Chapter 14

Some adjectives preceded by _the_ are abstract nouns; as, the _grand_, the _sublime_, the _beautiful_.]

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an +Antecedent+.

+Direction+.--_Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences_:--

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body.

+Remark+.--When the interrogatives _who_, _which_, and what introduce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example--I found _who_ called and _what_ he wanted; I saw _what_ was done. The first sentence does not mean, I found the _person who_ called and the _thing that_ he wanted. "_Who_ called" and "_what_ he wanted" here suggest questions--questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw _what_ was done = I saw the _thing that_ was done. No question is suggested.

It should be remembered that _which_ and _what_ may also be interrogative adjectives; as, _Which_ side won? _What_ news have you?

+Direction+.--_Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns_:--

1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly.

* * * * *

LESSON 86.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.

TO THE TEACHER.--In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons.

+Caution+.--Avoid _he_, _it_, _they_, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity_:--

+Model+.--The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _him_, _he_ would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave _his father, his father_ would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon _his_ friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon _your_ (or _my_) friends."

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home.

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.)

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.

+Caution+.--Do not use pronouns needlessly.

+Direction+.--_Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns_:--

1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.

+Caution+.--In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you.

+Caution+.--The pronoun _them_ should not be used for the adjective _those_, nor the pronoun _what_ for the conjunction _that_. [Footnote: _What_ properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction _that_. _But_ may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause.

This use of _but_ requires careful discrimination. For example--"I have no fear _that_ he will do it"; "I have no fear _but that_ he will do it." The former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives--_no_, _doubts_, and _but_. Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "_No_ one _doubts_ that he will do it," or "_No_ one believes _but_ that he will do it," or "Every one _believes_ that he will do it."

_But what_, for _but that_ or _but_, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad _but what_ he might be worse." For this office of _but_ or _but that_ in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of _but_.]

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good.

+Caution+.--The relative _who_ should always represent persons; _which_, brute animals and inanimate things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. The antecedent of _what_ should not be expressed.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

LESSON 87.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate.

+Caution+.--When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See Lesson 61.] _who_ or _which_, and not _that_, is generally used.

+Example+.--Water, _which_ is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble.

+Caution+.--The relative _that_ [Footnote: _That_ is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine _who_ and _which_ to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice.

The wide use of _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after _this_, _these_, _those_, and _that_, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing _who_ and _which_ in restrictive clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that _who_ and _which_ stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, _this_, _these_, _those_, or _that_ preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than _that_ itself does. Especially may this be said of _which_.] should be used instead of _who_ or _which_ (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) when _that_ would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would sound better than _who_ or _which_, _e. g._, after _that_, _same_, _very_, _all_, the interrogative _who_, the indefinite _it_, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

+Example+.--He lived near a _pond that_ was a nuisance. (_That_ relates to _pond_--the pond was a nuisance. _Which_ might have, for its antecedent, _pond_, or the whole clause _He lived near a pond_; and so its use here would be ambiguous.)

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend.

+Caution+.--The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

+Direction+.--_Correct these errors_:--

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride.

+Caution+.--When _this_ and _that_, _these_ and _those_, _the one_ and _the other_ refer to things previously mentioned, _this_ and _these_ refer to the last mentioned, and _that_ and _those_ to the first mentioned; _the one_ refers to the first mentioned, and _the other_ to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns.

+Examples+.--_High_ and _tall_ are synonyms: _this_ may be used in speaking of what grows--a tree; _that_, in speaking of what does not grow--a mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in _the one_ we most admire the man; in _the other_, the work.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is complimented by the bench; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by his people; the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are shunned, while those are sought after.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 88.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS--CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. _Reputation_ and _character_ do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you.

* * * * *

LESSON 89.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.--You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences _Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful_, the adjectives _ripe_ and _unripe_ limit, or narrow, the application of _apples_ by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned also that _the_, _this_, _an_, _no_, _some_, and _many_ limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as _apple_ or _apples_, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it.

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+.

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, _yellow_ gold, the _good_ God, the _blue_ sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The fields were _green_; The ground was _dry_ and _hard_.

+DEFINITIONS+.

+An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.[Footnote: Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that is, an adjective joined loosely without restricting: thus--_Faint_ and _weary_, _he_ struggled on or, _He_, _faint_ and _weary_, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong as freely to pronouns as to nouns.]

+A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.

