Chapter 4

(ii.) Freeman's _History of Sicily_. Notice especially the admirable plan of Syracuse illustrating the siege by Nicias.

Or _Sicily_--'Story of the Nations' Series.

(iii.) _Some good Life of Archimedes._ The _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ supplies a good short life and refers to Cicero's finding the Tomb of Archimedes, and to the still extant work of Archimedes on the Sphere and the Cylinder.

(iv.) For _Cicero's Quaestorship in Sicily_, 75 B.C., consult some Life of Cicero, _e.g._ Forsyth's, pp. 38-58, where reference is made to this incident.

(v.) For the _Tusculanae Disputationes_ (conversations between Cicero and a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject of which is the chief essentials of happiness) consult the admirable introduction to the edition by T. W. Dougan, Camb. Press.

PASSAGES

FOR

TRANSLATION AT SIGHT

REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B.C.

D1

_The Vision of Anchises.--The Kings that are to be._

Quin et avo comitem sese Mavortius addet Romulus, Assaraci quem sanguinis Ilia mater Educet. Viden' ut geminae stant vertice cristae, Et pater ipse suo superum iam signat honore? 780 En huius, nate, auspiciis illa incluta Roma Imperium terris, animos aequabit Olympo, Septemque una sibi muro circumdabit arces, Felix prole virum. . . . . . . . Quis procul ille autem ramis insignis olivae Sacra ferens? Nosco crines incanaque menta Regis Romani; primam qui legibus urbem 810 Fundabit, Curibus parvis et paupere terra Missus in imperium magnum. Cui deinde subibit, Otia qui rumpet patriae residesque movebit Tullus in arma viros et iam desueta triumphis Agmina. Quem iuxta sequitur iactantior Ancus, 815 Nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris. Vis et Tarquinios reges animamque superbam Ultoris Bruti fascesque videre receptos?

VERGIL, _Aen._ vi. 777-784, 808-818.

[Linenotes: 777. +Avo+ = _grandsire_, i.e. Numitor, the father of the Vestal Rhea or Ilia. +Mavortius+ = child of Mavors, old and poetic name for Mars. 778. +Assaraci+: King of Phrygia and grandfather of Anchises. 779. +geminae cristae.+ The double-crested helm, a distinction of Mars. 780. +superum+ = _for the world above_, i.e. as a god. Acc. Sing. 808. +ille+ = Numa Pompilius (716-673 B.C.), a native of Cures (811) in Sabine country, whom the Romans regarded as the founder (+fundabit+, 811) of their religious and legal institutions. 813. +qui+ = Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), a man of war, destroyed Alba. +resides+ = _sluggish_, _lazy_ (_re + sedeo_). 815. +Ancus Martius+ (640-616 B.C.), conqueror of the Latins. 817. +Tarquinios reges+ = (i.) Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B.C.) of Tarquinii in Etruria; (ii.) Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 B.C.), expelled by Brutus. Vergil omits Servius Tullius (578-534 B.C.). 817-818. +animamque ... receptos.+ Brutus, nephew of T. Superbus, roused Rome to expel the Tarquins and found the Republic: and thus the +fasces+ (the sign of power) were _recovered_ (+receptos+) by the people. --Sidgwick.]

D2

ROMULUS, 753-716 B.C.

A. _The Passing of Romulus._

His immortalibus editis operibus cum ad exercitum recensendum contionem in campo ad Caprae paludem haberet, subito coorta tempestas cum magno fragore tonitribusque tam denso regem operuit nimbo, ut conspectum eius contioni abstulerit; nec {5} deinde in terris Romulus fuit. Romana pubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tam turbido die serena et tranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vidit, etsi satis credebat patribus, qui proxumi steterant, sublimem raptum procella, tamen velut {10} orbitatis metu icta maestum aliquamdiu silentium obtinuit. Deinde a paucis initio facto deum deo natum, regem parentemque urbis Romanae salvere universi Romulum iubent; pacem precibus exposcunt, uti volens propitius suam semper sospitet progeniem. {15}

LIVY, i. 16.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +ad Caprae paludem+ = _near the Goat's pool_. 4. +operuit+ = _enveloped_ (+ob + pario+ = _get for_, _put upon_, _cover_), cf. opposite +a-per-io+ = _get from_, _uncover_. 5. +abstulerit+ = _auferret_. The event is regarded simply as past, without reference to other past events. 5-6. +nec deinde ... fuit+, cf. 'Quirinus | Martis equis Acheronta fugit.' Hor. _Od._ iii. 3. 15. 7. +sêdato+ = _settled_, _calmed_. +Sêd-o+ = _cause to sit_, cf. +sêd-es+, and our _seat_, _settle_. 11. +orbitatis+ = _of orphanhood_; cf. +orb-us+ = _bereaved_, and our _orphan_. 15. +volens propitius+, an ellipse of _et_, cf. _optimus maximus_. +sospitet+ = _he may keep safe_, _preserve_, cf. +sospes+ = _safe_.]

B. _The Mystery explained._

Pulcher et humano maior trabeaque decorus Romulus in media visus adesse via, Et dixisse simul: 'Prohibe lugere Quirites, Nec violent lacrimis numina nostra suis. 4 Tura ferant placentque novum pia turba Quirinum, Et patrias artes militiamque colant.'

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 379-384. H. [II. 503-508]

[Linenotes: 1-6. Romulus appears as a god to Proculus Julius, an honourable man, bidding him tell his people not to mourn for him, but to worship him as Quirinus, and practise valour and all warlike virtues. 1. +trabea+ = _in the (striped) robe of state_. 3-5. +Quirites+ (cf. +Quirinus+ = the deified Romulus) = lit. _spearmen_. Connected with _Cures_ and _curis_ (Sabine word for a _spear_), used of Roman _citizens_ as opposed to Roman _soldiers_.]

D3

NUMA POMPILIUS, 716-673 B.C.

_The Gate of Janus, open in war but shut in peace._

A. Qui regno ita potitus urbem novam, conditam vi et armis, iure eam legibusque ac moribus de integro condere parat. Quibus cum inter bella adsuescere videret non posse, quippe efferari militia animos, mitigandum ferocem populum armorum {5} desuetudine ratus Ianum ad infimum Argiletum indicem pacis bellique fecit, apertus ut in armis esse civitatem, clausus pacatos circa omnes populos significaret.

LIVY, i. 19.

[Linenotes: 1. +Qui+ = Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. 4-5. +quippe ... animos+ = _since_ (he thought that) _men's tempers were made savage_ (brutalised) _by warfare_. +efferari+ = orat. obl. part of Numa's thoughts. 6. +desuetudine+ = _by disuse_, i.e. by a cessation from the use of. Cf. _de-docêre_ = _unteach_. +Ianum ... Argiletum+ = (a temple of) Janus at the foot of the Argiletum, a slope to the N.E. of the Forum. (Prob. = the clayey ground, from _argilla_ = white clay.) 8. +clausus.+ It was closed for a short time, circ. 238 B.C., and again by Augustus 29-25 B.C.]

B.

Sunt geminae Belli portae, sic nomine dicunt, Religione sacrae et saevi formidine Martis: Centum aerei claudunt vectes aeternaque ferri Robora, nec custos absistit limine Ianus. 610 Has, ubi certa sedet patribus sententia pugnae, Ipse Quirinali trabea cinctuque Gabino Insignis reserat stridentia limina Consul; Ipse vocat pugnas; sequitur tum cetera pubes, Aereaque adsensu conspirant cornua rauco.

VERGIL, _Aen._ vii. 607-615.

[Linenotes: 609. +vectes+ = _bolts or bars_, prob. from [Rt]veh = carry. Cf. _vect-îgal_. 612. +Quir. trabea+ = _in the state robe of Romulus_, i.e. the striped robe of state, purple, with white stripes across. +cinctu Gabino+ = _with the Gabine girdle_, formed by girding the toga tight round the body by one of its loose ends. 613. +reserat+ = _un-bars_. For _s[)e]ro_ = _join_, cf. our _series_.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Ovid, _F._ i. 115-132. Cf. Hor. _Od._ iv. 15. 9. Verg. _Aen._ i. 293-4.

+Numa Pompilius.+ 'The name of Numa is significant, and denotes an organiser or _lawgiver_. (For _Numa_ cf. +numerus+, +nummus+, #nomos#.) As Romulus was the founder of the State and of political and military order, so the legend regards Numa as the founder of the national religion.' --Ihne.

D4

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B.C.

_The Purchase of the Sibylline Books._

In antiquis annalibus memoria super libris Sibyllinis haec prodita est. Anus hospita atque incognita ad Tarquinium Superbum regem adiit, novem libros ferens, quos esse dicebat divina oracula: eos velle venundare. Tarquinius pretium percontatus {5} est: mulier nimium immensum poposcit. Rex, quasi anus aetate desiperet, derisit. Tum illa foculum coram eo cum igne apposuit, et tres libros ex novem deussit; et, ecquid reliquos sex eodem pretio emere vellet, regem interrogavit. Sed enim {10} Tarquinius id multo risit magis dixitque anum iam procul dubio delirare. Mulier ibidem statim tres libros alios exussit; atque id ipsum denuo placide interrogavit, an tres reliquos eodem pretio emat. Tarquinius ore iam serio, atque attentiore animo fit; eam {15} constantiam confidentiamque non insuper habendam intelligit: libros tres reliquos mercatur nihilo minore pretio, quam quod erat petitum pro omnibus. . . . Libri tres in sacrarium conditi Sibyllini appellati. Ad eos, quasi ad oraculum, quindecimviri {20} adeunt, cum dii immortales publice consulendi sunt.

AULUS GELLIUS (fl. 143 A.D.), i. 19.

[Linenotes: 1, 2. +libris Sibyllinis+, i.e. a collection of prophecies uttered by the legendary prophetess who lived at Cumae, near Naples. 5. +venundare+ = _to sell_. Cf. _ven-eo_ (= _venum + eo_), _ven-do_, and our _vendor_. 12. +delirare+ = _to be out of her mind_. Lit. to make a crooked furrow in ploughing; _de + lira_ (a furrow). 19. +sacrarium+ = _the place for the keeping of holy things_, i.e. the Capitol. The original Sibylline Books were burnt in the fire on the Capitol, 82 B.C., but a fresh collection was made by Augustus, and deposited in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine. 20. +quindecimviri+ (_sacris faciundis_), i.e. a college of priests who had charge of the Sibylline Books.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Verg. _Aen._ vi., espec. ll. 42-101, for the Cumaean Sibyl.

+The Sibylline Books.+ 'There existed also Etruscan +libri fatales+ (_Books of Fate_), and these, together with the Sibylline Books, were kept in the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter. Nothing seemed more natural than to suppose that Tarquin, who built that temple, purchased also the sacred books of the Sibyl.' --Ihne.

D5

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B.C.

A. _Sextus Tarquinius at Gabii._

Inde in consilia publica adhiberi. . . . Ita cum sensim ad rebellandum primores Gabinorum incitaret, ipse cum promptissimis iuvenum praedatum atque in expeditiones iret, et dictis factisque omnibus ad fallendum instructis vana accresceret fides, dux ad {5} ultimum belli legitur. Ibi cum inscia multitudine, quid ageretur, proelia parva inter Romam Gabiosque fierent, quibus plerumque Gabina res superior esset, tum certatim summi infimique Gabinorum Sex. Tarquinium dono deum sibi missum ducem credere. {10} Apud milites vero obeundo pericula ac labores pariter, praedam munifice largiendo tanta caritate esse, ut non pater Tarquinius potentior Bomae quam filius Gabiis esset.

LIVY, i. 54.

