Part 124

Experiments have shown that the quantity of starch diminishes and the quantity of sugar increases on storing. Further, it may be stated that in the varieties of sweet potatoes which are most esteemed for table use there is less starch and perhaps more sugar than stated above. The total quantity of fermentable matter, however, does not greatly change, although there is probably a slight loss.

«Utilization of Waste Material or By-Products.»—_Molasses._—The utilization of the waste materials from the sugar factories and sugar refineries for the purpose of making alcohol is a well-established industry. The use of these sources of supply depends, of course, upon the cost of the molasses. When the sugar has been exhausted as fully as possible from the molasses the latter consists of a saccharine product, containing a considerable quantity of unfermentable carbohydrate matter, large quantities of mineral salts, and water. In molasses of this kind there is probably not more than 50 pounds of fermentable matter to 100 pounds of the product. Assuming that a gallon of such molasses weighs 11 pounds, it is seen that it contains 5 1⁠/⁠2 pounds of fermentable matter, yielding 2 1⁠/⁠4 pounds of industrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength. It requires about 3 gallons of such molasses to make 1 gallon of industrial alcohol.

When the price of molasses delivered to the refineries falls as low as 5 or 6 cents a gallon it may be considered a profitable source of alcohol.

_Wood Pulp and Sawdust._—Many attempts have been made to produce alcohol for industrial purposes from sawdust, wood pulp, or waste wood material. The principle of the process rests upon the fact that the woody substance is composed of cellulose and kindred matters which, under the action of dilute acid (preferably sulphuric or sulphurous) and heat, with or without pressure, undergo hydrolysis and are changed into sugars. A large part of the sugar which is formed is non-fermentable, consisting of a substance known as xylose. Another part of the sugar produced is dextrose, made from the true cellulose which the wood contains.

The yield of alcohol in many of the experiments which have been made has not been very satisfactory. It is claimed, however, by some authors that paying quantities of alcohol are secured. In Simmonsen’s process for the manufacture of alcohol 1⁠/⁠2 per cent sulphuric acid is employed and from 4 to 5 parts of the liquid heated with 1 part of the finely comminuted wood for a quarter of an hour under a pressure of 9 atmospheres. It is claimed by Simmonsen that he obtained a yield of 6 quarts of alcohol from 110 pounds of air-dried shavings. Another process which has been tried in this and other countries for converting comminuted wood into alcohol is known as Classen’s. The comminuted wood is heated for 15 minutes in a closed apparatus at a temperature of from 248° to 293° F. in the presence of sulphurous acid (fumes of burning sulphur) instead of sulphuric acid. It is claimed by the inventor that he has made as much as 12 quarts of alcohol from 110 pounds of the air-dried shavings. There is reason to doubt the possibility of securing such high yields in actual practice as are claimed in the above processes. That alcohol can be made from sawdust and wood shavings is undoubtedly true, but whether or not it can be made profitably must be determined by actual manufacturing operations.

_Waste Products of Canneries, etc._—The principal waste materials which may be considered in this connection are the refuse of wine making, fruit evaporating, and canning industries, especially the waste of factories devoted to the canning of tomatoes and Indian corn. In addition to this, the waste fruit products themselves, which are not utilized at all, as, for instance, the imperfect and rotten apples, tomatoes, grapes, etc., may be favorably considered. The quantity of waste products varies greatly in different materials.

The quantities of waste material in grapes and apples, as shown by Lazenby, are as follows: About 25 per cent of the total weight in grapes, with the exception of the wild grape, where it is about 60 per cent; with apples the average percentage of waste was found to be 23.8 per cent from 25 varieties. This included the waste in the core, skin, and the defective apples caused by insects, fungi, bruises, etc. In general it may be said that in the preparation of fruits for {674} preserving purposes about 25 per cent of their weight is waste, and this, it is evident, could be utilized for the manufacture of alcohol. If apples be taken as a type of fruits, we may assume that the waste portions contain 10 per cent of fermentable matters, which, however, is perhaps rather a high estimate. Five per cent of this might be recovered as industrial alcohol. Thus, each 100 pounds of fruit waste in the most favorable circumstances might be expected to produce 5 pounds of industrial alcohol. The quantity of waste which could be utilized for this purpose would hardly render it profitable to engage in the manufacture. A smaller percentage could be expected from the waste of the tomato, where the quantity of sugar is not so great. In the waste of the sweet-corn factory the amount of fermentable matter would depend largely on the care with which the grain was removed. There is usually a considerable quantity of starchy material left on the cobs, and this, with the natural sugars which the grown cobs contain, might yield quite large quantities of fermentable matter. It would not be profitable to erect distilleries simply for the utilization of waste of this kind, but if these wastes could be utilized in distilleries already established it might be profitable to devote them to this purpose.

«Manufacture of Alcohol.»—The three principal steps in the manufacture of alcohol are (1) the preparation of the mash or wort, (2) the fermentation of the mash or wort drawn off from the mash tun, and (3) the distillation of the dilute alcohol formed in the beer or wash from the fermentation tanks. The preparation of the mash includes (1) the treatment of the material used with hot water to form a paste of the starch or the sugar, and (2) the action of the malt or ferment on the paste to convert the starch into fermentable sugar.

_Mashing._—Figs. 1 and 2 show two views of the mashing tun or tank, the first figure giving the general appearance, and the second a view of the interior of the tun, showing the machinery by which the stirring is effected and the series of pipes for cooling the finished product down to the proper temperature for the application of the malt.

The object of the mash tun is to reduce the starch in the ground grain to a pasty, gummy mass, in order that the ferment of the malt may act upon it vigorously and convert it into sugar. If the mashing be done before the addition {676} of the malt the temperature may be raised to that of boiling water. If, however, the malt be added before the mashing begins, the temperature should not rise much, if any, above 140° F., since the fermenting power is retarded and disturbed at higher temperatures. The mashing is simply a mechanical process by means of which the starch is reduced to a form of paste and the temperature maintained at that point which is best suited to the conversion of the starch into sugar.

_Fermentation._—The mash, after the starch has all been converted into sugar, goes into fermenting tanks, which in Scotland are called “wash backs,” when the yeast is added. A view of the typical wash back is shown in Fig. 3. They often have a stirring apparatus, as indicated in the figure; whereby the contents can be thoroughly mixed with the yeast and kept in motion. This is not necessary after the fermentation is once well established, but it is advisable, especially in the early stages, to keep the yeast well distributed throughout the mass. In these tanks the fermentations are conducted, the temperature being varied according to the nature of the product to be made. For industrial alcohol the sole purpose should be to secure the largest possible percentage of alcohol without reference to its palatable properties.

An organism belonging to the vegetable family and to which the name “yeast” has been given is the active agent in fermentation. The organism itself does not take a direct part in the process, but it secretes another ferment of an unorganized character known as an “enzym” or a “diastase.” This enzym has the property, under proper conditions of food, temperature, and dilution, of acting upon sugar and converting it into alcohol and carbonic acid. Anyone who has ever seen a fermenting vat in full operation and noticed the violent boiling or ebullition of the liquor, can understand how rapidly the gas “carbon dioxide” or “carbonic acid,” as it is usually called, may be formed, as it is the escape of this gas which gives the appearance to the tank of being in a violent state of ebullition. The yeast which produces the fermentation belongs to the same general family as the ordinary yeast which is used in the leavening of bread. The leavening of bread under the action of yeast is due to the conversion of the sugar in the dough into alcohol and carbon dioxide or carbonic acid. The gas thus formed becomes entangled in the particles of the gluten, and these expanding cause the whole mass to swell or “rise,” as it is commonly expressed. Starch cannot be directly fermented, but must be first converted into sugar, either by the action of a chemical like an acid, or a ferment or enzym, known as diastase, which is one of the abundant constituents of malt, especially of barley malt. In the preparation of a cereal, for instance, for fermentation, it is properly softened and ground, and then usually heated with water to the boiling point or above in order that the starch may be diffused throughout the water. After cooling, it is treated with barley malt, the diastase of which acts vigorously upon the starch, converting it into a form of sugar, namely, maltose, which lends itself readily to the activities of the yeast fermentation. (Fig. 4.)

When ordinary sugar (cane sugar, beet sugar, and sucrose) is subjected to fermentation it is necessary that the yeast, which also exerts an activity similar to that of malt, should first convert the cane sugar into invert sugar (equal mixtures of dextrose and levulose) before the alcoholic fermentation is set up. The cane sugar is also easily inverted by heating with an acid.

When different kinds of sugars and starches are fermented for the purpose of making a beverage it is important that the temperature of fermentation be carefully controlled, since the character of the product depends largely upon the temperature at which the fermentation takes place. On the contrary, when industrial alcohol is made, the sole object is to get as large a yield as possible, and for this reason that temperature should be employed which produces the most alcohol and the least by-products, irrespective of the flavor or character of the product made. Also, in the making of alcoholic beverages, it is important that the malt be of the very best quality in {677} order that the resulting product may have the proper flavor. In the production of alcohol for industrial purposes this is of no consequence, and the sole purpose here should be to produce the largest possible yield. For this reason there is no objection to the use of acids for converting the starch, cane sugar, and cellulose into fermentable sugars. Therefore, the heating of the raw materials under pressure with dilute acids in order to procure the largest quantity of sugar is a perfectly legitimate method of procedure in the manufacture of industrial alcohols.

Sugars and starches are usually associated in nature with another variety of carbohydrates known as cellulose, and this cellulose itself, when acted upon by an acid, is converted very largely into sugars, which, on fermentation, yield alcohol. For industrial purposes, the alcohol produced in this manner is just as valuable as that made from sugar and starch. Whether the diastatic method of converting the starch and sugar into fermentable sugars be used, or the acid method, is simply a question of economy and yield. On the other hand, when alcoholic beverages are to be made, those processes must be employed, irrespective of the magnitude of the yield, which give the finest and best flavors to the products.

_Distillation._—The object of distillation is to separate the alcohol which has been formed from the non-volatile substances with which it is mixed. A typical form of distilling apparatus for the concentration of the dilute alcohol which is formed in the beer or wash from the fermentation tanks, is represented in Fig. 5.

This apparatus is of the continuous type common to Europe and America. It consists of a “beer still” provided with a number of chambers fitted with perforated plates and suitable overflow pipes. It is operated as follows:

The syrup and alcohol are pumped into the top of the beer still through a pipe _G_; the tank _G_ may also be placed above the center of the still and the contents allowed to flow into the still by gravity; steam is admitted through an open pipe into the kettle _A_ at the bottom of the column or is produced by heating the spent liquor by means of a coil. The steam ascends through the perforations in the plates, becoming richer and richer in alcohol as it passes through each layer of liquor, while the latter gradually descends by means of the overflow pipes to the bottom of the column _B_ and finally reaches the kettle completely exhausted of alcohol, whence it is removed by means of a pump connected with the pipe line _H_. On reaching the top of the beer still _B_ the vapors of the alcohol and the steam continue to rise and pass into the alcohol column _C_. This column is also divided into chambers, but by solid instead of perforated plates, as shown at _K_. Each chamber is provided with a return or overflow pipe and an opening through which the vapors ascend. In the alcohol column the vapors are so directed as to pass through a layer of {678} liquid more or less rich in alcohol which is retained by the plate separating the compartments. An excess of liquids in these compartments overflows through the down pipes, gradually works its way into the beer still, and thence to the kettle. On reaching the top of the column the vapors, which have now become quite rich in alcohol, are passed into a coil provided with an outlet at the lowest part of each bend. These outlets lead into the return pipe _P_, which connects with the top chamber of the alcohol column. This coil is technically termed the “goose” and is immersed in a tank called the “goose tub.” A suitable arrangement is provided for controlling the temperature of the water in the tub by means of outlet and inlet water pipes. When the still is in operation the temperature of the “goose” is regulated according to the required density of the alcohol. The object of the “goose” is the return to the column of all low products which condense at a temperature below the boiling point of ethyl alcohol of the desired strength. On leaving the “goose” the vapors enter a condenser _E_, whence the liquid alcohol is conducted into a separator _F_. This separator consists simply of a glass box provided with a cylinder through which a current of alcohol is constantly flowing. An alcohol spindle is inserted in this cylinder and shows the density of the spirit at all times. A pipe, with a funnel-shaped opening at its upper extremity, connects with the pipe leading from the condenser and gives vent to any objectionable fumes. The separator is connected by means of a pipe with the alcohol storage tank. The pipe _O_ is for emptying the upper chambers when necessary. The valves _N_, communicating by means of a small pipe with a condenser _M_, are for testing the vapors in the lower chambers for alcohol.

«Substances Used for Denaturing Alcohol.»—The process of rendering alcohol unsuitable for drinking is called “denaturing,” and consists, essentially, in adding to the alcohol a substance soluble therein of a bad taste or odor, or both, of an intensity which would render it impossible or impracticable to use the mixture as a drink. Among the denaturing substances which have been proposed are the following:

Gum shellac (with or without the addition of camphor, turpentine, wood spirit, etc.), colophonium, copal rosin, Manila gum, camphor, turpentine, acetic acid, acetic ether, ethylic ether, methyl alcohol (wood alcohol), pyridine, acetone, methyl acetate, methyl violet, methylene blue, aniline blue, eosin, fluorescein, naphthalene, castor oil, benzine, carbolic acid, caustic soda, musk, animal oils, etc.

Methyl (wood) alcohol and benzine are the denaturing agents authorized in the United States, in the following proportions: To 100 parts, by volume, of ethyl alcohol (not less than 90 per cent strength) add 10 parts of approved methyl (wood) alcohol and 1⁠/⁠2 of 1 part of approved benzine. Such alcohol is classed as completely denatured. Formulas for special denaturation may be submitted for approval by manufacturers to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, who will determine whether they may be used or not, and only one special denaturant will be authorized for the same class of industries unless it shall be shown that there is good reason for additional special denaturants. Not less than 300 wine gallons can be withdrawn from a bonded warehouse at one time for denaturing purposes.

«Spirit.»—Proof spirit is a term used by the revenue department in assessing the tax on alcoholic liquors. It means a liquid in which there is 50 per cent (by volume) of absolute alcohol. As it is the actual alcohol in the whisky, brandy, dilute alcohol, etc., which is taxed, and as this varies so widely, it is necessary that the actual wine gallons be converted into proof gallons before the tax rate can be fixed. A sample that is half alcohol and half water (let us say for convenience) is “100 proof.” A sample that is 3⁠/⁠4 alcohol and 1⁠/⁠4 water is 150 proof, and the tax on every gallon of it is 1 1⁠/⁠2 times the regular government rate per proof gallon. Absolute alcohol is 200 proof and has to pay a double tax.

The legal definition of proof spirit is, “that alcoholic liquor which contains one-half its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.7939 at 60° F.”

«SPONGES:»

«Bleaching Sponges.»—I.—Soak in dilute hydrochloric acid to remove the lime, then wash in water, and place for 10 minutes in a 2 per cent solution of potassium permanganate. The brown color on removal from this solution is due to the deposition of manganous oxide, and this may be removed by steeping for a few minutes in very dilute sulphuric acid. As soon as the sponges appear white, they are washed out in water to remove the acid.

II.—A sponge that has been used in {679} surgical operations or for other purposes, should first be washed in warm water, to every quart of which 20 drops of liquor of soda have been added; afterwards washed in pure water, wrung or pressed out and put into a jar of bromine water, where it is left until bleached. Bleaching is accelerated by exposing the vessel containing the bromine water to the direct rays of the sun. When the sponge is bleached it is removed from the bromine water, and put for a few minutes in the water containing soda lye. Finally it is rinsed in running water until the odor of bromine disappears. It should be dried as rapidly as possible by hanging it in the direct sunlight.

«Sterilization of Sponges.»—I.—Allow the sponges to lie for 24 hours in an 8 per cent hydrochloric acid solution, to eliminate lime and coarse impurities; wash in clean water, and place the sponges in a solution of caustic potash, 10 parts; tannin, 10 parts; and water, 1,000 parts. After they have been saturated for 5 to 20 minutes with this liquid, they are washed out in sterilized water or a solution of carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate, until they have entirely lost the brown coloring acquired by the treatment with tannin. The sponges thus sterilized are kept in a 2 per cent or 15 per cent carbolic solution.

«Sponge Window Display.»—Soak a large piece of coarse sponge in water, squeeze half dry, then sprinkle in the openings red clover seed, millet, barley, lawn grass, oats, rice, etc. Hang this in the window, where the sun shines a portion of the day, and sprinkle lightly with water daily. It will soon form a mass of living green vegetation very refreshing to the eyes. While the windows are kept warm this may be done at any season. The seeds used may be varied, according to fancy.

SPONGES AS FILTERS: See Filters.

SPONGE CLEANERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods, under Miscellaneous Methods.

SPONGE-TRICK, BURNING: See Pyrotechnics.

SPOT ERADICATORS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods and Soaps.

SPOT GILDING: See Plating.

SPRAY SOLUTION: See Balsams.

SPEARMINT CORDIAL: See Wines and Liquors.

SPRAIN WASHES: See Veterinary Formulas.

SPRING CLEANING: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

SPRING HARDENING: See Steel.

SPRINGS OF WATCHES: See Watchmakers’ Formulas.

SPRUCE BEER: See Beverages.

STAIN REMOVERS: See Cleaning Preparations and Methods.

STAINS: See Paints, Varnishes and Wood Stains.

STAINS FOR LACQUERS: See Lacquers.

«Stamping»

(See also Dyes.)

«Stamping Colors for Use with Rubber Stamps.»—Blue: 0.3 parts of water-blue 1 B, 1.5 parts of dextrin, 1.5 parts of distilled water. Dissolve the aniline dye and the dextrin in the distilled water, over a water bath, and add 7 parts of refined glycerine, 28° Bé.

Other colors may be made according to the same formula, substituting the following quantities of dyes for the water-blue: Methyl violet 3 B, 0.02 parts; diamond fuchsine I, 0.02 parts; aniline green D, 0.04 parts; vesuvine B, 0.05 parts; phenol black, 0.03 parts. Oleaginous colors are mostly used for metallic stamps, but glycerine colors can be used in case of necessity.

«Oleaginous Stamping Colors.»—Mix 0.8 parts of indigo, ground fine with 2.5 parts of linseed-oil varnish, and 0.5 parts of olein. Add 2 parts of castor oil and 5 parts of linseed oil. For other colors according to the same formula, use the following quantities: Cinnabar, 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; verdigris, 2 1⁠/⁠2 parts; lampblack, 1.2 parts; oil-soluble aniline blue A, 0.35 parts; oil-soluble aniline scarlet B, 0.3 parts; aniline yellow (oil-soluble), 0.45 parts; oil-soluble aniline black L, 0.6 parts.

«Stamping Liquids and Powders.»—Dissolve 1 drachm each of rosin and copal {680} in 4 fluidounces of benzine and with a little of this liquid triturate 1⁠/⁠2 drachm of Prussian blue and finally mix thoroughly with the remainder.

Ultramarine, to which has been added a small proportion of powdered rosin, is generally used for stamping embroidery patterns on white goods. The powder is dusted through the perforated pattern, which is then covered with a paper and a hot iron passed over it to melt the rosin and cause the powder to adhere to the cloth. The following are said to be excellent powders:

I.—White.—One part each of rosin, copal, damar, mastic, sandarac, borax, and bronze powder, and 2 parts white lead.

II.—Black.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ivory black, and bronze powder.

III.—Blue.—Equal parts of rosin, damar, copal, sandarac, Prussian blue, ultramarine, and bronze powder.