+A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity+.[Footnote: The definitive adjectives _one_, _two_, _three_, etc.; _first_, _second_, _third_, etc. are called +Numeral+ adjectives. _One_, _two_, _three_, etc. are called +Cardinal+ numerals; and _first_, _second_, _third_--etc. are called +Ordinal+ numerals]

The definitive adjectives _an_ or _a_ and _the_ are commonly called +Articles+. _An_ or _a_ is called the _Indefinite Article_, and _the_ is called the _Definite Article_.

A noun may take the place of an adjective.

+Examples+.--_London_ journals, the _New York_ press, _silver_ spoons, _diamond_ pin, _state_ papers, _gold_ bracelet.

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives below, and name such as do not limit_:--

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, few people, less trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlantic, The huge clouds were dark and threatening, Eyes are bright, What name was given? Which book is wanted?

+Direction+.--_Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they modify in some other way_.

* * * * *

LESSON 90.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

+Caution+.--_An_ and _a_ are different forms of _one_. _An_ is used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, _an_ drops _n_ and becomes _a_ before consonant sounds.[Footnote: Some writers still use _an_ before words beginning with unaccented _h_; as, _an historian_.]

+Examples+.--_An_ inkstand, _a_ bag, _a_ historian, _a_ humble petition, _an_ hour (_h_ is silent), _a_ unit (_unit_ begins with the consonant sound of _y_), such _a_ one (_one_ begins with the consonant sound of _w_). +Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero.

+Caution.+--_An_ or _a_ is used to limit a noun to one thing of a class--to any one. _The_ is used to distinguish (1) one thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of things from other classes.

+Explanation.+--We can say _a horse_, meaning _any one horse_; but we cannot say, _A gold_ is heavy, This is a poor kind of a _gas_, William Pitt received the title of _an earl_ because _gold, gas,_ and _earl_ are here meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one thing of a class.

_The horse_ or _the horses_ must be turned into _the lot_. Here _the_ before _horse_ distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses distinguishes certain animals, from others of the same class; and _the_ before _lot_ distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable--things in other classes. _The horse_ is a noble animal. Here _the_ distinguishes _this class_ of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, _The man_ (meaning the race) is mortal, _The anger_ is a short madness, _The truth_ is eternal, _The poetry_ and _the painting_ are fine arts, because _man, anger, truth, poetry,_ and _painting_ are used in their widest sense, and name things that are sufficiently distinguished without _the_.

+Direction.+--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the title of a duke. 3. A _hill_ is from the same root as _column_. 4. Dog is a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple.

+Caution.+--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before _each_ of two or more connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify different nouns, expressed or understood; but, when they modify the same noun, the article should not be repeated.

+Explanation+.--_A cotton and a silk umbrella_ means two umbrellas--one cotton and the other silk; the word umbrella is understood after _cotton_. _A cotton and silk umbrella_ means one umbrella partly cotton and partly silk; _cotton_ and _silk_ modify the same noun--_umbrella_. _The wise and the good_ means two classes; _the wise and good_ means one class.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution as explained, and correct these errors_:--

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pullman and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's dictionary.

+Caution+.--Use _an_, _a_, or _the_ before each of two or more connected nouns denoting things that are to be distinguished from each other or emphasized.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criticise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. The secretary and treasurer were both absent.

(_The secretary and treasurer was absent_--referring to one person--is correct.)

+Caution+.--_A few_ and _a little_ mean _some_ as opposed to _none_; _few_ means _not many_, and _little_ means _not much_.

+Examples+.--He saved _a few_ things and _a little_ money from the wreck. _Few_ shall part where many meet. _Little_ was said or done about it.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the night. 3. Few men live to be & hundred years old, but not many. 4. Little can be done, but not much.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these Cautions_.

* * * * *

LESSON 91.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES--CONTINUED.

+Caution+.--Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them needlessly; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it.

+Remark+.--The following adjectives are obviously needless: _Good_ virtues, _verdant_ green, _painful_ toothache, _umbrageous_ shade.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors_:--

1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capacious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it.

+Caution+.--So place adjectives that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If they are of the same rank, place them where they will sound best--generally in the order of length, the shortest first.

+Direction+.--_Study the Caution, and correct these errors_:--

1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild.

+Direction+.--_Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these two Cautions_.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.--_Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and correct the errors_:--

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called _a marquis_. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use! 16. The day was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unostentatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends than I.

LESSON 92.

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS.