Chapter 16

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--The stars look down upon the roofs of the living _and_ upon the graves of the dead, _but neither_ the living _nor_ the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here _and_, _but_, _neither_, and _nor_ connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. Both clauses may be independent, or both dependent but of equal rank.

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed _as_ [it would seem] _if_ the heavens were lighted up _that_ the nations might behold the scene. Here _as_, _if_, and _that_ connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank.

+DEFINITIONS.+

+A _Conjunction_ is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+. [Footnote: Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as _and_ and _but_, connect, in thought, sentences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and parsing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as introductory.]

+_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank+.

+_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.

+Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses.

To THE TEACHER.--We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should he able to name the different groups, and some of the most common connectives of each group.

+Co-ordinate Connectives.+ [Footnote: +Copulative+ conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought; +Adversative+ conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning; +Alternative+ conjunctions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76.]

+Copulative+.--_And_, _both_ ... _and_, _as well as_ [Footnote: The _as well as_ in, _He, as well as I, went_; and not that in, _He is as well as I am_.] are conjunctions proper. _Accordingly_, _also_, _besides_, _consequently_, _furthermore_, _hence_, _likewise_, _moreover_, _now_, _so_, _then_, and _therefore_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Adversative+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. _However_, _nevertheless_, _notwithstanding_, _on the contrary_, _on the other hand_, _still_, and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Alternative+.--_Neither_, _nor_, _or_, _either_ ... _or_, and _neither_ ... _nor_ are conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.

+Subordinate Connectives.+

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

_That_, _what_, _whatever_, _which_, _whichever_, _who_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns. _When_, _where_, _whereby_, _wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs.

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES.

_Time_.--_After_, _as_, _before_, _ere_, _since_, _till_, _until_, _when_, _whenever_, _while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.

_Place_.--_Whence_, _where_, and _wherever _are conjunctive adverbs.

_Degree_.--_As_, _than_, _that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, correlative with adjectives or adverbs.

_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb.

_Real Cause_.--_As_, _because_, _for_, _since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper.

_Evidence_.--_Because_, _for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.

_Purpose_.--_In order that_, _lest_ (= _that not_), _that_, and _so that_ are conjunctions proper.

Condition.--Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.

_Concession_.--_Although_, _if_ (= _even if_), _notwithstanding_, _though_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. _Whatever_, _whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used indefinitely.

CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES.

_If_, _lest_, _that_, and _whether_ [Footnote: Etymologically, _whether_ is restricted to two; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more.

The repetition of _whether_, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it.

_Whether or no_ is also allowed.] are conjunctions proper. _What_, _which_, and _who_ are pronouns introducing questions; and _how_, _when_, _whence_, _where_, and _why_ are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions.

+Direction+.--_Study the lists above_, _and point out all the connectives in Lessons_ 80 and 81, _telling which are relative pronouns_, _which are conjunctions proper_, _and which are conjunctive adverbs_.

+TO THE TEACHER+.--If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six following Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course.

* * * * *

LESSON 101.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ordinate connectives_.

* * * * *

LESSON 102.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner_.

* * * * *

LESSON 103.

COMPOSITION--CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by connectives of noun clauses_.

* * * * *

LESSON 104.

CONNECTIVES.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:--

+As+ may connect a clause expressing +manner+, +time+, +degree+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand.

+If+ may connect a clause expressing +condition+, +time+, or +concession+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride.

8. Who knows if one of the Pleiads is really missing? [Footnote: Many grammarians say that _if_ here is improperly used for _whether_. But this use of _if_ is common with good authors in early and in modern English.]

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing.

+Lest+ may connect a clause expressing +purpose+, or it may introduce a +noun+ clause.

10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation.

+Since+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +evidence+.

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were persecuted.

* * * * *

LESSON 105.

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences_:--

+That+ may connect a +noun+ clause, an +adjective+ clause, or a clause expressing +degree+, +cause+, or +purpose+.

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may harden the metal. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them.

+When+ may connect a clause expressing +time+, +cause+, or +condition+, an +adjective+ clause or a +noun+ clause, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses.

6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people? 11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence.

+Where+ may connect a clause expressing +place+, an +adjective+ clause, or a +noun+ clause.

12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried.

+While+ may connect a clause expressing +time+ or +concession+, or it may connect +co-ordinate+ clauses.

15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king.

* * * * *

LESSON 106.

CONNECTIVES--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

+Direction+.--_Use the appropriate connectives, and change these compound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them_:--

(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause; let three express cause; five, condition; and two, concession.)

1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon.

+Direction+.--_Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, and three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the sentences_:--

12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, _more frigates_ would be found written on my heart.

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LESSON 107.

CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES.

+Caution+.--Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in correlation with other words. _And_ may be accompanied by _both_; _as_, by _as_, by _so_, or by _such_; _but_ (_but also_ and _but likewise_), by _not only_; _if_, by _then_; _nor_, by _neither_; _or_, by _either_ or by _whether_; _that_, by _so_; _the_, by _the_; _though_, by _yet_; _when_, by _then_; and _where_, by _there_.

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they belong.

+Examples+.--Give me neither riches _nor_ (not _or_) poverty. I cannot find either my book _or_ (not _nor_) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not _not only dogs_ bark) but also bite. _Not only dogs_ (not _dogs not only_) bark but wolves also. He _was neither_ (not _neither was_) rich nor poor.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor interesting.

+Caution+.--Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech.

