Higher Lessons in English: A work on English grammar and composition
Chapter 2
1. 2. _Vocal Consonants_. _Aspirates_. b..................p d..................t g..................k -------------------h j..................ch l------------------ m------------------ n------------------ r------------------ th.................th (in _thine_) (in _thin_) v..................f w------------------ y------------------ z (in _zone_)......s z (in _azure_).....sh
The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed voice; those in column 2, except _h_ (which represents a mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath.
The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this: there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as _b, g, v_, and the last or vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair.
TO THE TEACHER.--Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also.
In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing; we carry in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea; and there are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the written. Learn to distinguish clearly these four things.
TO THE TEACHER.--In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis on Lesson 2.
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LESSON 4.
ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.
TO THE TEACHER.--If the pupils have been through "Graded Lessons" or its equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly.
+DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+.
+Direction+.--_Analyze the following sentences_:--
+Model+.--_Spiders spin_. Why is this a sentence? Ans.--Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Spiders. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Spin_. [Footnote: The word _spiders_, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing; _spin_, used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will please note here and elsewhere.]
1. Tides ebb. 2. Liquids flow. 3. Steam expands. 4. Carbon burns. 5. Iron melts. 6. Powder explodes. 7. Leaves tremble. 8. Worms crawl. 9. Hares leap.
In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts--the +Subject+ and the +Predicate+.
+DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is thought.+
+DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought.+
+DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its parts.+
+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:--
+Model+.--_Beavers build_. This is a sentence because it expresses a thought. _Beavers_ is the subject because it names that of which something is thought; _build_ is the predicate because it tells what is thought. [Footnote: When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition.]
1. Squirrels climb. 2. Blood circulates. 3. Muscles tire. 4. Heralds proclaim. 5. Apes chatter. 6. Branches wave. 7. Corn ripens. 8. Birds twitter. 9. Hearts throb.
+Explanation+.--Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the first part represent the subject of a sentence; the second, the predicate.
If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence.
Love | conquers ========|============ |
You see, by looking at this figure, that _Love conquers_ is a sentence; that _love_ is the subject, and _conquers_ the predicate.
Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call _Diagrams_.
+DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and the relations of the different parts of a sentence.+
+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences_:--
1. Frogs croak. 2. Hens sit. 3. Sheep bleat. 4. Cows low. 5. Flies buzz. 6. Sap ascends. 7. Study pays. 8. Buds swell. 9. Books aid. 10. Noise disturbs. 11. Hope strengthens. 12. Cocks crow.
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LESSON 5.
COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a _capital letter_+.
+PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or commands.+
+Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates_:--
Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes? Who sailed, conquered, etc.?
1. ----- tarnishes. 2. ----- capsize. 3. ----- radiates. 4. ----- sentence. 5. ----- careen. 6. ----- sailed. 7. ----- descends. 8. ----- glisten. 9. ----- absorb. 10. ----- corrode. 11. ----- conquered. 12. ----- surrendered. 13. ----- refines. 14. ----- gurgle. 15. ----- murmur.
+Direction+.--_Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects_:--
Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what?
1. Glycerine -----. 2. Yankees -----. 3. Tyrants -----. 4. Pendulums -----. 5. Caesar -----. 6. Labor -----. 7. Chalk -----. 8. Nature -----. 9. Tempests -----. 10. Seeds -----. 11. Heat -----. 12. Philosophers -----. 13. Bubbles -----. 14. Darkness -----. 15. Wax -----. 16. Reptiles -----. 17. Merchants -----. 18. Meteors -----. 19. Conscience -----. 20. Congress -----. 21. Life -----. 22. Vapors -----. 23. Music -----. 24. Pitch -----.
TO THE TEACHER.--This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject.
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LESSON 6.
ANALYSIS.
The predicate sometimes contains more than one word.
+Direction+.--_Analyze as in Lesson 4_.
1. Moisture is exhaled. 2. Conclusions are drawn. 3. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 8. Constantinople had been captured. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 10. Tempests have been raging. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 18. Essex might have been saved. 19. Caesar could have been crowned, 20. Inventors may be encouraged.
+Direction+.--_Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 12 and 17_.
Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ before this predicate, the subject may easily be found.
TO THE TEACHER.--Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences.
When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken.
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LESSON 7.
COMPOSITION--SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
+Direction+.--_Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in the three columns following_:--
The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 3 in order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences.
1 2 3 Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows may be burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost.
Review Questions.
What is language proper? What is English grammar? What is a sentence? What are its two parts? What is the subject of a sentence? The predicate of a sentence? The analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What rule has been given for the use of capital letters? For the period? May the predicate contain more than one word? Illustrate.
TO THE TEACHER.--Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints" below.
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LESSON 8.
CLASSES OF WORDS.
NOUNS.
+Introductory Hints+.--We have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar.
But may we not deal with words as we do with plants? If we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master the botany even of our garden-plants.
But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another; and, as he has given us the power to detect resemblances and differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities.
From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers together and call them roses; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc.
The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it.
From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them according to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sorting them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts of Speech.
We find that many words name things--are the names of things of which we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them +Nouns+ (Latin _nomen_, a name, a noun).
PRONOUNS.
Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be difficult for one stranger to ask another, "Can _you_ tell _me who_ is the postmaster at B?" The one would not know what name to use instead of _you_, the other would not recognize the name in the place of _me_, and both would be puzzled to find a substitute for _who_.
_I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them,_ and other words are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called +Pronouns+ (Lat. _pro_, for, and _nomen_, a noun).
By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition.
+DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything.+
+DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun.+
The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, or assert, something in the sentence.
+Direction+.---_Write, according to the model, the names of things that can burn, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve._
+Model.+-- _Nouns._ Wood | Paper | Oil | Houses + burn or burns. Coal | Leaves | Matches | Clothes |
+Remark.+--Notice that, when the subject adds _s_ or _es_ to denote more than one, the predicate does not take _s_. Note how it would sound if both should add _s_.
+Every subject+ of a sentence is a +noun+, or some word or words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sentence is a subject.
+Direction.+--_Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson_ 18.
_In writing them observe the following rules_:--
+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Proper,_ or _individual, names_ and _words derived from them_ begin with capital letters.+
+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period.+
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LESSON 9.
CAPITAL LETTERS.
+Direction.+--_From the following words select and write in one column those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same class, and in another column those words that are derived from individual names_:--
Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8.
ohio, state, chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god.
+Direction.+--_Write the names of the days of the week and the months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter; and write the names of the seasons without capital letters._
+Remember+ that, when a class name and a distinguishing word combine to make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter; as, _Jersey City_. [Footnote: _Dead Sea_ is composed of the class name _sea_, which applies to all seas, and the word _Dead_, which distinguishes one sea from all others.]
But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name begins with a small letter; as, _river Rhine_.
+Examples+.--Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspension Bridge, New York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole.
+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--
ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, clinton county, westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rhode island.
+Remember+ that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the word _of_, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing word should each begin with a capital letter; as, _Gulf of Mexico_. But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name should begin with a small letter; as, _city of London_. [Footnote: The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forms now in use: _City_ of New York, _city_ of New York, New York _City_, New York _city_, New York _State_, New York _state_, Fourth _Avenue_, Fourth _avenue_, Grand _Street_, Grand _street_, Grand _st._, Atlantic _Ocean_, Atlantic _ocean_, Mediterranean _Sea_, Mediterranean _sea_, Kings _County_, Kings _county_, etc.
The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals; but we find in the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small letters in such cases.
In the superscription of letters, such words as _street_, _city_, and _county_ begin with capitals.
Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words: _river_ Rhine, Catskill _village_, the Ohio and Mississippi _rivers_. If _river_ and _village_, in the preceding examples, are not essential parts of the individual names, why should _river_, _ocean_, and _county_, in Hudson _river_, Pacific _ocean_, Queens _county_, be treated differently? We often say the _Hudson_, the _Pacific_, _Queens_, without adding the explanatory class name.
The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is in the line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter.
