Chapter 15

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying _Washington captured_ we do not fully express the act performed. Adding _Cornwallis_, we complete the predicate by naming the one that receives the act that passes over from the doer. _Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over from a doer to a receiver are called +Transitive Verbs+. If we say _Cornwallis was captured by Washington_, the verb is still transitive; but the object, _Cornwallis_, which names the receiver, is here the subject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the act, may be the subject, or it may be the object complement.

All verbs that, like _fall_ in _Leaves fall_, do not represent the act as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state of being are called +Intransitive Verbs+.

A verb transitive in one sentence; as, He _writes_ good English, may be intransitive in another; as, He _writes_ well--meaning simply He _is_ a good _writer_. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed or obviously understood.

_Washington captured Cornwallis_. Here _captured_ represents the act as having taken place in past time. _Tense_ means _time_, and hence this verb is in the past tense. _Cornwallis captured, the war speedily closed_. Here _captured_ is, as you have learned, a participle; and, representing the act as past at the time indicated by _closed_, it is a past participle. Notice that _ed_ is added to _capture_ (final _e_ is always dropped when _ed_ is added) to form its past tense and its past participle. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present are called +Regular Verbs+.

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by adding _ed_ to the present; as, _fall, fell, fallen; go, went, gone_, are called +Irregular Verbs+.

_Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go soon_--by expressing time, are called +Adverbs of Time+.

_Away, back, elsewhere, hence, out, within_, etc., used to modify any verb--as, _will go_ in, I _will go away_--by expressing direction or place, are called +Adverbs of Place+.

_Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very_, etc., used to modify a word--as the adjective _hot_ in, The tea is _very hot_--by expressing degree, are called +Adverbs of Degree+.

_Plainly, so, thus, well, not_, [Footnote: It may be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in oar language, negation is more frequently expressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech--than by all other parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what is said consists of denial--is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is not true of them.

"The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant +n+. In Saxon it existed as a word +ne+; but we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which, enters into many words, as into _no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never_."--_Earle_.

_No_ and _yes_ (_nay_ and _yea_), when used to answer Questions, show how the thought presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner. They are sometimes called _independent adverbs_. They seem to modify words omitted in the answer but contained in the question; as, Did you see him? _No_ = I did _no_ (_not_) see him; Will you go? _Yes_. The force of _yes_ may be illustrated by substituting _certainly_--Will you go? _Certainly_. _Certainly_ I will go, or I will _certainly_ go. As _no_ and _yes_ represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called +sentence-words+.] etc., used to modify a word--as, _spoke_ in, He _spoke plainly_--by expressing manner, are called +Adverbs of Manner+.

_Hence, therefore, why_, etc., used in making an inference or in expressing cause--as, It is dark, _hence_, or _therefore_, the sun is down; _Why_ is it dark?--are called +Adverbs of Cause+.

Some adverbs fall into more than one class; as, _so_ and _as_.

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are therefore called +Conjunctive Adverbs+.

DEFINITIONS.

+A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.

+A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The +object+ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, may be the +object complement+, or it may be the +subject+; as, Brutus stabbed _Caesar_; _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187.]

+An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.

+An _Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. [Footnote: Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used independently; as, _Now, there_ must be an error here. They may modify a phrase or a preposition; as, He came _just_ in time; It went _far_ beyond the mark. They may modify a clause or a sentence; as, He let go _simply_ because he was exhausted; _Certainly_ you may go.

It may also be noted here that adverbs are used interrogatively; as, _How, when_, and _where_ is this to be done? and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of the conjunction; as, I go _where_ I am sent.]

CLASSES OF ADVERBS.

+_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_

+_Adverbs of Place_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Where?_

+_Adverbs of Degree_ are those that generally answer the question+, _To what extent?_

+_Adverbs of Manner_ are those that generally answer the question+, _In what way?_

+_Adverbs of Cause_ are those that generally answer the question+, _Why?_

+Direction+.--_Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regular and the irregular verbs in Lesson_ 14, _and classify the adverbs_.

* * * * *

LESSON 93.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Examples+.--I could _ill_ (not _illy_) afford the time. Do _as_ (not _like_) I do. A diphthong is _the union of_ two vowels (not _where_ or _when_ two vowels unite) in the same syllable. _This_ (not _this here_ or _this 'ere_) sentence is correct. He wrote _that_ (not _how that_) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is _universally_ held (not _universally_ held _everywhere_). His nose was _very_ (not _terribly_ or _frightfully_) red,

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_.--

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peacefully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go.

+Caution+.--So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand between _to_ and the infinitive. [Footnote: Instances of the "cleft, or split, infinitive"--the infinitive separated from its _to_ by an intervening adverb--are found in Early English and in English all the way down, Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this.

But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between _to_ and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb there at all; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally.

Whether the adverb should be placed before the _to_ or after the infinitive is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure.]

+Examples+.--_I only_ rowed across the river = _I only_ (= _alone_, an adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I _only rowed_ etc., +but+ did not _swim_ or _wade_. I rowed _only across_ the river = _across_, not _up_ or _down_ etc. I rowed across the _river only_ = the _river only_, not the _bay_ etc. _Merely to see_ (not _to merely see_) her was sufficient. _Not every collegian_ is a scholar (not _Every collegian_ is _not_ a scholar).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears miraculous.

+Caution+.--Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other. [Footnote: _Not in_frequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation; as, He is _not un_just; _No_ man can do _nothing_.]

+Examples+.--No one _has_ (not _hasn't_) yet reached the North Pole. _No un_pleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to affirm).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be something wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found.

+Caution+.--Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives for adverbs.

+Examples+.--The moon looks _calm_ and _peaceful_ (not _calmly_ and _peacefully_, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon looks down _calmly_ and _peacefully_ on the battlefield (not _calm_ and _peaceful_, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I slept _soundly_ (not _good_ or _sound_).

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 94.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. Begin it over again. 2. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise.

LESSON 95.

PREPOSITIONS.

+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.+

Composition.

+Direction+.--_We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish_:--

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond, but, by, down, ere, for, from, in, into, of, on, over, past, round, since, through, throughout, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

+Remarks+.--_Bating_, _concerning_, _during_, _excepting_, _notwithstanding_, _pending_, _regarding_, _respecting_, _saving_, and _touching_ are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere relations.

_But_, _except_, and _save_, in such a sentence as, All _but_ or _except_ or _save him_ were lost, are usually classed with prepositions.

The phrases _aboard of_, _according to_, _along with_, _as to_, _because of_ (by cause of), _from among_, _from between_, _from under_, _instead of_ (in stead of), _out of_, _over against_, and _round about_ may be called compound prepositions. But _from_ in these compounds; as, He crawled _from under the ruins_, really introduces a phrase, the principal term of which is the phrase that follows _from_.

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted; as, He rode _past_; He stands _above_.

* * * * *

LESSON 96.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.

+To the Teacher+.--Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profitable to do with them. He should he a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That grammarian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up. [Footnote: Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that _between_ and _betwixt_ "refer to two," are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be? "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox."-- _L'Estrange_. "A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."-- _J. B. Green_. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia."--_Gibbon_. "His flight between the several worlds."--_Addison_. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." --_G. P. Marsh_. "The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mueller."--_W. D. Whitney_. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."-- _B. G. White_. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck."--_Bryant_. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology! What simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance: There were forty desks in the room with ample space _between them_?

"We observe that _between_ is not restricted to two."--_Imperial Dictionary_. "In all senses _between_ has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surrounding things severally and individually--_among_ expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely: we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' or 'to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower.'"--_The New English Dictionary_.

We have collected hundreds of instances of _between_ used by good writers with three or more.

Guard against such expressions as _between each_ page; a choice _between one_ of several.]

+Direction+.--_We give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different prepositions_:--

(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompanying word.)

Abide _at, by, with_; accommodate _to, with_; advantage _of, over_; agree _to, with_; angry _at, with_; anxious _about, for_; argue _against, with_; arrive _at, in_; attend _on_ or _upon, to_; careless _about, in, of_; communicate _to, with_; compare _to, with_; consists _in, of_; defend _against, from_; die _by, for, of_; different _from_; disappointed _in, of_; distinguish _by, from_; familiar _to, with_; impatient _for, of_; indulge _in, with_; influence _on, over, with_; insensible _of, to_; sat _beside_; many _besides_.

* * * * *

LESSON 97.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Direction+.--_Do with the following words as with those above_:--

Inquire _after, for, into, of_; intrude _into, upon_; joined _to, with_; liberal _of, to_; live _at, in, on_; look _after, for, on_; need _of_; obliged _for, to_; part _from, with_; placed _in, on_; reconcile _to, with_; regard _for, to_; remonstrate _against, with_; sank _beneath, in, into_; share _in, of, with_; sit _in, on_ or _upon_; smile _at, on_; solicitous _about, for_; strive _for, with, against_; taste _for, of_; touch _at, on_ or _upon_; useful _for, in, to_; weary _of, in, with_; yearn _for, towards_.

* * * * *

LESSON 98.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in the water. [Footnote: _In_ denotes motion or rest in a condition or place; _into_, change from one condition or place into another. "When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get _into_ it; but he cannot do anything _in_ it until he has got _into_ it."] 7. He fought into the Revolution. [See previous footnote] 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disappointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside these. [Footnote: Beside = _by the side of_; besides = _in addition to_.] 29. You make no use with your talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing.

* * * * *

LESSON 99.

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS--CONTINUED.[Footnote: "A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence _with_," we are told. Sentences (10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed.

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, "A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word;" and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus: "Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint _of_!" "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, 'What _for_?' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech."

Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in English--"The language itself is inseparable _from_, or essentially a part _of_, the _thoughts_." Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable.

Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common--"Powerless to _affect_, or to be affected _by_, the _times_."]

CAUTION.--Do not use prepositions needlessly.

DIRECTION.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in? 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to? 12. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air composed of? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass.

+Caution+.--Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia.

+Direction+.--_Point out the prepositions in Lessons_ 80 _and_ 81, _and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation_.

* * * * *

LESSON 100.