+Examples+.--Seldom, _if_ (not _or_) ever, should an adverb stand between _to_ and the infinitive. I will try _to_ (not _and_) do better next time. No one can deny _that_ (not _but_) he has money. [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] A harrow is drawn over the ground, _which_ (not _and which_) covers the seed. Who doubts _that_ (not _but that_ or _but what_) Napoleon lived [Footnote: See foot-note, page 176.] The doctor had scarcely left _when_ (not _but_) a patient called. He has no love for his father _or_ (not _nor_) for his mother (the negative _no_ is felt throughout the sentence, and need not be repeated by _nor_). He was not well, _nor_ (not _or_) was he sick (_not_ is expended in the first clause; _nor_ is needed to make the second clause negative).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God? 4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before.

+Caution+.--_Else_, _other_, _otherwise_, _rather_, and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by _than_. But _else_, _other_, and _more_, implying something additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by _but_ or _besides_.

+Examples+.--A diamond is nothing _else than_ carbon. Junius was no _other than_ Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk _otherwise than_ on crutches. Americans would _rather_ travel _than_ stay at home. I rose _earlier than_ I intended. He can converse on _other_ topics _besides_ politics.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran.

+Caution+.--Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it.

+Examples+.--I have always (add _said_) and still do say that labor is honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add _lived_) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall (not The boy is _stronger_, but not _so tall, as_ his sister).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be published.

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LESSON 108.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors, telling what Caution each violates_:--

1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers: this city in Africa, and that in Europe; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thimbles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet together? 39. He talks like you do. [Footnote: The use of the verb _do_ as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic.] 40. This word has a different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called.

* * * * *

LESSON 109.

VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT.

+What+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +interrogative pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, an +adverb+, and an +interjection+.

+Examples+.--He did _what_ was right. _What_ did he say? _What_ man is happy with the toothache? _What_ with confinement and _what_ with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here _what_ = _partly_, and modifies the phrase following it). _What_! you a lion?

+That+ may be used as a +relative pronoun+, an +adjective+ +pronoun+, a +definitive adjective+, a +conjunction+, and a +conjunctive adverb+.

+Examples+.--He _that_ does a good deed is instantly ennobled. _That_ is heroism. _That_ man is a hero. We eat _that_ we may live. It was so cold _that_ the mercury froze.

+But+ may be used as a +conjunction+, an +adverb+, an +adjective+, and a +preposition+.

+Examples+.--The ostrich is a bird, _but_ (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls _but_ (= unless--subordinate conjunction) God wills it. He was all _but_ (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was all dead, _but_ he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) _except_ (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked _but_ (conjunctive adverb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked _to that degree in which_ he loves _not_ virtue (_so_ = _to that degree_, _but_ = _in which not_). We meet _but_ (adverb = _only_) to part. Life is _but_ (adjective = _only_) a dream. All _but_ (preposition = _except_) him had fled. The tears of love were hopeless _but_ (preposition = _except_) for thee. I cannot _but_ remember = I cannot do anything _but_ (preposition = _except_) remember. There is no fireside _but_ (preposition) has one vacant chair (_except the one which_ has); or, regarding _but_ as a negative relative = _that not_, the sentence = There is no fireside _that_ has _not_ one vacant chair.

+Direction+.--_Study the examples given above, point out the exact use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences_:--

1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these barren boughs? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What! I the weaker vessel? 11. Whom should I obey but thee? 12 What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a fortune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return.

* * * * *

LESSON 110.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

_Lesson_ 85.--Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a proper noun? Why is _music_ a common noun? What is a collective noun? An abstract noun? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns? Define them. What is an antecedent?

_Lesson_ 86.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting _he_, _it_, and _they_; the needless use of pronouns; the two styles of the pronoun; the use of _them_ for _those_, and of _what_ for _that_; and the use of _who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_.

_Lesson_ 87.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected relative clauses; the relative in clauses not restrictive; the use of _that_ instead of _who_ or _which_; the position of the relative clause; and the use of _this_ and _that_, _the one_ and _the other_.

_Lesson_ 89.--Define an adjective. What two classes are there? Define them. What adjectives do not limit? Illustrate.

_Lesson_ 90.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the adjectives _an_, _a_, and _the_; and the use of _a few_ and _few_, _a little_ and _little_.

_Lesson_ 91.--Give and illustrate the Cautious respecting the choice and the position of adjectives.

Lesson_ 93.--Define a verb. What are transitive verbs? Intransitive? _Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object complement? What are regular verbs? Irregular? Illustrate. What are the several classes of adverbs? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb?

_Lesson_ 93.--Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs.

* * * * *

LESSON 111.

REVIEW QUESTIONS--CONTINUED.

_Lesson_ 95.--Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in _ing_? Of _but_, _except_, and _save_? Of certain compound prepositions? When do prepositions become adverbs?

_Lesson_ 98.--Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prepositions. What, in general, is the difference between _in_ and _into_?

_Lesson_ 99.--Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of prepositions.

_Lesson_ 100.--Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of conjunctions, and what is their difference? What other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect? What are adverbs that connect called? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided? Give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by subordinate connectives? The connectives of adverb clauses are subdivided into what classes? Give a leading connective of each class.

_Lessons_ 104, 105.--Illustrate two or more offices of each of the connectives _as_, _if_, _lest_, _since_, _that_, _when_, _where_, and _while_.

_Lesson_ 107.--Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the construction of connectives.

_Lesson_ 109.--Illustrate the offices of _what_, _that_, and _but_.