Chapter 11

+Introductory Hints+.--_Sun and moon and stars_ obey. Peter the Great went _to Holland, to England_, and _to France_. _I came, I saw, I conquered_. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, and co-ordinate clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order.

Leaves fall _so very quietly_. They ate _of the fruit from the tree in the garden_. Regulus would have paused _if he had been the man that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. Here just as the word modifier _quietly_ is itself modified by _very_, and _very_ by _so_; and just as _fruit_, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modified by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another: so _man_, in the adverb clause which modifies _would have paused_, is itself modified by the adjective clause _that he was_, and _was_ by the adverb clause _before captivity had unstrung his sinews_. These three dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the three words and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the complex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank.

_Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although Parliament frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded it_. This is a compound sentence, composed of the simple clause which precedes _but_ and the complex clause which follows it--the complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the other, and the two connected by _and_.

Analysis.

The +clauses+ of +complex+ and +compound+ sentences may themselves be +complex+ or +compound+.

insects ---------- ` ` ` ` ` `which | are admired ` ` `=====|============= ` ` | ' ` ` ' x ` ` ..... ` ` ' ` `which | are decorated ` ======|=============== ` | ' ` 'and ` ........ ` ' ` which | soar ' `======|======= |

hour | had passed =========|============= \The |` ' ` ' and ` ....... ` ' opportunity | ` had escaped ============|==`============ \the | ` \ ` ' ` ' `' ` `while ` he | ` tarried ----|------------- | that ----- ' earth | ' is \ round =========|======'======== | ' that ' and ----- ...... ' ' it | ' revolves ' ===|='============'= | He | proved | / \ ====|============= |

+Explanation+.--The first diagram illustrates the analysis of the compound adjective clause in (3) below. Each adjective clause is connected to _insects_ by _which_. _And_ connects the co-ordinate clauses. The second diagram shows that the clause _while he tarried_ modifies both predicates of the independent clauses. _While_ modifies _had passed, had escaped_, and _tarried_, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two verbs and the line over _tarried_. The office of _while_ as connective is shown by the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a complex sentence containing a compound noun clause.

1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them all. 2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, "Shall we gather at the river?" 3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of the earth. 4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he knew. 5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the languages, because one tongue was enough for a woman. [Footnote: In _tongue_, as here used, we have a +Pun+--a witty expression in which a word agreeing in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in place of that other.] 7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers; the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster than the adjacent sides. 8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the catechism. 9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is destructive to fire. 11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory? [Footnote: The _when_ clauses in (11), as the _which_ clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan, have their words in the same order. This principle of +Parallel Construction+, requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also in phrases, as in (10) and (14), Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15), Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the paragraph, as is explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression.]

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LESSON 79.

EXPANSION.

+Participles+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand the participles in these sentences into the clauses indicated_:--

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.) 2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in summer. (Cause.) 5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.) 6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire!" (Time.) 8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) 9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around, (Independent clause.)

+Absolute phrases+ may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indicated_:--

1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, Aeneas came into Italy. (Time.) 2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Concession.) 5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or windy last night. (Evidence.) 6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Independent clause.)

+Infinitive+ phrases may be expanded into different kinds of +clauses+.

+Direction+.--_Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses indicated_:--

1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.) 2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on _but_. (Condition.) 5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.)

+Direction+.--_Complete these elliptical expressions_:--

1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day! 3. He is braver than wise. 4. What if he is poor? 5. He handles it as if it were glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or not. 10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart.

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LESSON 80.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the Maelstrom.--_Holmes_. 2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steamships through the waves comes from the sun.--_Cooke_. 3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human labor, smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard.--_Ruskin_. 4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief by the throat every morning?--_German Proverb_. 5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, and they became as blood.--_Longfellow_. 6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live.--_Sir T. Browne_. 7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as I can, in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick Henry.--_Nasby_. 8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple.--_Irving_. 9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race.--_Mill_. 10. There is no getting along with Johnson; if his pistol misses fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it.--_Goldsmith_. 11. We think in words; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit thoughts.--_White_. 12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the bottom of his subject.--_Whately_. 13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it will disgrace every man who is not.--_Holland_. 14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, are the men and women who bless their species.--_Parton_.

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LESSON 81.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

Analysis.

1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it sins against God and against the state.--_Koran_. 2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's wife in solution.--_Curtis_. 3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid the roof will come down if you sweep off the cobwebs.--_Phillips_. 4. Kind hearts are more than coronets; and simple faith, than Norman blood.--_Tennyson_. 5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey virtue.--_Sallust_. 6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for you; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that.--_Holmes_. 7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these: "It might have been."--_Whittier_. 8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayonets. --_Napoleon_. 9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden on.--_Kant_. 10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand on the water or the sand.--_Gladstone_. 11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old England's ale.--_Higginson_. 12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land.--_Sir H. Gilbert_. 13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound and lusty book.--_Lowell_. 14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what are human ills and what is human wrong.--_Boyd_. 15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both [Footnote: See Lesson 20.] great and small; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and loveth all.--_Coleridge_.

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LESSON 82.

REVIEW.

Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Give examples of adjective clauses connected by _who, whose, which, what, that, whichever, when, where, why_, and show that each connective performs also the office of a pronoun or that of an adverb. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for punctuating the adjective clause, and the Caution regarding the position of the adjective clause. Show that an adjective clause may be equivalent to an Infinitive phrase or a participle phrase.

Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase or clause. Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain the office of each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different positions of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different ways of contracting adverb clauses.

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LESSON 83.

REVIEW.

Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two different ways of treating clauses introduced by _in order that_, etc. Explain the office of the expletive _it_. Illustrate the different positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how the noun clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different ways of contracting noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for quotation marks. Illustrate and explain fully the distinction between direct and indirect quotations, and the distinction between direct and indirect questions introduced into a sentence. Tell all about their capitalization and punctuation.

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LESSON 84.

REVIEW.

Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in which independent clauses connected by _and, but, or_, and _hence_ are related in sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in sense without a connecting word. Define a clause. Define the different kinds of clauses. Define the different classes of sentences with regard to form. Give the Rule for the punctuation of independent clauses, and illustrate fully. Illustrate the different ways of contracting independent clauses. Illustrate and explain the difference between compound and complex word modifiers; between compound and complex phrases; between compound and complex clauses. Give participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive phrases, and expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts of speech may connect clauses?

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.--This scheme will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson numbers.

Scheme for the Sentence.

(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)

+PARTS.+

+Subject.+ Noun or Pronoun (8). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71).

+Predicate.+ Verb (11).

+Complements.+ +Object.+ Noun or Pronoun (28). Phrase (38, 40). Clause (71). +Attribute.+ Adjective (29, 30). Participle (37). Noun or Pronoun (29, 30). Phrase (37, 40). Clause (72). +Objective.+ Adjective (31). Participle (37). Noun (or Pronoun) (31). Phrase (37, 41).

+Modifiers.+ Adjectives (12). Adverbs (14). Participles (37). Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35). Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41). Clauses (59, 60, 63, 64, 65).

+Connectives.+ Conjunctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76). Pronouns (59, 60). Adverbs (60, 63, 64).

+Independent Parts+ (44).

+Classes.+ +Meaning.+ Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, Exclamatory (46). +Form.+ Simple, Complex, Compound (76).

Additional Selections.

TO THE TEACHER.--We believe that you will find the preceding pages unusually full and rich in illustrative selections; but, should additional work be needed for reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections will afford profitable study. Let the pupils discuss the thought and the poetic form, as well as the logical construction of these passages. We do not advise putting them in diagram.

Speak clearly, if you speak at all; Carve every word before you let it fall.--_Holmes_.

The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee; The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be; And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, "Give us, O Lord, this day, our daily bread!" --_Longfellow_,

Better to stem with heart and hand The roaring tide of life than lie, Unmindful, on its flowery strand, Of God's occasions drifting by. Better with naked nerve to bear The needles of this goading air Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. --_Whittier_.

Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust, Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just; Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified.--_Lowell_.

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph.

TO THE TEACHER.--These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack of time or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited to their own needs.

The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the questions as more and more to throw responsibility on the pupil.

It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words, to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically. ADAPTED FROM IRVING'S "SKETCH BOOK."

1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. 2. This hall formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual residence. 3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. 4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. 5. In another corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom. 6. Ears of Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches hung in gay festoons along the walls. 7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. 8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables shone like mirrors. 10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened from their covert of asparagus tops. [Footnote: _Asparagus tops_ were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace in summer.] 11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. 12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. 13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china.

+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Find the two chief words in each of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence what is each of these words called? To what class of words, or part of speech, does each belong? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth sentence the subject is put after the predicate. Change the order of words and read these sentences. Read in their regular order the two chief words of each. In the sixth sentence what word says, or asserts, something about both ears and strings? In the ninth sentence put _what_ before the predicate _shone_ and find two nouns that answer the question. In the eleventh sentence what two things does _decorated_ tell something about? In the seventh sentence _these_ stands for what two nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence? Find the subject and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth inclusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts belong? Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen.

_The_ and _wondering_ in the first sentence go with what noun? The group of words _from this piazza_ goes with what word? In the second sentence put _what_ before, and then after, _formed_, and find the names that answer these questions. What does _of the mansion_ go with? What does _of usual residence_ describe? In the third sentence what word tells where the dazzling occurred? Find a group of three words telling what the rows were composed of. What group of words tells the position of the rows? In the fourth sentence what group of words shows where the bag stood? _Of wool ready to be spun_ describes what? _A_ and _huge_ are attached to what?

TO THE TEACHER.--We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that this work be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more formal and searching work of the regular lessons, will be found of incalculable value to the pupil. They will not only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in expressing thought.

+The Force and the Beauty of the Description above.--+ Can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through the eyes of the interested and wondering Ichabod? Do you think the word _wondering_ well chosen and suggestive? Look through this picture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift, industry, and prosperity. Find more common expressions for _center of the mansion_ and _place of usual residence_. Notice in the third sentence the effect of _resplendent_ and _dazzled_. How is a similar effect produced in the ninth and the tenth sentence? You see that this great artist in words does not here need to repeat his language. We can easily imagine that he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways. In the fourth sentence does the expression _ready to be spun_ tell what is actually seen, or what is only suggested? What is gained by this expression and by _just from the loom_ in the next sentence? Do you think an unskillful artist would have used _in gay festoons?_ Read the seventh and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide open? Why? Can you see any similar effect from introducing _their covert_ in the tenth sentence? What does the expression _knowingly left open_ suggest to you? This selection from Irving illustrates the +Descriptive+ style of writing.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION WORK.

In the description above we have taken some liberties with the original, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this picture as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended together.

You may rewrite this description; and, where it can be done to advantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences,