or_ hindermost. (In), inner, inmost _or_ innermost. Late, later _or_ latest _or_ latter last. Little,+ less _or_ least. lesser, Many _or_ more, most. Much, Near, nearer nearest _or_ next. Old, older _or_ oldest _or_ elder, eldest. (Out), outer _or_ outmost _or_ utter, outermost; utmost _or_ uttermost. Under, ----, undermost. (Up), upper, upmost _or_ uppermost. Top, ----, topmost.

[Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs--the adjectives following having no positive form.]

[Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of _little_, in the sense of small in size, _smaller_ and _smallest_ are substituted; as, _little_ boy, _smaller_ boy, _smallest_ boy.]

Adverbs Irregularly Compared.

_Pos. Comp. Superlative._

Badly,| worse, worst. Ill, | Far, farther, farthest, Forth, further, furthest. Little, less, least, Much, more, most. Well, better, best.

TO THE TEACHER.--We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs.

Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65.

Model for Written Parsing.--_All the dewy glades are still_.

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX -------------------|---------------|---------------------------------- Adjectives.| Kind. | Deg. of Comp. | All | Def. | ------ | Modifier of _glades_. the | " | ------ | " " " dewy | Des. | Pos. | " " " still | " | " | Completes _are_ and modifies _glades_.

* * * * *

LESSON 128.

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

+Caution+.--In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. [Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different conditions; as, The _star_ is _brighter to-night_; The _grass_ is _greener to-day_.]

+Remark+.--The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by _than_. [Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together as, _He_ is no _better_ than _other men_; _It_ contains _more_ than _all_ the _others_ combined.]

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:_--

1. London is larger than any city in Europe.

+Correction+.--The second term of comparison, _any city in Europe_, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, _London_ is _larger_ _than any other city in Europe_, or, _London_ is the _largest city in Europe_.

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no metal so useful as iron.

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.)

5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion.

+Caution+.--In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison, or the term introduced by _of_, include the former.

+Remarks+.--The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by _of_.

Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, This is the _best of the two_. But in such cases usage largely favors the comparative; as, This is the _better of the two_.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct these errors:_--

1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings.

+Correction+.--_Of_ (= _belonging to_) represents Solomon as belonging to a group of kings, and _other_ excludes him from this group--a contradiction in terms. It should be, _Solomon_ was the _wisest of Hebrew kings_, or _Solomon_ was _wiser_ than _any other Hebrew king_.

2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfactory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions.

(He was not one of his own companions.)

5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6. John is the oldest of any boy in his class.

+Caution+.--Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different degrees.[Footnote: Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers; as, My _chiefest_ entertainment.--_Sheridan_. The _chiefest_ prize.--_Byron_. _Divinest_ Melan- choly.--_Milton_. _Extremest_ hell.--_Whittier_. _Most perfect_ harmony--_Longfellow_. _Less perfect_ imitations.--_Macaulay_. The extension of these exceptional forms should not be encouraged.]

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors:_--

1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more perpendicular.

+Correction+.--Draw that line _perpendicular_, or more nearly _perpendicular_.

4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That form of expression is more preferable.

+Caution+.--When an adjective denoting one, or an adjective denoting more than one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number.

+Remark+.--A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular noun to form a compound adjective; as, a _ten-foot_ pole (not a _ten-feet_ pole), a _three-cent_ stamp.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:_--

1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fifteen foot square; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs.

Miscellaneous.

1. He was more active than any other of his companions.

+Correction+.--As he is not one of his companions, _other_ is unnecessary.

2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier.

(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the second Remark in this Lesson.)

4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the most entire confidence in him. 9. This is the more preferable form. 10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America? 11. He writes better than any boy in his class.

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--See suggestions to the teacher, page 255.

Scheme for the Adjective.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

ADJECTIVE. Uses. Modifier (12). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). Classes. Descriptive (89-91). Definitive (89-91). Modification.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " |

Questions on the Adjective.

1. Define the adjective and its classes.--Lesson 89.

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison.--Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison.--Lesson 127.

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adjectives.--Lessons 90, 91.

5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative and superlative forms.--Lesson 128.

Scheme for the Adverb.

ADVERB. Classes. Time. | Place. | Degree. + 92-94. Manner. | Cause. | Modification.--Comparison. Pos. Deg. | Comp. " + 127, 128. Sup. " |

Questions on the Adverb.

1. Define the adverb and its classes.--Lesson 92.

2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. --Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. --Lesson 93.