The American Cyclopedia takes a position still further in advance, as illustrated in the following: Bed _river_, Black _sea_, _gulf_ of Mexico, Rocky _mountains_. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., 9th ed.) we find Connecticut _river_, Madison _county_, etc., quite uniformly; but we find _Gulf_ of Mexico, Pacific _Ocean_, etc.]
+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed:_--
city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isthmus of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of china.
+Remember+ that, when a compound name is made up of two or more distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter.
+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--
great britain, lower california, south carolina, daniel webster, new england, oliver wendell holmes, north america, new orleans, james russell lowell, british america.
+Remember+ that, in writing the titles of books, essays, poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital letters; as, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the Holy One of Israel.
+Direction+.--_Write these words, using capital letters when needed_:--
declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebellion, webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, johnson's lives of the poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's history of the united states.
+Direction+.--_Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters when needed_:--
erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, anderson's history of the united states, mount washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village.
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LESSON 10.
ABBREVIATIONS.
+Direction+.--_Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may he abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters_:--
Thursday and lieutenant.
_These by writing the first four letters_:--
Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Tennessee, and Tuesday.
_These by writing the first three letters_:--
Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, England, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months except May, June, and July.
_These by writing the first two letters_:--
Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same).
_These by writing the first letter_:--
East, north, south, and west. [Footnote: When these words refer to sections of the country, they should begin with capitals.]
_These by writing the first and the last letter_:--
Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and Virginia.
_These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after each letter_:--
Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divinitatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States.
+Direction.+--_The following abbreviations and those you have made should be committed to memory_:--
Acct. _or_ acct., account. Bbl. _or_ bbl., barrel. Chas., Charles. Fla., Florida. LL. D., legum doctor (doctor of laws).[Footnote: The doubling of the _l_ to _ll_ and in _LL. D.,_ and of _p_ in _pp.,_ with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns _line, lean_, and _page_.] Messrs., messieurs (gentlemen). Mme., madame. Mo., Missouri. Mrs., (pronounced missis) mistress. Mts., mountains. Ph.D., philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy). Recd., received. Robt., Robert. Supt., superintendent. Thos., Thomas. bu., bushel. do., ditto (the same) doz., dozen. e.g., exempli gratia (for example) etc., et caetera (and others). ft., foot, feet. hhd., hogshead. hdkf., handkerchief. i.e., id est (that is). l., line. ll., lines. lb., libra (pound). oz., ounce. p., page. pp., pages. qt., quart. vs., versus (against). viz., videlicet (namely). yd., yard.
+Remark.+--In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the "Guide" _Iowa_ and _Ohio_ are not abbreviated. They are, however, frequently abbreviated thus: _Iowa, Ia._ or _Io.; Ohio, 0._
The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations _Cal., Col.; Ia., Io.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenn.,_ etc., has led to much confusion.
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LESSON 11.
VERBS.
+Introductory Hints+.--We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes.
We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the sentence; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them _nouns_.
But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, or exist.
When we say _Clocks tick_, _tick_ is not the name of anything; it tells what clocks do: it asserts action.
When we say _Clocks are_, or _There are clocks_, _are_ is not the name of. anything, nor does it tell what clocks do; it simply asserts existence, or being.
When we say _Clocks hang, stand, last, lie_, or _remain_, these words _hang, stand, last_, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist; they tell the condition, or state, in which clocks are, or exist; that is, they assert state of being.
All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call +Verbs+ (+Lat+. _verbum_, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence.
Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and some that assert state of being.
+DEFINITION+.--+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being-, or state of being+.
There are, however, two forms of the verb, the participle and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of being, without asserting it.
+Direction.+--_Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can think of_:--
Let some express being and some express state of being.
+Model.--_Noun._ | burns. | melt. | scorches. Fire | keep. (or) + spreads. Fires | glow. | rages. | heat. | exists.
+Remark.+--Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, _burn, melt, scorch_, adds _s_ or _es_ when its subject noun names but one thing.
Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind.
A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words; as, _is learning, may be learned, could have been learned_. [Footnote: Such groups of words are sometimes called _verb-phrases_. For definition of _phrase_, see Lesson 17.]
+Direction.+--_Unite the words in columns_ 2 _and_ 3 _below, and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column_ 1 _so as to make good sentences_:--