Part 61

«Drops of Lime in the Eye.»—If lime has dropped in the eye, the pouring-in of or the wiping-out with a few drops of oil is the best remedy, as the causticity of the lime is Arrested thereby. Poppy-seed oil or olive oil is prescribed, but pure linseed oil ought to render the same service, as it is also used in the household. Subsequently, the eye may be rinsed out with syrup, as the saccharine substance will harden any remaining particles of lime and destroy all causticity entirely.

FABRIC CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and also Household Formulas.

FABRICS, WATERPROOFING OF: See Waterproofing.

FACE BLACK AND FACE POWDER: See Cosmetics.

«Fats»

«Bear Fat.»—Fresh bears’ fat is white and very similar to lard in appearance. The flank fat is softer and more transparent than the kidney fat, and its odor recalls that of fresh bacon. Bears’ fat differs from the fats of the dog, fox, and cat in having a lower specific gravity, a very low melting point, and a fairly high iodine value.

«Bleaching Bone Fat.»—Bone fat, which is principally obtained from horse bones, is very dark colored in the crude state, and of an extremely disagreeable smell. To remedy these defects it may be bleached by the air or chemicals, the former method only giving good results {334} when the fat has been recovered by means of steam. It consists in cutting up the fat into small fragments and exposing it to the air for several days, the mass being turned over at intervals with a shovel. When sufficiently bleached in this manner, the fat is boiled with half its own weight of water, which done, about 3 or 4 per cent of salt is added, and the whole is boiled over again. This treatment, which takes 2 or 3 weeks, sweetens the fat, makes it of the consistency of butter, and reduces the color to a pale yellow. Light seems to play no part in the operation, the change being effected solely by the oxygen of the air. The chemical treatment has the advantage of being more rapid, sufficient decoloration being produced in a few hours. The fat, which should be free from gelatin, phosphate of lime, and water, is placed in an iron pan along with an equal weight of brine of 14° to 15° Bé. strength, with which it is boiled for 3 hours and left to rest overnight. Next day the fat is drawn off into a wooden vessel, where it is treated by degrees with a mixture of 2 parts of potassium bichromate, dissolved in 6 of boiling water, and 8 parts of hydrochloric acid (density 22° Bé.), this quantity being sufficient for 400 parts of fat. Decoloration proceeds gradually, and when complete the fat is washed with hot water.

«Bleaching Tallows and Fats.»—Instead of exposing to the sun, which is always attended with danger of rendering fats rancid, it is better to liquefy these at a gentle heat, and then add 1⁠/⁠5 in weight of a mixture of equal parts of kaolin and water. The fatty matter should be worked up for a time and then left to separate. Kaolin has the advantage of cheapness in price and of being readily procured.

Freshly burned animal charcoal would perhaps be a more satisfactory decolorizer than kaolin, but it is more expensive to start with, and not so easy to regenerate.

Exposure of tallow to the action of steam under high pressure (a temperature of 250° or 260° F.) is also said to render it whiter and harder.

«Coloring Matter in Fats.»—A simple method for the detection of the addition of coloring matter to fats is here described. Ten parts, by measure, of the melted fat are put into a small separating funnel and dissolved in 10 parts, by measure, of petroleum ether. The solution is then treated with 15 parts, by measure, of glacial acetic acid and the whole shaken thoroughly. The addition of coloring matter is known by the red or yellow coloration which appears in the lower layer of acetic acid after the contents of the funnel have been allowed to settle. If only a slight addition of coloring matter is suspected, the acetic acid solution is run off into a porcelain basin and the latter heated on a water bath, when the coloration will be seen more readily. This test is intended for butter and margarine, but is also suitable for tallow, lard, etc.

«Fatty Acid Fermentation Process.»—The production of fatty acids from fats and oils by fermentation is growing in importance. These particulars, which are the actual results from recent experiments on a somewhat extended scale, are given: Seven hundred and fifty pounds of cottonseed oil are mixed with 45 gallons of water and 3 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of acetic acid; this mixture is heated to a temperature of 85° F. Castor-oil seeds, 53 pounds, decorticated and ground, are mixed thoroughly with 3 gallons of water and 4 1⁠/⁠2 gallons of the oil, and this mixture is stirred into the oil and water; the whole mass is then kept mixed for 12 hours by blowing air through, after which it is allowed to stand for another 12 hours, being given a gentle stir by hand at the end of every hour. After 24 hours the mass is heated to a temperature of 180° F., which stops the fermentation and at the same time allows the fatty acids to separate more freely. To assist in this effect there is added 1 gallon of sulphuric acid (1 in 3) solution.

After 2 hours’ standing, the mass will have separated into three layers—fatty acids on the top, glycerine water below, and a middle, undefined layer. The glycerine water is run away, and the whole mass left to stand for 2 hours. The middle portion is run off from the separated fatty acids into another vessel, where it is mixed with 10 gallons of hot water, thoroughly stirred, and allowed to stand for 16 hours or more. The watery layer at the bottom, which contains some glycerine, is then run off, while the residue is mixed with a further quantity of 10 gallons of water, and again allowed to stand. The water which separates out, also the layer of fatty acids that forms on the top, are run off and mixed with the portions previously obtained. The various glycerine waters are treated to recover the glycerine, while the fatty acids are made marketable in any convenient way. {335}

«Preservation of Fats.»—To produce fats and oils containing both iodine and sulphur, whereby they are preserved from going rancid, and consequently can be utilized to more advantage for the usual purposes, such as the manufacture of soaps, candles, etc., following is the Loebell method:

The essential feature of the process is that the iodine is not merely held in solution by the oil or fat, but enters into chemical combination with the same; the sulphur also combines chemically with the oil or fat, and from their reactions the preserving properties are derived.

The process consists of heating, for example, 6 parts of oil with 1 part of sulphur to a temperature varying between 300° and 400° F., then, when at about 195° F., a solution of iodine and oil is added to the mixture, which is constantly agitated until cool to prevent lumps forming. A product is thus obtained which acquires the consistency of butter, and contains both iodine and sulphur in combination.

«Purifying Oils and Fats.»—In purifying fatty oils and fats for edible purposes the chief thing is to remove the free fatty acids, which is done by the aid of solutions of alkalies and alkaline earths. The subsequent precipitation of the resulting soapy emulsions, especially when lime is used, entails prolonged heating to temperatures sometimes as high as the boiling point of water. Furthermore, the amount of alkalies taken is always greater than is chemically necessary, the consequence being that some of the organic substances present are attacked, and malodorous products are formed, a condition necessitating the employment of animal charcoal, etc., as deodorizer.

To prevent the formation of these untoward products, which must injuriously affect the quality of edible oils, C. Fresenius proposes to accelerate the dispersion of the said emulsions by subjecting the mixtures to an excess pressure of 1 to 1 1⁠/⁠2 atmospheres and a corresponding temperature of about 220° F., for a short time, the formation of decomposition products, and any injurious influence on the taste and smell of the substance being prevented by the addition of fresh charcoal, etc., beforehand. Charcoal may, and must in certain cases, be replaced for this purpose by infusorial earth or fuller’s earth. When this process is applied to cottonseed oil, 100 parts of the oil are mixed with 1⁠/⁠10 part of fresh, pure charcoal, and 1⁠/⁠2 part of pure fuller’s earth. The mixture is next neutralized with lime-water, and placed in an autoclave, where it is kept for an hour under pressure, and at a temperature of 220° F. Under these conditions the emulsion soon separates, and when this is accomplished the whole is left to cool down in a closed vessel.

FATS, DECOMPOSITION OF: See Oil.

«FEATHER BLEACHING AND COLORING:»

See also Dyes.

«Bleaching and Coloring Feathers.»—Feathers, in their natural state, are not adapted to undergo the processes of dyeing and bleaching; they must be prepared by removing their oil and dirt. This is usually done by washing them in moderately warm soap and water, and rinsing in warm and cold water; or the oil may be chemically removed by the use of benzine. To remove it entirely, the feathers must be left in the cleansing fluid from a half hour to an hour, when they may be subjected to the process of bleaching.

«Bleaching Plumes.»—Plumes may be almost entirely bleached by the use of hydrogen peroxide, without injuring their texture.

In specially constructed glass troughs, made the length of an average ostrich feather, 15 or 20 of these feathers can be treated at a time. The bleaching fluid is made from a 30 per cent solution of hydrogen peroxide, with enough ammonia added to make it neutral; in other words when neutral, blue litmus paper will not turn red, and red will take a pale violet tinge. The previously cleansed feathers are entirely immersed in this bleaching bath, which may be diluted if desired. The trough is covered with a glass plate and put in a dark place. From time to time the feathers are stirred and turned, adding more hydrogen peroxide. This process requires 10 to 12 hours and if necessary should be repeated. After bleaching they are rinsed in distilled water or rain water, dried in the air, and kept in motion while drying.

To insure success in coloring feathers in delicate tints, they must be free from all impurities, and evenly white. It has been found of advantage to rub the quill of heavy ostrich plumes while still moist with carbonate of ammonia before the dyeing is begun.

«Methods of Dyeing Feathers.»—I.—A boiling hot neutral solution, the feathers to be dried in a rotating apparatus. Suitable dyes for this method are chrysoidin, {336} A, C; crystal vesuvin, 4 B C; phosphin extra, leather yellow, O H; leather red, O, G B; leather brown, O; morocco red, O; azophocphine, G O, B R O; fuchsine, cerise, G R; grenadine, O; safranine, O; methylene violet, malachite green, crystal brilliant green, methylene green, methylene gray, coal black II.

II.—A boiling hot sulphuric solution. Dyes, acid fuchsine, orseilline, R B; acid cerise, O; acid maroon, O; opal blue, blue de lyon, R B; cotton blue, No. 2, China blue No. 2, naphthalene green, O; patent blue, V A; fast blue, O R; fast blue black, O; deep black, G; azo yellow, victorine yellow, orange No. 2, fast brown O, ponceau G R R R, fast red O, Bordeaux, G B R.

III.—An acetic solution. Dyes, Bengal pink G B, phloxine G O, rosolan O B O F, rhodamine O 4 G, eosine A G, erythrosine.

By appropriate mixtures of the dyes of any one class, plumes can be dyed every possible color. After dyeing they are rinsed, and dried in a rotating apparatus. The final process is that of curling, which is done by turning them round and round over a gentle heat. For white feathers a little sulphur may be burned in the fire; for black or colored ones a little sugar.

IV.—The spray method. The solution of the dye to be used is put into an atomizer, and the spray directed to that part of the feather which it is desired to color. By using different colors the most marvelous effects and most delicate transitions from one color to another are obtained. Any kind of an atomizer can be used, the rubber bulb, pump, or bellows; the result is the same.

FELT WATERPROOFING: See Waterproofing.

FERMENTATION PROCESS, FATTY ACID: See Fats.

FERMENTATION, PREVENTION OF: See Anti-Ferments and Wines and Liquors.

FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER: See Photography.

«Fertilizers»

(See also Phosphate, Artificial.)

«Plant Fertilizers.»—Plants are as sensitive to excessively minute quantities of nutrient substances, such as salts of potassium, in the soil, as they are to minute quantities of poisonous substances. Poisons are said to be infinitely more sensitive reagents for the presence of certain metallic salts than the most delicate chemical, the statement having been made that a trace of copper which might be obtained by distilling in a copper retort is fatal to the white and yellow lupin, the castor-oil plant, and spirogyra. Coupin has found salts of silver, mercury, copper, and cadmium especially fatal to plants. With copper sulphate the limit of sensitiveness is placed at 1 in 700,000,000. Devaux asserts that both phanerogams and cryptogams are poisoned by solutions of salts of lead or copper diluted to the extent of 1 in 10,000,000, or less.

As a result of a series of experiments, Schloesing stated that the nitrification of ammonium salts is not for all plants a necessary preliminary to the absorption of nitrogen by the plant. While for some plants, as for example buckwheat, the preferable form of the food material is that of a nitrate, others, for instance, tropeolum, thrive even better when the nitrogen is presented to them in an ammoniacal form.

«Artificial Fertilizers for Pot Plants.»—Experiments on vegetation have shown that a plant will thrive when the lacking substances are supplied in a suitable form, e. g., in the following combinations:

I.—Calcium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium phosphate, magnesium phosphate, ferric phosphate (sodium chloride).

II.—Calcium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate, magnesium phosphate, iron chloride (or sulphate) (sodium silicate).

It is well known that in nature nitrates are formed wherever decomposition of organic nitrogenous substances takes place in the air, the ammonia formed by the decomposition being oxidized to nitric acid. These conditions for the formation of nitrates are present in nearly every cornfield, and they are also the cause of the presence of nitrates in water that has its source near stables, etc. In Peruvian guano nitrogen is present partly in the form of potassium nitrate, partly as ammonium phosphate and sulphate. As a nitrate it acts more rapidly than in the form of ammonia, but in the latter case the effect is more lasting. Phosphoric acid occurs in guano combined with ammonia, potash, and chiefly with lime, the last being slower and more lasting in action than the others. {337}

Nearly all artificial fertilizers conform, more or less, to one of the following general formulas:

I.—Artificial Flower Fertilizer.—

1 2 3 Ammonium nitrate 0.40 1.60 40.0 parts Ammonium phosphate 0.20 0.80 20.0 parts Potassium nitrate 0.25 1.00 25.0 parts Ammonium chloride 0.05 0.20 5.0 parts Calcium sulphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts Ferrous sulphate 0.04 0.16 4.0 parts ──── ──── ───── 1.00 4.00 100.0 parts

Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and water the flowers with it 2 or 3 times weekly. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water with this quantity 10 or 12 pots of medium size.

II.—Compost for Indoor Plants.—

1 2 3 Ammonium sulphate 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts Sodium chloride 0.30 1.20 30.0 parts Potassium nitrate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts Magnesium sulphate 0.15 0.60 15.0 parts Magnesium phosphate 0.04 0.20 4.0 parts Sodium phosphate 0.06 0.24 6.0 parts ──── ──── ───── 1.00 4.00 100.0 parts

One part to be dissolved in 1,000 parts water and the flowers watered up to 3 times daily. Dissolve 4 parts in 1,000 parts water, and water with this solution daily:

III.—Plant Food Solution.—

1 2 Potassium chloride 0.16 or 12.5 parts Calcium nitrate 0.71 or 58.0 parts Magnesium sulphate 0.125 or 12.0 parts Potassium phosphate 0.133 or 15.0 parts Iron phosphate, recently precipitated 0.032 or 2.5 parts ───── ───── 1.160 or 100.0 parts

This turbid mixture (1 part in 1,000 parts) is used alternately with water for watering a pot of about 1 quart capacity; for smaller or larger pots in proportion. After using the amount indicated, the watering is continued with water alone.

IV.—Fertilizer with Organic Matter, for Pot Flowers.—

Potassium nitrate 100.0 parts Ammonium phosphate 100.0 parts Phosphoric acid 2.5 parts Simple syrup 1,000 parts

Add not more than 10 parts to 1,000 parts water, and water alternately with this and with water alone. For cactaceæ, crassulaceæ, and similar plants, which do not assimilate organic matter directly, use distilled water instead of syrup.

Chlorotic plants are painted with a dilute iron solution or iron is added to the soil, which causes them to assume their natural green color. The iron is used in form of ferric chloride or ferrous sulphate.

V.—Sodium phosphate 4 ounces Sodium nitrate 4 ounces Ammonium sulphate 2 ounces Sugar 1 ounce

Use 2 teaspoonfuls to a gallon of water.