* * * * *

LESSON 129.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him._ The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, _picked_, shows that the subject names the actor; the second verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the +Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+.

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent; as, The _ship was wrecked; Money is coined_.

DEFINITIONS.

+_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the _actor_ or the thing _acted upon_+.

+The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+.

+The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon.+

The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word (some form of the verb _be_) and an attribute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjectively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice.

+Examples.+--The coat _was_ sometimes _worn_ by Joseph (_was worn_-- passive voice). The coat _was_ badly _worn_ (_was_--incomplete predicate, _worn_--adjective complement).

+Remark.+--To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by _by_ before the name of the agent without changing the sense.

+Direction.+---_Tell which of the following completed predicates may be treated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated:--_

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years.

+Direction.+--_Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give their voice._

* * * * *

LESSON 130.

COMPOSITION--VOICE.

The +object complement+ of a verb in the +active voice+ becomes the +subject+ when the verb is changed to the +passive voice.+

+Example.+--The Danes invaded _England = England_ was invaded by the Danes.

+Remark.+--You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent; in the second sentence, the receiver.

+Direction.+--_In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes that occur:--_

1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed--in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb.

+Remark.+--Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice.

9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching.

(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.)

13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man.

(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.)

16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Everybody acknowledged him to be a genius.

The +indirect,+ or _dative,_ +object+ is sometimes made the +subject+ of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb. [Footnote: Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language; but that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond controversy.

Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is difference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a "retained object," and some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction. In "I offered him money," _him_ represents the one to whom the act was directed, and _money_ names the thing directly acted upon. In "He was offered money," the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is not changed; _money_ still names the thing directly acted upon.]

+Example.+--The porter refused _him_ admittance = _He_ was refused _admittance_ by the porter.

+Direction.+--_Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note the other changes that occur:--_

18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room.

+Explanation.+--Here the infinitive phrase is the object complement, and _(to) me_ is used adverbially. _To leave the room = that I should leave the room._

22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell.

+Direction.+--_Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construction_:--

+Model.+--_He promised me a present = A present was promised me_ (regular) = _I was promised a present_ (idiomatic).

25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion.

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition.

+Example.+--All his friends _laughed_ at him = He _was laughed at_ (ridiculed) by all his friends.

+Remark.+---_Was laughed at_ may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, however, would call _at_ an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice.

+Direction.+--_Change the voice of the following verbs:--_

27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward.

+Remark.+--The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is followed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning; as, They _took care of it, It was taken care of._

+Direction.+--_Put the following sentences into several different forms, and determine which is the best:--_

30. His original purpose was lost sight of (forgotten). [Footnote: Some would parse _of_ as an adverb relating to _was lost,_ and _sight_ as a noun used adverbially to modify _was lost;_ others would treat _sight_ as an object [complement] of _was lost;_ others would call _was lost sight of_ a compound verb; and others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the expression as if arranged thus: _Sight of his original purpose was lost._] 31. Such talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid.

* * * * *

LESSON 131.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB--CONTINUED.

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.

+Introductory Hints.+--_James walks_. Here the walking is asserted as an actual fact. _James may walk._ Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but as a possible, fact. _If James walk out, he will improve._ Here the walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. _James, walk out._ Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command--James is ordered to make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call +Mode.+ The first verb is in the +Indicative Mode;+ the second in the +Potential Mode;+ the third in the +Subjunctive Mode;+ the fourth in the +Imperative Mode.+

For the two forms of the verb called the +Participle+ and the +Infinitive,+ see Lessons 37 and 40.

_I walk. I walked. I shall walk._ In these three sentences the manner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. _Walk_ asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as +Tense+ means time, is in the +Present Tense.+ _Walked_ asserts the action as past, and is in the +Past Tense.+ _Shall walk_ asserts the action as future, and is in the +Future Tense.+

_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow._ Have walked asserts the action as completed at the present, and is in the +Present Perfect Tense.+ _Had walked_ asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the +Past Perfect Tense.+ _Shall have walked_ asserts action to be completed in the future, and is in the +Future Perfect Tense.+

_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk._ In the second sentence _walk_ is changed by adding +est+; in the third sentence, by adding +s.+ Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. But this agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting the action or being+.

+The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. [Footnote: In "Are you going?" or "You are going?" a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial. In "Who did it?" the fact that some person did it is asserted, and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be seen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question.]

+The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being+.

+The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish+.

+The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an entreaty+.

+The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything+.

+The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.

+The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time indicated by the predicate+.

+The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the time indicated by the predicate+.