[Linenotes: 1. +Inde+, i.e. after the tale he told of his father's cruelty had gained credit with the men of Gabii. +adhiberi+ = _he was admitted_. Historic Infin. 2. +ad rebellandum+ = _to renew the war_. 4-5. +ad fallendum instructis+ = _were framed to deceive_. 8. +Gabina res+ = _the cause of Gabii_. For +res+ cf. p. 11 (2). [[Introduction 13 (2)]] 11. +obeundo pariter+ = _by facing alike ..._]

B. _The Sequel: the Fall of Gabii._

Iamque potens misso genitorem appellat amico, Perdendi Gabios quod sibi monstret iter. Hortus odoratis suberat cultissimus herbis, Sectus humum rivo lene sonantis aquae. 4 Illic Tarquinius mandata latentia nati Accipit, et virga lilia summa metit. Nuntius ut rediit, decussaque lilia dixit, Filius 'Agnosco iussa parentis' ait. 8 Nec mora: principibus caesis ex urbe Gabina, Traduntur ducibus moenia nuda suis.

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 543-552. H. [II. 701-710]

[Linenotes: 1. +genitorem appellat ...+ = _he calls on his father (to tell him)_ ... 6. +virga+ = _with a switch_. +summa+ = _the tallest_. 10. +ducibus suis+, abl., after _nuda_ = _deprived of_.]

+Reference.+ Hor. _Ep._ ii. 1. 23-27. Horace refers to the treaty made by Tarquinius with Gabii.

+Historic Parallel.+ Compare the extraordinary self-sacrifice of Zôp[)y]rus, which enabled him to betray Babylon to his master Darius. Herod, iii. 153-158.

D6

_The Position of Rome, the future Mistress of the World._

Urbi autem locum Romulus incredibili opportunitate delegit. Neque enim ad mare admovit--quod ei fuit illa manu copiisque facillimum, ut in agrum Rutulorum Aboriginumve procederet, aut in ostio Tiberino, quem in locum multis post annis rex {5} Ancus coloniam deduxit, urbem ipse conderet,--sed hoc vir excellenti providentia sensit ac vidit, non esse opportunissimos situs maritimos urbibus eis quae ad spem diuturnitatis conderentur atque imperi. Itaque urbem perennis amnis et aequabilis et {10} in mare late influentis posuit in ripa, quo posset urbs et accipere ex mari, quo egeret, et reddere, quo redundaret: ut mihi iam tum divinasse ille videatur, hanc urbem sedem aliquando et domum summo esse imperio praebituram: nam hanc rerum tantam {15} potentiam non ferme facilius alia in parte Italiae posita urbs tenere potuisset. Urbis autem ipsius is est tractus ductusque muri cum Romuli tum etiam reliquorum regum sapientia definitus ex omni parte arduis praeruptisque montibus. Locumque delegit {20} et fontibus abundantem et in regione pestilenti salubrem.

CICERO, _De Rep._ ii. 3. 5, 6 (selected).

[Linenotes: 3-6. +quod ei fuit ...+ = lit. which he might very easily have done with that band (of men) and those forces, so that ... 4. +Rutulorum.+ S. of Rome. Turnus their King. Capital, Ardea. 6. +coloniam+, i.e. Ostia, the harbour of Rome and chief naval station. 7-8. +non esse opportunissimos+, e.g. as exposed to sudden attacks, and likely to contain a too large foreign element. 12-13. +quo redundaret+ = _its own superabundance_. 17-18. +is tractus ductusque+ = _the plan and direction_. 19. +definitus+ = _bounded_. 20. +arduis praeruptisque montibus.+ 'The amphitheatre of seven hills which encloses the meadows (afterwards the Campus Martius) in the bend of the Tiber, varying from 120 to 180 feet above the stream, offered heights sufficiently elevated and abrupt for fortification, yet without difficulties for the builder or cultivator.']

N.B.--In this passage be careful to translate Cicero's long, periodic sentences by two or more separate sentences in English.

+The Position of Rome.+ 'There was no place better fitted for an emporium of the Tiber and sea traffic, and for a maritime frontier fortress than Rome. It combined the advantages of a strong position and of immediate vicinity to the river.' Mommsen.

D7

THE PRAISE OF ITALY.

_'Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus.'_

Sed neque Medorum silvae ditissima terra, Nec pulcher Ganges atque auro turbidus Hermus Laudibus Italiae certent, non Bactra, neque Indi Totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis harenis. Haec loca non tauri spirantes naribus ignem 140 Invertere satis immanis dentibus hydri, Nec galeis densisque virum seges horruit hastis; Sed gravidae fruges et Bacchi Massicus umor Implevere; tenent oleae armentaque laeta. Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert; 145 Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus Victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro, Romanos ad templa deum duxere triumphos. Hic ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas; Bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbor. 150 At rabidae tigres absunt et saeva leonum Semina, nec miseros fallunt aconita legentes, Nec rapit immensos orbis per humum, neque tanto Squameus in spiram tractu se colligit anguis.

VERGIL, _Georg._ ii, 136-154.

[Linenotes: 136. +silvae ditissima+ = _most rich in forests_. --Sidgwick. 137. +Hermus+, auriferous river of Lydia, cf. the R. Pactolus. 138. +Bactra+, modern Balk, N. of Afghanistan. 139. +Panchaia+, i.e. Arabia, the Eldorado of the Old World. 141. +satis ... hydri+ = _where the enormous dragon's teeth were sown_. +hydri+ (#hudros#), lit. _a water-snake_. 143. +Massicus umor+ = _Massic juice_, i.e. of Mt. Massicus in N.W. Campania, famous for its wine, espec. the Falernian. 144. +implevere+ (sc. +haec loca+) = _fill it all_. 146. +Clitumne.+ R. of Umbria, famous for its white cattle.[20] 146-148. White cattle were required for the sacrifices of the Triumphs. 149. +alienis mensibus+ = _in months not her own_, i.e. in months properly belonging to winter. 150. +bis gravidae pecudes+ = _twice the cattle give increase_, Conington. 151, 152. +saeva leonum semina+ = _the fierce lion-brood_. --Mackail. +aconita+, a deadly poison--_monkshood_. 153, 154. +neque--anguis+ = _nor with so_ +vast+ _a sweep gather himself into a coil_, i.e. the snakes in Italy are not so large as elsewhere.]

+R. Clitumnus.+ Compare Pliny's beautiful letter (viii. 8) describing its source.

[Footnote 20: Cf. the Chillingham 'Wild Cattle.']

EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B.C.

D8

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (1)

'_How well Horatius kept the Bridge In the brave days of old._'

A.

Nec non Tarquinium eiectum Porsenna iubebat Accipere, ingentique urbem obsidione premebat; Aeneadae in ferrum pro libertate ruebant. Illum indignanti similem, similemque minanti Aspiceres, pontem auderet quia vellere Cocles, 650 Et fluvium vinclis innaret Cloelia ruptis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ viii. 646-651.

_Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shield whereon were wrought scenes of the story of Rome to be._

[Linenotes: 646. +Porsenna.+ 'Lars Porsena of Clusium By the nine gods he swore That the great house of Tarquin Should suffer wrong no more.' --Macaulay. 648. +in ferrum ruebant+ = _were flinging themselves on the sword_. --C. 651. +Cloelia+, a Roman hostage, who escaped by swimming the Tiber.]

B. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles. . . . Qui positus forte in statione pontis, cum captum repentino impetu Ianiculum atque inde citatos decurrere hostes vidisset, {10} trepidamque turbam suorum arma ordinesque relinquere, reprehensans singulos, obsistens obtestansque deum et hominum fidem testabatur nequiquam deserto praesidio eos fugere; si transitum pontem a tergo reliquissent, iam plus hostium in Palatio {15} Capitolioque quam in Ianiculo fore. Itaque monere, praedicere, ut pontem ferro, igni, quacunque vi possint, interrumpant; se impetum hostium, quantum corpore uno posset obsisti, excepturum. Vadit inde in primum aditum pontis, insignisque inter {20} conspecta cedentium pugnae terga, obversis cominus ad ineundum proelium armis, ipso miraculo audaciae obstupefecit hostes.

LIVY, ii. 10.

[Linenotes: 7. +Pons sublicius+ = _the pile-bridge_, built by Ancus Marcius to connect Rome proper with the Janiculum-hill, or ridge. 8. +Cocles+ = _the one-eyed_, from loss of an eye in battle. 10. +citatos+ = _at full speed_. Adj. use of participle; cf. _citato equo_. 11. +trepidamque turbam+ = _panic-stricken and in disorder_. 12. +reprehensans+ = _seizing them by the arm one after another_. 14-15. +si transitum ... reliquissent+ = _if they left the bridge free for the enemy to cross by_. +transitum+ = noun, in appos. to +pontem+. 21-22. +obversis armis+ = _as he faced about_.]

D9

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (2)

'_How well Horatius kept the Bridge In the brave days of old._'

Duos tamen cum eo pudor tenuit, Sp. Larcium ac T. Herminium, ambos claros genere factisque. Cum his primam periculi procellam et quod tumultuosissimum pugnae erat, parumper sustinuit; deinde eos quoque ipsos, exigua parte pontis relicta, revocantibus, {5} qui rescindebant, cedere in tutum coegit. Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos ad proceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes: servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatum venire. {10} Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant. Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamore sublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt. Quae cum in obiecto cuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti {15} pontem obtineret gradu, iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragor rupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate perfecti operis sublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. Tum Cocles 'Tiberine pater,' inquit, 'te sancte precor, haec arma {20} et hunc militem propitio flumine accipias.' Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit, multisque superincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit, rem ausus plus famae habituram ad posteros quam fidei.

LIVY, ii. 10.

[Linenotes: 7. +ad proceres+ = _on the chiefs_. For _pr[)o]cer_ cf. _procêrus_ = tall. 8-9. +provocare ... increpare.+ Historic Infinitives = Indic. 9. +servitia+ = _the slaves_ = _servos_. Abstract for concrete, freq. in Livy. Cf. Hor. _Od._ ii. 8. 18. (_servitus = servi._) 14. +obiecto+ = _presented_, i.e. to the enemy. 15-16. +ingenti gradu+ = _with mighty (heroic) stand_. Cf. 'firm as a rock.' 18. +alacritate perfecti operis+ = _from joy at the completion of the work_. 24. +plus famae ... fidei+ = _destined to win more fame than credit with posterity_. 'Oh Tiber! father Tiber! To whom the Romans pray, A Roman's life, a Roman's arms, Take thou in charge this day!' So he spake, and speaking sheathed The good sword by his side, And with his harness on his back, Plunged headlong in the tide. --Macaulay.]

D10

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B.C. (3)

_How C. Mucius lost his Hand, but won a Name._

A. Obsidio erat nihilo minus et frumenti cum summa caritate inopia, sedendoque expugnaturum se urbem spem Porsena habebat, cum C. Mucius, adulescens nobilis, ... primo sua sponte penetrare in hostium castra constituit; dein metuens, ne, si consulum {5} iniussu et ignaris omnibus iret, forte deprehensus a custodibus Romanis retraheretur ut transfuga, fortuna tum urbis crimen affirmante, senatum adit. 'Transire Tiberim,' inquit, 'patres, et intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, non praedo nec populationum {10} in vicem ultor; maius, si di iuvant, in animo est facinus.' Approbant patres; abdito intra vestem ferro proficiscitur. Ubi eo venit, in confertissima turba prope regium tribunal constitit.

LIVY, ii. 12.

[Linenotes: 1. +cum summa caritate+ = _involving_ (+cum+) _a very high price_. 2. +sedendo+ = _by sitting down before_, of a besieging army. 3. +Mucius.+ From this incident surnamed Scaevola = _the left-handed_. After his time, a frequent surname in the Gens Mucia. 7-8. +fortunâ ... affirmante+ = (_a charge which_) _the present condition of the city would confirm_ (_substantiate_). 10-11. +non praedo ... ultor+ = _not to plunder nor to retaliate on_ (lit. 'an avenger in turn on') _our plunderers_.]

B.

Cum peteret regem decepta satellite dextra Ingessit sacris se peritura focis. Sed tam saeva pius miracula non tulit hostis Et raptum flammis iussit abire virum. Urere quam potuit contempto Mucius igne, 5 Hanc spectare manum Porsena non potuit. Maior deceptae fama est et gloria dextrae: Si non errasset, fecerat illa minus.

MARTIAL, _Ep._ I. xxi.

[Linenotes: 1. +s[)a]tellite+ = _the attendant_, i.e. the scribe or secretary of Porsena. 2. +ingessit+ = _thrust into_ (_in_ + _gero_). 3. +tam saeva miracula+ = _such a miracle of stern fortitude_. --S. +pius+ = _feeling_, as opposed to _unnatural_. 7-8. i.e. to have killed Porsena would have been less glorious than to display such heroism. --Stephenson.]

+Porsena.+ Livy tells us that Mucius, in gratitude for the magnanimity of Porsena, revealed to him that 300 Roman youths had sworn to attempt the same deed that he had undertaken. Whereupon Porsena feared to distress the Romans any longer, and made peace with them.

D11

LATIN WAR. BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS, 498 B.C.

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse._

Ibi alia inter proceres coorta pugna. Imperator Latinus, ubi cohortem exulum a dictatore Romano prope circumventam vidit, ex subsidiariis manipulos aliquot in primam aciem secum rapit. Hos agmine venientes T. Herminius legatus conspicatus, interque {5} eos insignem veste armisque Mamilium noscitans, tanto vi maiore, quam paulo ante magister equitum, cum hostium duce proelium iniit, ut et uno ictu transfixum per latus occiderit Mamilium, et ipse inter spoliandum corpus hostis veruto percussus, {10} cum victor in castra esset relatus, inter primam curationem exspiraverit. Tum ad equites dictator advolat obtestans, ut fesso iam pedite descendant ex equis et pugnam capessant. Dicto paruere; desiliunt ex equis, provolant in primum, et pro antesignanis {15} parmas obiciunt. Recipit extemplo animum pedestris acies, postquam iuventutis proceres aequato genere pugnae secum partem periculi sustinentes vidit. Tum demum impulsi Latini, perculsaque inclinavit acies. {20}

LIVY, ii. 20.

[Linenotes: 1. +inter proceres.+ The Battle of Lake Regillus was, in the main, a Homeric battle of single combats between the opposing chiefs. 1-2. +Imperator Latinus+, i.e. Mamilius of Tusculum, son-in-law of Tarquin. 5. +T. Herminius+, one of 'the dauntless Three,' who kept the bridge. 7. +magister equitum+, i.e. T. Aebutius. The Master of the Horse, the second in command, was nominated by the Dictator. 10. +veruto+ = _with a javelin_, cf. _veru_ = _a spit_. 11-12. +inter primam curationem+ = _at the first attempt to dress his wound_. --Rawlins. 13. +dictator+, i.e. Aulus Postumius. The Dictator (_magister populi_ = _master of the army_) was appointed by one of the two Consuls (= _colleagues_) in a time of national danger to avoid the possible want of unity between the two consuls in time of war. 15. +in primum = in primam aciem.+ +antesignanis+, i.e. the first line fighting _in front of the standards_. 17. +iuventutis proceres+ = _the young noblemen_, i.e. the cavalry are not only the younger men (in Livy often = +iuvenes+) but also patricians.]

+Reference.+ Macaulay, _The Battle of Lake Regillus_.

D12

FIRST SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 494 B.C.

_The Fable of the Belly and the Members. Tribunes of the People._

Pavor ingens in urbe, metuque mutuo suspensa erant omnia. . . . Placuit igitur oratorem ad plebem mitti Menenium Agrippam, facundum virum et, quod inde oriundus erat, plebi carum. Is intromissus in castra prisco illo dicendi et horrido modo nihil {5} aliud quam hoc narrasse fertur: Tempore, quo in homine non, ut nunc, omnia in unum consentientia, sed singulis membris suum cuique consilium, suus sermo fuerit, indignatas reliquas partes sua cura, suo labore ac ministerio ventri omnia quaeri, ventrem in {10} medio quietum nihil aliud quam datis voluptatibus frui; conspirasse inde, ne manus ad os cibum ferrent, nec os acciperet datum, nec dentes conficerent. Hac ira dum ventrem fame domare vellent, ipsa una membra totumque corpus ad extremam tabem {15} venisse. Inde apparuisse ventris quoque haud segne ministerium esse, nec magis ali quam alere eum, reddentem in omnes corporis partes hunc, quo vivimus vigemusque, divisum pariter in venas, maturum confecto cibo sanguinem. Comparando hinc, quam {20} intestina corporis seditio similis esset irae plebis in patres, flexisse mentes hominum. Agi deinde de concordia coeptum concessumque in condiciones, ut plebi sui magistratus essent sacrosancti, quibus auxili latio adversus consules esset, neve cui patrum capere {25} eum magistratum liceret. Ita tribuni plebei creati duo, C. Licinius et L. Albinus.

LIVY, ii. 32, 33.

[Linenotes: 1-2. +Pavor ingens ... omnia.+ One of the Roman armies (mainly recruited from Plebeians) refused to obey orders, entrenched itself on Mons Sacer, and threatened to secede from Rome altogether. 2. +oratorem+ (i.e. _legatum_) = _spokesman_, charged with a _verbal_ message. 4. +inde+, i.e. from the Plebs. 10-11. +ventrem ... quietum+ = _whereas the belly resting calmly in their midst_. --Rawlins. 13. +conficerent+ = _grind_, and so aid digestion. Cf. +confecto+ l. 20. 19-20. +maturum confecto cibo+ = _brought to perfection only when the food is digested_. --R. 24. +sacrosancti+ = _consecrated and inviolable_. 24-25. +quibus ... esset+, i.e. as official protectors of the Plebs, by their right of veto on the official actions of all other magistrates.]

+For the Fable+, cf. Seneca _de Ira_ ii. 31, and 1 Corinthians, xii. 12-27.

D13

WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS, 493 B.C.

_Veturia and her son Coriolanus._

Coriolanus prope ut amens consternatus ab sede sua cum ferret matri obviae complexum, mulier in iram ex precibus versa 'Sine, priusquam complexum accipio, sciam' inquit, 'ad hostem an ad filium venerim, captiva mater-ne in castris tuis sim. In {5} hoc me longa vita et infelix senecta traxit, ut exulem te, deinde hostem viderem? Potuisti populari hanc terram, quae te genuit atque aluit? Non tibi, quamvis infesto animo et minaci perveneras, ingredienti fines ira cecidit? Non, cum in conspectu {10} Roma fuit, succurrit: Intra illa moenia domus ac penates mei sunt, mater, coniunx liberique? Ergo ego nisi peperissem, Roma non oppugnaretur; nisi filium haberem, libera in libera patria mortua essem.' ... Uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi, fletusque ab {15} omni turba mulierum ortus et conploratio sui patriaeque fregere tandem virum. Complexus inde suos dimittit; ipse retro ab urbe castra movit. Abductis deinde legionibus ex agro Romano invidia rei oppressum perisse tradunt alii alio leto. {20}

LIVY, ii. 40.

[Linenotes: 1. +Coriolanus.+ Gaius Marcius received the cognomen of Coriolanus for his bravery at the capture of the Volscian town of Corioli (S.E. of Rome). After this, in a time of famine at Rome, C. advised that the corn obtained elsewhere should not be distributed, unless the Plebeians would give up their Tribunes. For this he was impeached and went into voluntary exile among the Volsci. +consternatus+ = _in strong emotion_--lit. 'stretched on the ground.' 7. +potuisti+ = _had you the heart to_--question indicated by _tone_ of the voice. 10-11. +non ... succurrit+ = _did it not occur to you_? 19-20. +invidia rei oppressum+ = _overwhelmed by the unpopularity of his action_. 20. +alii alio leto+, e.g. i. by a voluntary death; ii. put to death by the Volscians; iii. lived to old age in exile.]

+References.+ Cic. _Brutus_ x. (compared to Themistocles). Plutarch, _Coriolanus_.

'The germ from which the whole legend sprang is the story of the filial love of Coriolanus, and of the great authority exercised in olden times by Roman matrons over their sons and husbands.' Ihne.

Shakespeare, _Coriolanus_, V. iii.

D14

WAR WITH VEII, 483-474 B.C.

_The Destruction of the Fabii at the Cremera, 477 B.C._

Campus erat, campi claudebant ultima colles Silvaque montanas occulere apta feras. In medio paucos armentaque rara relinquunt, Cetera virgultis abdita turba latet. 4 Ecce velut torrens undis pluvialibus auctus Aut nive, quae Zephyro victa tepente fluit, Per sata perque vias fertur, nec, ut ante solebat, Riparum clausas margine finit aquas: 8 Sic Fabii vallem latis discursibus implent, Quodque vident sternunt, nec metus alter inest. Quo ruitis, generosa domus? male creditis hosti: Simplex nobilitas, perfida tela cave. 12 Fraude perit virtus. In apertos undique campos Prosiliunt hostes, et latus omne tenent. Quid faciant panci contra tot millia fortes? Quidve, quod in misero tempore restet, adest? 16 Sicut aper longe silvis Laurentibus actus Fulmineo celeres dissipat ore canes, Mox tamen ipse perit: sic non moriuntur inulti Vulneraque alterna dantque feruntque manu. 20 Una dies Fabios ad bellum miserat omnes; Ad bellum missos perdidit una dies.

OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 175-196, H. [II. 215-236]

+Context.+ To protect their territory from the constant raids of the Veientines, the noble house of the Fabii offered to undertake the war themselves. The consul Kaeso Fabius marched out of the city at the head of his clan, followed by the blessings and good wishes of the admiring people. He erected a fortified camp near the R. Cremera (a tributary of the Tiber), and from this spot plundered Veientine territory.

[Linenotes: 1. +campus.+ 'Ovid here paints from fancy: there are, however, deep hollows admirably calculated to conceal an ambushed foe.' --Ramsay. 9. +discursibus+ = _runnings to and fro_, of soldiers dispersing to plunder. 10. +metus alter+ = _fear of a second enemy_, i.e. of one in ambush. 17. +silvis Laurentibus.+ Laurentum on the coast of Latium between Ostia and Ardea. Wild boars are still found in the swampy thickets. 18. +Fulmineo ore+ = _with flashing tusk_. --Hallam.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, ii. 48, 49.

'The story probably came from the Chronicles of the Fabian Clan, perhaps through _Fabius_ Pictor, the first Roman annalist.' Rawlins, Cf. Ihne, vol. i. cap. vi.

D15

WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS, 458 B.C.

A. _Cincinnatus called from the Plough._

Sed Aequos praecipue Quinctius Cincinnatus domuit, ille dictator ab aratro, qui obsessa et paene iam capta L. Minuci consulis castra egregia victoria recuperavit. Medium erat tempus forte sementis, cum patricium virum innixum aratro suo lictor in {5} ipso opere deprehendit. Inde in aciem profectus, ne quid a rustici operis imitatione cessaret, more pecudum victos sub iugum misit. Sic expeditione finita redit ad boves rursus triumphalis agricola. Intra quindecim dies coeptum peractumque bellum, {10} prorsus ut festinasse, dictator ad relictum opus videretur.

FLORUS, I. xi. 12-15.

[Linenotes: 1. +Aequos+, mountaineers (closely allied to the Sabines) who lived in the mountains forming the E. boundary of Latium. +Cincinnatus.+ 'The true type of primeval virtue, abstinence, and patriotism.' --Ihne. 2-4. +qui ... recuperavit.+ The Aequian general, Gracchus Cloelius, had defeated the consul, L. Minucius, and blockaded him in his camp on Mt. Algidus, the E. spur of the Alban range. Cincinnatus makes a wonderful night march from Rome of 20 miles, blockades in turn the investing Aequian force, and compels an unconditional surrender. 4. +sementis+ = _of the seed-time_. Formed from _semen_, cf. _sero_.]

B. '_In the brave days of old._'

Restat, ut inveniam, quare toga libera detur Lucifero pueris, candide Bacche, tuo. 2 . . . . . . . An quia, cum colerent prisci studiosius agros, Et patrio faceret rure senator opus, 4 Et caperet fasces a curvo consul aratro, Nec crimen duras esset habere manus, Rusticus ad ludos populus veniebat in urbem: Sed dis, non studiis, ille dabatur honor. 8

OVID, _Fasti_, iii. 729-742, H. [III. 771-784]

[Linenotes: 1. +toga libera+ (or +virilis+), the man's dress of unornamented white wool. _Lîbera_ (_lîber_), _free_ from the restraints of boyhood. 2. +lucifero+ = lit. _morning-star_. Here poet. for +die+. 5. +consul+, e.g. Cincinnatus, who was called to be _Dictator_. 8. +sed ... honor+, i.e. in 'the good old days' worship, not amusement, was the chief object of the visit to Rome. 3-8. Ovid says one reason why the _toga libera_ was assumed at the Liberalia (the Feast of Bacchus--the vintage, festival) was because it was the most crowded festival of the year.]

+References.+ Livy, iii. 26-28. Ihne, vol. i. cap. v.

D16

THE DECEMVIRATE. THE TWELVE TABLES, 451-449 B.C.

Iam redierant legati cum Atticis legibus. Eo intentius instabant tribuni, ut tandem scribendarum legum initium fieret. Placet creari decemviros sine provocatione, et ne quis eo anno alius magistratus esset ... Tum legibus condendis opera dabatur; {5} ingentique hominum expectatione propositis decem tabulis populum ad contionem advocaverunt et, quod bonum, faustum felixque rei publicae, ipsis liberisque eorum esset, ire et legere leges propositas iussere. Se, quantum decem hominum ingeniis provideri {10} potuerit, omnibus, summis infimisque, iura aequasse; plus pollere multorum ingenia consiliaque. Versarent in animis secum unamquamque rem, agitarent deinde sermonibus atque in medium, quid in quaque re plus minusve esset, conferrent. . . . Cum ad {15} rumores hominum de unoquoque legum capite editos satis correctae viderentur, centuriatis comitiis decem tabularum leges perlatae sunt, qui nunc quoque in hoc immenso aliarum super alias acervatarum legum cumulo, fons omnis publici privatique {20} est iuris.

LIVY, iii. 32, 34.

[Linenotes: 1. +cum Atticis legibus+, i.e. with a copy of the Laws of Solon (the great Athenian Lawgiver, 594 B.C.). 1-3. +Eo intentius ... fieret+, because up to this time the knowledge of law and its interpretation was confined to the Patricians (cf. the Scribes of the N.T.). This could only be remedied by writng the laws down and making them public. 3-4. +sine provocatione+ = _without appeal_. Lit. 'challenging.' 4-5. +ne quis ... esset.+ The Decemvirs were to supersede temporarily both Consuls and Tribunes. 14-15. +quid ... conferrent+ = '_Should point out in the interest of all_ (lit. should contribute to the public good) _any faults of excess or defect in the several articles_.' --Stephenson. 15-17. +ad rumores hominum+ = _in accordance with_ (+ad+) _public opinion_. 17. +centuriatis comitiis.+ Servius Tullius divided the people into five classes, according to the value of their property. The people (Patricians and Plebeians alike) voted by centuries; but as 98 centuries (and [therefore] 98 votes) were allotted to the richest class and only 95 to the other four classes, the influence of wealth was decisive in the elections.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Cic. _De Republica_ ii. 33-37, and _De Legibus_ ii. 23.

+The Twelve Tables.+ 'They were essentially only a written embodiment of the existing public and private law.' --Mommsen. Cf. Magna Carta.

D17

SECOND SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 448 B.C.

_The Death of Verginia not in vain._

Concitatur multitudo partim atrocitate sceleris, partim spe per occasionem repetendae libertatis. In contionem Appius escendit; sequuntur Horatius Valeriusque. Eos contio audit; decemviro obstrepitur. Iam pro imperio Valerius discedere a privato {5} lictores iubebat, cum fractis animis Appius vitae metuens in domum se propinquam foro insciis adversariis capite obvoluto recipit. M. Duillius deinde tribunus plebis plebem rogavit plebesque scivit, qui plebem sine tribunis reliquisset quique magistratum {10} sine provocatione creasset, tergo ac capite puniretur. Haec omnia ut invitis, ita non adversantibus patriciis transacta, quia nondum in quemquam unum saeviebatur. Fundata deinde et potestate tribunicia et plebis libertate tum tribuni aggredi singulos tutum {15} maturumque iam rati accusatorem primum Verginium et Appium reum deligunt. Spe incisa, priusquam prodicta dies adesset, Appius mortem sibi conscivit. M. Claudius assertor Verginiae, die dicta damnatus ipso remittente Verginio ultimam poenam {20} dimissus Tibur exulatum abiit; manesque Verginiae, mortuae quam vivae felicioris, per tot domos ad petendas poenas vagati nullo relicto sonte tandem quieverunt.

LIVY, iii. 49, 55, 56, 58 (sel.)

