Chapter 10

2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass of gin is singular. 3. "What have I done?" is asked by the knave and the thief. 4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet fully determined by historians.

+Explanation+.--The subject clause is here an indirect question. See Lesson 74.

5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty Cain. 7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem never solved by some.

+Explanation+.--_When to quit business and enjoy their wealth_ is an indirect question. _When to quit business = When they are to quit business_, or _When they ought to quit business_. Such constructions may be expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases equivalent to clauses.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +object complement+.

8. Galileo taught that the earth moves.

that ------- ' earth | ' moves ------|------- \the | | Galileo | taught | / \ =========|============== |

+Explanation+.--Here the clause introduced by _that_ is used like a noun as the object complement of _taught_.

9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber are the dishes for his table. 10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 11. It will ask of you, "What can you do?" 12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have!" 13. He does not know which to choose.

(See explanation of (7), above.)

14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control over the current of thought in our dreams.

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LESSON 72.

NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +attribute complement+.

1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 2. Tweed's defiant question was, "What are you going to do about it?" 3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and how am I to exist in the Hereafter?" 4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man!" 5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in every part except the heel.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +explanatory modifier+.

6. It has been proved that the earth is round.

that ------- ' earth | is ' \ round ------|-------------- \the | | It (/ \) | has been proved ==========|================== |

+Explanation+.--The grammatical subject _it_ has no meaning till explained by the noun clause.

7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply of blood to the brain. 8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might save a tree mentioned by Caesar.

+Explanation+.--Unless _in order that_ is taken as a conjunction connecting an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause introduced by _that_ is a noun clause explanatory of _order_. [Footnote: A similar explanation may be made of _on condition that, in case that_, introducing adverb clauses expressing condition.]

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one of the finest in literature. 11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to conformity to local custom was in substance this: "When in Rome, do as the Romans do." 12. This we know, that our future depends on our present.

The +noun clause+ may be used as +principal term+ of a +prepositional phrase+.

13. Have birds any sense of why they sing?

birds | Have | sense =======|================ they | sing | \any \ -----|------ \ of | \why \ / \ \-------------

+Explanation+.--_Why they sing_ is an indirect question, here used as the principal term of a prepositional phrase.

14. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's Plays." 15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole.

+Explanation+.--By supposing _of_ to stand before _that_, the noun clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase modifying the adjective _certain_. By supplying _of the fact_, the noun clause will become explanatory.

16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and triumph. 17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor of his slain enemy pass into himself.

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LESSON 73.

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE.

+COMMA--RULE.--The _Noun Clause_ used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma.+

+Remarks+.--Present usage seems to favor the omission of the comma with the clause used as subject or as object complement, except where the comma would contribute to clearness.

The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other explanatory modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made explanatory of _it_ is seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punctuation of noun clauses that are questions or quotations.

+Direction+.--_Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the comma with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson_.

By using _it_ as a substitute for the subject clause, this clause may be placed last.

+Example+.--_That the story of William Tell is a myth_ is now believed = _It_ is now believed _that the story of William Tell is a myth_.

+Direction+.--_By the aid of the expletive it, transpose five subject clauses in Lesson 71_.

Often the clause used as object complement may be placed first.

+Direction+.--_Transpose such of the clauses used as object complements, in the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate them if they need punctuation_.

The noun clause may be made prominent by separating it and inserting the independent clause between its parts,

+Example+.--The story of William Tell, _it is now believed_, is a myth. (Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by the comma.)

+Direction+.--_Write the following sentences, using the independent clauses parenthetically_:--

1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in Mexico in 1536. 2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking usually result from grammatical studies. 3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace.

+Direction+.--_Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five different kinds of noun clauses_:--

+Model+.-- 1. _That stars are suns_ is the belief of astronomers. 2. Astronomers believe _that stars are suns_. 3. The belief of astronomers is, _that stars are suns_. 4. The belief _that stars are suns_ is held by astronomers. 5. Astronomers are confident _that stars are suns_.

1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit different stages of civilization.

The noun clause may be contracted by changing the predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive.

+Example+.--_That he was brave_ cannot be doubted = _His being brave_ cannot be doubted.

+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the noun clauses to phrases_:--

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect for the newspaper. 4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of twenty miles a second makes us dizzy. 5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation.

The noun clause may be contracted by making the predicate, when changed to an infinitive phrase, the objective complement, and the subject the object complement.

+Direction+.--_Make the following complex sentences simple by changing the predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the subjects to object complements_:--

+Model+.--King Ahasuerus commanded that _Haman should be hanged_ = King Ahasuerus commanded _Haman to be hanged_.

1. I believe that he is a foreigner. 2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American statesmen. 4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is? 5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust.

+Direction+.--_Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in Lesson_ 41 _as contain an objective complement and an object complement that together are equivalent to a clause_.

A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase.

+Example+.--_That he should vote_ is the duty of every American citizen = _To vote_ is the duty of every American citizen.

+Direction+.--_Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases_:--

1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. 5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 6. He does not know whom he should send. 7. He cannot find out how he is to go there.

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LESSON 74.

COMPOSITION--NOUN CLAUSE--CONTINUED.

+QUOTATION MARKS--RULE.--Quotation marks ("") inclose a copied word or passage+.

+Remarks+.--Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quotation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the double marks are again used; as, "The incorrectness of the dispatches led Bismarck to declare, 'It will soon come to be said, "He lies like the telegraph."'" This introduction of a third quotation should generally be avoided, especially where the three marks come at the end, as above.

When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the quotation is inclosed; as, "I would rather be right," said Clay, "than be president."

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed; as, May we not find "sermons in stones"? So also with the exclamation point.

+CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--The first word of a direct quotation making complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter+.

+Remarks+.--A +direct quotation+ is one whose exact words, as well as thought, are copied; as, Nathan said to David, "_Thou art the man_." An +indirect quotation+ is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied; as, Nathan told David _that he was the man_. The reference here of the pronoun _he_ is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in indirect quotations.

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. The indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks.

A +direct question+ introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 55) are preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked, "_Am I my brother's keeper_?" An +indirect question+ is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point; as, Cain asked _whether he was his brother's keeper_.

The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma (but no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins with a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks--though these may be omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed within quotation marks.

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced (see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon; as, Nathan's words to David were these: "_Thou art the man_." He put the question thus: "_Can you do it_?"

+Direction+.--_Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and questions in the sentences of Lesson_ 71, _tell why they do or do not begin with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the comma, the interrogation point, and the quotation marks_.

+Direction+.--_Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quotations and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct_.

+Direction+.--_Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some of which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be questions occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. Change these to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punctuation and the capitalization._

+Direction+.--_Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks_.

* * * * *

LESSON 75.

ANALYSIS.

+Direction+.--_Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and contraction in Lesson_ 73.

* * * * *

LESSON 76.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+Introductory Hints+.--_Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk made another_. The two clauses are independent of each other. The second clause, added by the conjunction _and_ to the first, continues the line of thought begun by the first.

_Man has his will, but woman has her way_. Here the conjunction connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with each other.

_The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them_. The independent clauses, connected by _or_, present thoughts between which you may choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other.

_The ground is wet, therefore it has rained_. Here the inferred fact, the raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, as cause to effect--the raining made the ground wet. _It has rained_, _hence the ground is wet_. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause--the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logical relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sentence of the compound form--an _and_ may be placed before _therefore_ and _hence_. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent.

_Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it_. Here the independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in the sentence--connected without any conjunction. This kind of connection is common.

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call +Compound Sentences.

+DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing' a subject and its predicate.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.+

+DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another clause.+

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FORM.

+DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is a sentence that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is a sentence composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.+

+DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses.+

Analysis.

+Independent Clauses+ in the +same line+ of thought.

1. Light has spread, and bayonets think.

Light | has spread =======|============= | ' ' ' and ....... ' ' bayonets | ' think ===========|========== |

+Explanation+.--The clauses are of equal rank, and so the lines on which they stand are shaded alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates merely for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a compound sentence because it is made up of independent clauses.

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. 3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +contrast.+

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings on ready writing.

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts in +alternation+.

7. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. 8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they extremely warm in summer.

(Here a choice is denied.)

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feigned madness admirably.

(See (16), Lesson 20.)

+Independent Clauses+ expressing thoughts one of which is an +inference+ from the other.

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be raining. 11. I have seen, therefore I believe.

I | have seen ===|=========== | ' ' I | ' believe ===|='========= |\' \therefore

+Explanation+.--In such constructions _and_ may be supplied, or the adverb may be regarded as the connective. The diagram illustrates _therefore_ as connective.

+Independent Clauses+ joined in the sentence +without a conjunction+.

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand; the reindeer is the camel of the desert of snow. 13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy spoken word is master of thee. 14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow.

+Explanation+.--_As it were_ is an independent clause used parenthetically. _As_ simply introduces it.

15. Religion--who can doubt it?--is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect. 16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son!

* * * * *

LESSON 77.

COMPOSITION--COMPOUND SENTENCE.

+COMMA and SEMICOLON--RULE.--_Independent Clauses_, when short and closely connected, are separated by the+ +comma; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semi-colon is used+.

+Remark+.--A parenthetical clause may be set oil by the comma or by the dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis--the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. See the last three sentences in the preceding Lesson.

+Examples+.-- 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. 2. The prodigal robs his heirs; the miser robs himself. 3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil; but good is in the ascendant, and must triumph at last.

(The rule above is another example.)

+Direction+.--_Punctuate the following sentences, and give your reasons_:--

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart. 3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement. [Footnote: In this sentence we have a figure of speech called +Antithesis+, in which things unlike in some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with its own light and with the light reflected from the other part. Antithesis gives great force to the thought expressed by it. Sentences containing it furnish us our best examples of +Balanced Sentences+. You will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the preceding.] 6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from error.

+Direction+.--_Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent clauses in the preceding Lesson_.

+Direction+.--_Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and the alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the following simple sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of connectives_:--

Read not that you may find material for argument and conversation. The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider the thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Righteousness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change his spots? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell.

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding the remaining parts.

+Example+.--_Time_ waits for no man, and _tide waits for no man_ = _Time_ and _tide wait for no man_.

+Direction+.--_Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully to the punctuation_:--

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben fought for American independence. 2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn dispose the mind for contemplation. 3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us.

A compound sentence may be contracted by simply omitting from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the other.

_Example_.--He is witty, _but he is vulgar_ = He is witty _but vulgar_.

+Direction+.--_Contract these sentences_:--

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should not be the web. 2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the discoverer of America? 4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has justly been likened to him. 5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress that pleased me.

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a complex sentence without materially changing the sense.

+Example+.--_Take care of the minutes_, and the hours will take care of themselves = _If you take care of the minutes_, the hours will take care of themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds force.)

+Direction+.--_Change these compound sentences to complex sentences_:--

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece of music. 5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded.

+Direction+.--_Change one of the independent clauses in each of these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause to a participle phrase_:--

+Model+.--The house was built upon a rock, _and therefore_ it did not fall = The house did not fall, _because_ it was built upon a rock = The house, _being built_ upon a rock, did not fall.

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.

+Direction+.--_Using and, but, and or as connectives, compose three compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses_.

* * * * *

LESSON 78.

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.