Part 4
Neither has extermination been confined to animals. Fern-hunters have in some instances made a clean sweep of certain species of ferns from many districts, if not from the county generally; and nowadays aspleniums, shield-ferns, polypodies, and false maidenhair (_trichomanes_) have completely disappeared from the Harpenden high roads and lanes; the present writer possessing in his garden what he believes to be the sole remaining indigenous specimen of the last-named species.
Among localities specially celebrated for birds in the county are Tring reservoirs, where vast flocks of water-birds congregate, especially in winter. Here breeds the great crested grebe; and here, too, was shot in 1901 the only known British example of the white-eyed pochard. The neighbouring downs, as already mentioned, form one of the chief English resorts of the stone-curlew, or thick-knee; a species of especial interest on account of the remarkable manner in which both birds and eggs assimilate to their surroundings.
Rare birds, as well as various maritime species driven from their normal resorts by stress of weather, make their appearance occasionally in various parts of the county, but references to very few of such cases must suffice. During the great visitation of sand-grouse (a bird normally characteristic of the steppes of Central Asia) to the British Isles in 1863, some individuals reached this county. In the early part of last century a little auk, or rotche, was taken on the millhead at Wheathampstead during very severe weather; a great northern diver has been seen on Tring reservoir; a pair of storm petrels were killed some five-and-twenty years ago at Hemel Hempstead, where snow-buntings have likewise been seen; while various species of gulls from time to time put in an appearance in winter. Among recent events of this nature the appearance at Harpenden of an immature specimen of the great purple heron is certainly noteworthy. In 1878 the late Mr J. E. Littleboy had recorded 201 species of birds from the county, and a few others have been added since, bringing up the number to 210 in 1902.
In regard to fishes, it is of interest to quote the following passage from Sir Henry Chauncy’s _Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire_, published early in the eighteenth century. After referring to its other fish, it is there stated, in the author’s quaint language, that the river Lea also contains “some Salmons; which (like young Deer) have several denominations: the first Year they are called Salmon-smelts, the second Year Salmon-sprats, the third Year Salmon-forktails, the fourth Year Salmon-peall, the fifth Year Salmonets, and the sixth Year Salmon; and if these Fish had free Passage by the Mills, and thro’ the Sluices at Waltham up the Stream towards Ware and Hertford, where they might Spawn in fresh Water and were carefully preserved from Pochers, they would greatly increase in that River, and be of great benefit, as well to the City of London as the Country; for some Water-men have observed, that they delight in this Stream, and play much about those Sluices at Waltham.”
Chauncy likewise mentions that trout from the Lea below Hertford, where it has peaty banks, are much less red than those from the gravelly streams of the chalk districts.
For botanical purposes the county has been divided into six districts corresponding to the river-basins; the first two belonging to the Ouse system, and comprising the Cam and the Ivel basins, and the other four, comprising the Thame, the Colne, the Brent, and the Lea, pertaining to the Thames system. Of these the Lea area is the largest, the Colne next in size, the Ivel considerably smaller, and the other three quite small. In some respects the local characters of the flora are, however, better brought out by taking the geological formations as a basis of division. The Upper Chalk area, capped with much Boulder-clay on the eastern, and with clay-and-flints and gravel on the western side, corresponds very closely as regards these divisions with the Lea and the Colne basins. The Middle Chalk, which as we have seen is exposed on the flanks of the continuation of the Chiltern Hills in the north-west, is peculiar in being the only area in the county in which grows the pasque-flower, or anemone; this chiefly flourishing on south-westerly slopes, as at Aldbury Towers, near Tring. The Middle Chalk is also the chief home of the various kinds of orchis; the dwarf, the man, and the butterfly orchis being apparently restricted to this formation. The Tertiary area has a vegetation of a totally different type from the so-called “dry-plant type” characteristic of the Chalk area, but it cannot be further mentioned here.
In the five adjacent counties there occur 110 species of flowering plants unknown in Hertfordshire. On the other hand, Hertfordshire has about a dozen plants (exclusive of varieties of the bramble) unknown in the adjacent counties. Of the 893 native flowering plants of Hertfordshire about 110 have not been recorded from Cambridgeshire, while about 120 are wanting in Bedfordshire, 170 in Buckinghamshire, 140 in Middlesex, and 100 in Essex. These figures may, however, be subject to considerable modification by future research. The following passage on the relations of the Hertfordshire flora is quoted from the _Victoria History of the Counties of England_:--
“Taking the number of species in any adjoining county which are absent from Hertfordshire as the best index of the degree of relationship, it would appear that the flora of Bucks is the most nearly allied to that of Herts, and that those of Cambridge and Essex are the most divergent.... This is just what might be expected from the physical features and geological structure of these counties. The floras of Cambridge and Essex have also a more northern or north-eastern facies [character] than that of Hertfordshire, which is of a decidedly southern type. The large number of Hertfordshire species which have not yet been recorded from Buckinghamshire is probably due to the flora of that county not having been so thoroughly investigated as ours has been.”
8. Climate and Rainfall.
In its original sense the word climate meant the degree of inclination of the sun’s rays at any particular spot at a specified date; but nowadays it is employed to designate the average type of weather experienced in a district. In this latter sense it comprises the results of the combined effects of temperature, atmospheric pressure, the degree of moisture in the air, the direction and force of the wind, and the amount of rainfall; the study of climate constituting the science of meteorology. Although the climate of the British Isles is of an exceedingly changeable type, yet the average of the seasonal changes is far from being the same in all parts of the country. Taking temperature alone, we find, for instance, that while the average for the whole year in Shetland is as low as 43° Fahrenheit, in the Scilly Islands it rises to 53°. It is a very general idea that in our islands the winter temperature of a place depends upon whether it is situated in the north or the south. This, however, is a mistake, the temperature having little relation to latitude, but growing colder as we pass from the west to the eastern side of the country; the south of England, as a whole, being milder than the north, not because it is the south, but because it includes such a large extent of land in the west. The degree of elevation above the sea-level has much to do with temperature and the amount of moisture in the air; high lands being, as a rule, colder and drier in winter than those lying at lower levels. On account of the comparatively high elevation of a considerable proportion of its area and its easterly position, coupled with the prevalence of north-easterly and easterly winds in spring, Hertfordshire ought to have, on the whole, a cold and bracing climate for the greater part of the year; and, as a matter of fact, such is the case. Indeed, it is commonly said that northern Hertfordshire is so cold and bracing, that only strong and robust constitutions can stand it; but that for those blessed with such constitutions it is one of the healthiest counties in the kingdom.
Hertfordshire, however, like England on a small scale, has local climates of its own, dependent upon differences in elevation above the sea-level, in the amount of rainfall, in the nature of the geological formation and soil, and also in aspect, especially as regards protection from the east wind in spring. The slope of a hill facing south or south-west receives for instance far more sun in winter than one which looks in the opposite direction; while it also escapes the full blast of the bitter east wind. Places situated on chalk, and above all on gravel, are drier, and consequently--if on the same level and with a similar aspect--also warmer than those on cold, heavy clay or marl.
As if to confirm and perpetuate the above-mentioned popular error, it happens that the northern and north-western districts of the county, that is to say, those constituting the chalk area, are very much colder and more bracing than those to the south and east, whose substratum is clay. This difference depends, however, not on differences of latitude, but on the lower elevation of the southern as compared with the northern districts, coupled with the protection from cold winds afforded to the low lands by the high ground. To those who are in the habit of travelling by the Midland railway from the north-western corner of the county to London, the differences between the climate of the northern and the southern districts is made self-apparent in early spring by the extraordinary difference in the condition of the hedges and trees on the two sides of the Elstree tunnel. It is true that on this particular route the district south of the tunnel is in Middlesex, but to the eastward much of the lowland is in Herts. On the northern side of the range of chalk-hills pierced by this tunnel the hawthorn hedges may be seen at a certain period of the spring to be absolutely devoid of a sign of green; while on the opposite side they will be in full leaf. There is, in fact, about a fortnight’s difference between the Elstree and the Mill Hill side of this range in regard to the development of spring-vegetation; and while the northern side is exposed to the full force of the east wind, the combes and valleys with a south-westerly aspect near the summit of the opposite flank are so warm and sheltered that hardy species of bamboo and palm will grow in the open air almost as luxuriantly as in similar situations in Surrey or Sussex.
We see, then, as has been well remarked, that the division of the county, along the line indicated in the section on its geology, into two very unequal portions--namely, a large north-western area with a relatively dry soil and atmosphere, and a smaller south-eastern tract with a comparatively moist soil and atmosphere--forms a sufficient approach to an accurate climatic division.
Here we may mention that the daily temperature and the amount of moisture in the air, together with the barometric pressure and a number of other details, are recorded at the Meteorological Office in London from reports received from a host of observing stations (either public or private) scattered at intervals all over the country; and at the end of each year the averages, or “means,” of these observations are worked out for the British Isles and England generally, and likewise for the various counties and other local districts. This enables comparisons to be instituted between the climates of different places with much greater accuracy than would otherwise be possible.
In the year 1905 the mean temperature for the whole of England was 48·7°, while that of Hertfordshire was 48·9°, as deduced from observations taken at four stations, of which Bennington showed the lowest mean of 48·4°, and New Barnet the highest of 50·2°. The aforesaid county mean of 48·9° was, however, 0·6° above the average; the average mean for a series of years thus being 47·8°, or about 1° lower than that for England generally.
If we turn to the map here given we notice that, speaking generally, the rainfall of England decreases steadily as we pass from west to east. The moisture-laden clouds, driven by the prevalent winds across the Atlantic, precipitate their contents on reaching the land, more especially if the land be high, and in consequence the country beyond is less wet. Hertfordshire occupies a middle position between the heavy averages of Wales and S.W. England and the minimum of Essex and the neighbourhood of the Wash, as we should expect. The difference between the average of the various stations in our country is remarkable. In the year 1905, which is taken throughout as the basis of comparison, the highest rainfall in England and Wales occurred at Glas Lyn, near Snowdon, and was no less than 176·6 inches; whereas the lowest was registered at Shoeburyness, in Essex, this being only 14·57 inches; while the average rainfall for Great Britain was 27·17 inches. In Hertfordshire, as we shall see, the average in that year for the whole county was 23·47 inches, but this is 1·5 inches below the general average for a series of years, which is 24·52 inches. In the same year the average for the four chief observing stations in the county was, however, 24·22 inches, with a maximum of 25·88 inches at New Barnet and a minimum of 22·51 inches at Bennington. These extremes were exceeded by a maximum of 28·29 inches at Pendley Manor, Tring, and a minimum of 19·31 inches (or rather more than 5 inches above the Essex minimum) at Hillside, Buntingford.
For a succession of years it has, however, been observed that the rainfall of Hertfordshire is in excess of that of all the adjacent counties to the west and south. This is shown by the following comparative average rainfalls for 1905; viz.: Bedfordshire (23 stations), 20·47 ins.; Buckinghamshire (32 stations), 22·06 ins.; Middlesex, exclusive of London (49 stations), 22·26 ins.; and Hertfordshire (51 stations), 23·47 ins. Of the 104 stations exclusive of Hertfordshire, the combined mean rainfall is 21·6 inches; Hertfordshire thus showing an excess over the average rainfall in the adjoining counties of nearly two inches in actual amount.
As a whole, and in spite of the excess over its neighbour in the matter of rainfall, Hertford may be reckoned among the relatively dry counties; its average in 1905 being nearly four inches below that for England generally in the same year.
At Bennington there were recorded 1523 hours of bright sunshine during the year, and 54 absolutely sunless days. Throughout Great Britain as a whole there were 186 days in the same year on which a minimum of 0·005 inch of rain fell; all such days with that or a greater quantity of rain being officially known as rain-days. At Greenwich, where the total amount of rainfall was 23·024 inches, the rain-days numbered 161, and the wettest month was June when 4·323 inches of rain were registered. June was also the wettest month of the year in Hertfordshire, but the amount of rain was much less than at Greenwich, being only 3·46 inches.
As regards bright sunshine, the number of hours in England as a whole amounted to 1535, while in Kent the number reached 1667·8, and at Tunbridge Wells 1712·4 hours.
In respect to the number of wet days during the year in question Hertfordshire therefore occupied a very creditable position, although its record for sunshine was less satisfactory.
9. People--Race, Dialect, Settlements, Population.
Previous to the Roman occupation of Britain Hertfordshire was inhabited by two British tribes,--the Cattyeuchlani, whose capital appears to have been Verulam or St Albans, and the Trinobantes. To what extent these original British inhabitants of the county survived the Roman and Saxon invasions is unknown; but it may be taken as certain that at an early date Anglo-Saxon was the language spoken in this part of the country. Forty years ago Anglo-Saxon idioms and words still lingered among the labouring rural population in the Harpenden district (and probably elsewhere), which have apparently now disappeared completely. Instead of _houses_, the Anglo-Saxon plural _housen_ was, for instance, always used by the old people; while when a log of timber was cut the wrong way of the grain they would say that it would be sure to _spalt_ (equivalent to the German _spalten_), instead of to split.
Of the Anglo-Saxon language there were originally two chief dialects, a northern and a southern; but after the Norman conquest the number of such dialects was increased to half-a-dozen. According to Dr A. J. Ellis’s _English Dialects_, southern Hertfordshire comes within the domain of the south-eastern dialect, which also prevailed in Middlesex, south-eastern Buckinghamshire, and south-western Essex. Throughout this area there is, however, an underlying basis of the middle eastern dialect, which is still to be detected in northern Hertfordshire, as well as in Essex, Bedfordshire, Huntingdonshire, and Northamptonshire. It accordingly appears that if the East Anglian counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, and Norfolk be eliminated, the whole of the country lying to the eastward of the Chiltern Hills, as well as the high grounds of Northamptonshire, had one dialect in common, which was the speech of the early Teuton settlers of this part of England. This dialect, during the course of fourteen centuries, has been gradually modified and altered by the speech of London till it has resulted in the modern English of this part of south-eastern England.
According to Mr R. A. Smith, writing in the _Victoria History of the Counties of England_, “The grouping of dialects in this part of the country would thus unite Hertfordshire with Essex, and lead us to expect from archæology some indications of Saxon rather than of Anglian influence in the county. The few results already obtained in Hertfordshire certainly show a marked absence of Anglian characteristics, but many discoveries must be made before the peculiarities of East Saxon remains can be demonstrated. To the west of the Chilterns enough has been recovered from graves to show that the settlers in the upper Thames valley, presumably the Saxons of the West, were homogeneous [uniform in characteristics] and distinguishable from their neighbours; but at present nothing has been found to link them with the people of Essex, who probably reached the eastern slopes of the Chilterns at one time, but were mainly confined to the north of Essex and the neighbourhood of London. In fact, the few discoveries in this district point rather to a connection with Kent [the country of the British tribe of Cantii] than with Wessex.”
Whatever may be the precise state of the case with regard to these details, it may be taken as certain that the present population of Hertfordshire is mainly descended from the Saxons who came to Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries. There must have been, however, a certain mixture of ancient British blood; while later, and more especially among the higher classes, this was followed by the infusion of a Norman strain. Otherwise the population of the county does not appear to have been much influenced by foreign immigration, although there was a settlement of Huguenots in St Albans, who have left their mark in the name of one of the streets--French Row--near the market-place.
Passing on to the present day, we have the somewhat curious anomaly that the population of the administrative county is somewhat larger than that of the original county; this being due to the inclusion in the former of some thickly populated areas. The population of the administrative county in the census of 1901 was given as 258,423; ten years previously it was 226,587, thus showing a very marked increase; that of the ancient county was 250,152 persons. The number of persons to a square mile in Hertfordshire, on the latter basis at the former date, was thus about 398, against 558 for England and Wales generally. During the last twenty-five years the increase of the population has mainly taken place on the three great lines of railways, the Great Northern, the Midland, and the North-Western, at such places as Barnet, Hitchin, St Albans, Harpenden, and Watford. St Albans has indeed altogether outstripped the county town in point of numbers; its population being 16,019 in 1901 against the 9,322 of Hertford. In common with England generally, there has of late years been a marked tendency for the rural population to migrate to the larger villages and towns; and this dominance of the urban population has been accentuated by the transference to St Albans and elsewhere of large manufacturing and printing establishments from the metropolis. The urban districts on the lines of railway likewise constitute the residence of a large population of men having daily business in London.
As in the country generally, the females in 1901 largely exceeded the male population in numbers; the total for the former being 18,176, and for the latter 16,723. The great majority of these lived in houses, of which 54,963 were inhabited at the date in question. In addition to these, 71 were living in military barracks; something like another 5,200 were maintained in workhouses, hospitals, asylums, industrial schools, etc., while barges on the canals accounted for about another 147. It should be added that the county contains several large London asylums; it would therefore give a very exaggerated proportion, as compared with the true state of the case, if the number of lunatics resident in the county were quoted.
10. Agriculture--Main Cultivations, Woodlands, Stock.
As already mentioned, the greater portion of Hertfordshire, that is to say, most of the chalk area, exclusive of the downs, commons, woods, and private parks, was in former years devoted to corn, for the cultivation of which its soil is particularly well suited. Indeed the county had the reputation of growing not only the best barley for malting, but likewise the best wheat-straw (that is to say, the hardest and whitest) for plaiting. The wheat itself was also of specially good quality and hardness, and there was likewise an abundance of mills in which it could be converted into flour. A noteworthy feature of Hertfordshire agriculture is the practice of mixing chalk with the soils, especially where they are clayey; this resulting in a decided increase in fertility.
A century and a half ago wheat, barley, and oats formed the chief cereal crops; beans being better suited to the Vale of Aylesbury, while peas are profitable only on the very light chalky grounds. Clover, lucerne, trefoil, turnips, and (in later times) swedes and mangold are also extensively grown. In this connection it is interesting to note that the first crops of red clover and of swede turnips ever grown in this country were sown at Broadby Farm, near Berkhampstead; a spot celebrated in literature as having been the home of Peter the Wild Boy in 1725. A certain amount of grass land was intermingled with that under cereal and root cultivation; while, as mentioned in earlier sections, most of the heavy land in the south and south-east of the county is under grass.