VI.—Ammonium phosphate 30 parts Sodium nitrate 25 parts Potassium nitrate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 20 parts Water 100,000 parts

One application of this a week is enough for the slower growing plants, and 2 for the more rapid growing herbaceous ones.

VII.—Calcium phosphate 4 ounces Potassium nitrate 1 ounce Potassium phosphate 1 ounce Magnesium sulphate 1 ounce Iron (ferric) phosphate 100 grains

VIII.—Pot plants, especially flowering plants kept around the house, should be treated to an occasional dose of the following:

Ammonium chloride 2 parts Sodium phosphate 4 parts Sodium nitrate 3 parts Water 80 parts

Mix and dissolve. To use, add 25 drops to the quart of water, and use as in ordinary watering.

IX.—Sugar 1 part Potassium nitrate 2 parts Ammonium sulphate 4 parts

X.—Ferric phosphate 1 part Magnesium sulphate 2 parts Potassium phosphate 2 parts Potassium nitrate 2 parts Calcium acid phosphate 8 parts

About a teaspoonful of either of these mixtures is added to a gallon of water, and the plants sprinkled with the liquid.

For hastening the growth of flowers, the following fertilizer is recommended: {338}

XI.—Potassium nitrate 30 parts Potassium phosphate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts

The following five are especially recommended for indoor use:

XII.—Sodium chloride 10 parts Potassium nitrate 5 parts Magnesium sulphate 5 parts Magnesia 1 part Sodium phosphate 2 parts

Mixed and bottled. Dissolve a teaspoonful daily in a quart of water and water the plants with the solution.

XIII.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Potassium nitrate 90 parts Ammonium phosphate 50 parts

Two grams is sufficient for a medium-sized flower pot.

XIV.—Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Sodium chloride 10 parts Potassium nitrate 5 parts Magnesium sulphate 5 parts Magnesium carbonate 1 part Sodium phosphate 20 parts

One teaspoonful to 1 quart of water.

XV.—Ammonium nitrate 40 parts Ammonium phosphate 20 parts Potassium nitrate 0.25 parts Ammonium chloride 5 parts Calcium sulphate 6 parts Ferrous sulphate 4 parts

Dissolve 2 parts in 1,000 of water, and water the plants with the solution.

XVI.—Potassium nitrate 20 parts Potassium phosphate 25 parts Ammonium sulphate 10 parts Ammonium nitrate 35 parts

This mixture produces a luxuriant foliage. If blooms are desired, dispense with the ammonium nitrate.

XVII.—Saltpeter, 5 parts; cooking salt, 10 parts; bitter salt, 5 parts; magnesia, 1 part; sodium phosphate, 2 parts. Mix and fill in bottles. Dissolve a teaspoonful in 1 3⁠/⁠4 pints of hot water, and water the flower pots with it each day.

XVIII.—Ammonium sulphate, 30 parts; sodium chloride, 30 parts; potash niter, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 15 parts; magnesium phosphate, 4 parts; sodium phosphate, 6 parts. Dissolve 1 part in 1,000 parts water, and apply 3 times per day.

XIX.—Calcium nitrate, 71 parts; potassium chlorate, 15 parts; magnesium sulphate, 12.5 parts; potassium phosphate, 13.3 parts; freshly precipitated ferric phosphate, 3.2 parts. A solution of 1 in 1,000 of this mixture is applied, alternating with water, to the plants. After using a certain quantity, pour on only water.

XX.—Ammonium phosphate, 300 parts; sodium nitrate, 250 parts; potassium nitrate, 250 parts; and ammonium sulphate, 200 parts, are mixed together. To every 1,000 parts of water dissolve 2 parts of the mixture, and water the potted plants once a week with this solution.

XXI.—Potash niter, 20 parts; calcium carbonate, 20 parts; sodium chlorate, 20 parts; calcium phosphate, 20 parts; sodium silicate, 14 parts; ferrous sulphate, 1.5 parts. Dissolve 1 part of the mixture in 1,000 parts water.