+Context+. Verginius, seeing no way of saving his daughter from disgrace and dishonour at the hands of Appius Claudius, killed her before the judgment-seat of the tyrant and before the eyes of the people.

[Linenotes: 2. +per occasionem+ = _by such a favourable opportunity_. --Rawlins. 3. +In contionem+ = _to the rostra_ (the platform for speakers). 3-4. +Horatius Valeriusque.+ The first Consuls after the abolition of the Decemvirate in 449 B.C. 5. +pro imperio+, i.e. usurping the authority of a magistrate. 9. +plebesque scivit+ (scisco) = _and the people approved_ (i.e. voted for) it. 11. +provocatione+ = _right of appeal_. 18. +prodicta+ = _adjourned_, from the first hearing. --R. 19. +assertor V.+ = _who claimed V. as his slave_.]

+Results of the Secession+. 'The Valerian Laws, by the second of which it was ordained that in criminal trials, when the life of a citizen was at stake, the sentence of the Consul should be subject to an appeal to the people. This Valerian Law of Appeal was the Roman Habeas Corpus Act.' --Ihne.

D18

WAR WITH THE ETRUSCANS OF FIDENAE AND VEII.

_Cossus wins the Spolia Opima, 437 B.C._

Erat tum inter equites tribunus militum A. Cornelius Cossus, eximia pulchritudine corporis, animo ac viribus par memorque generis, quod amplissimum acceptum maius auctiusque reliquit posteris. Is cum ad impetum Tolumni, quacumque se intendisset, {5} trepidantes Romanas videret turmas insignemque eum regio habitu volitantem tota acie cognosset, 'Hicine est' inquit 'ruptor foederis humani violatorque gentium iuris? Iam ego hanc mactatam victimam, si modo sancti quicquam in terris esse di {10} volunt, legatorum manibus dabo.' Calcaribus subditis infesta cuspide in unum fertur hostem; quem cum ictum equo deiecisset, confestim et ipse hasta innixus se in pedes excepit. Adsurgentem ibi regem umbone resupinat repetitumque saepius cuspide {15} ad terram affixit. Tum exsangui detracta spolia, caputque abscisum victor spiculo gerens terrore caesi regis hostes perfudit. Ita equitum quoque fusa acies, quae una fecerat anceps certamen. Dictator legionibus fugatis instat et ad castra compulsos {20} caedit.

LIVY, iv. 19.

[Linenotes: 3. +par+ = _equally distinguished by_, equal, that is, to his beauty. --S. 5. +Tolumni+ = Lars Tolumnius, King of the Veientos, in alliance with Fidenae (about 5 miles N.E. of Rome).] +quacumque se intendisset+ = _wherever he directed his charge._ 8-11. +Hicine ... manibus dabo.+ Fidenae had frequently been colonised by Rome, and had as frequently revolted. When the Romans sent four ambassadors to Fidenae to demand satisfaction for this last revolt, the people of Fidenae murdered them. Tolumnius is associated with their crime. 12. +infesta cuspide+ = _with couched lance._ 13-14. +hasta ... excepit+ = _with the help of his spear leapt to the ground_. Lit. 'resting on his spear caught himself on his feet.' --Stephenson. 15. +umbone resupinat+ = _he throws him back with the boss of his shield._ +repetitum+ = _piercing him again and again_. --S. 19. +Dictator+ = Mamercus Aemilius, a man of energy and ability.]

The +spolia opima+ (_spoils of honour_) were the arms taken on the field of battle by the victorious from the vanquished general. They were won on only three occasions:--

i. by +Romulus+, ii. by +Cossus+, iii. by +Marcellus+ (the Conqueror of Syracuse), who in his first consulship, 222 B.C., slew with his own hand Viridomarus, King of the Insubrian Gauls. Cf. Prop. V. x.

D19

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (1)

_First Pay given to Citizen Soldiers, 406 B.C._

Additum deinde omnium maxime tempestivo principum in multitudinem munere, ut ante mentionem ullam plebis tribunorumve decerneret senatus, ut stipendium miles de publico acciperet, cum ante id tempus de suo quisque functus eo munere esset. {5} Nihil acceptum umquam a plebe tanto gaudio traditur. Concursum itaque ad curiam esse prensatasque exeuntium manus et patres vere appellatos, effectum esse fatentibus, ut nemo pro tam munifica patria, donec quicquam virium superesset, corpori {10} aut sanguini suo parceret. Cum commoditas iuvaret, rem familiarem saltem acquiescere eo tempore, quo corpus addictum atque operatum rei publicae esset, tum quod ultro sibi oblatum esset, non a tribunis plebis agitatum, non suis sermonibus efflagitatum, {15} id efficiebat multiplex gaudium cumulatioremque gratiam rei. . . . Et lege perlata de indicendo Veientibus bello exercitum magna ex parte voluntarium novi tribuni militum consulari potestate Veios duxere. {20}

LIVY, iv. 59, 60.

[Linenotes: 1. +tempestivo+ = _seasonable_ (_timely_), in view of the coming struggle with Veii, and the necessity for winter campaigns. 2. +munere.+ Livy tells us (cap. 60) that the Senate did _not_ provide the pay as a present, but simply paid punctually their proper share of the _war-tax (tributum) in accordance with their assessment (cum senatus summa fide ex censu contulisset)_. 4. +de publico+ = _out of the Public Treasury_. 9. +fatentibus+ = _while men admitted_. --R. 11-12. +Cum ... acquiescere+ = _While the comfortable thought_ (_commoditas_ = lit. _advantage_) _pleased them_ (namely) _that their private property at least was undisturbed_-- i.e. that they paid no war-tax while they were in the field. --Rawlins. 12-13. +quo corpus ... esset+ = _when they were impressed (devoted to) and actively employed in the public service_. --S. +addictus+, properly of an insolvent debtor made over to his creditor = a _bondman_. 16-17. +id ... gratiam rei+ in apposition to +quod ... efflagitatum+. 19. +tribuni ... potestate.+ Military tribunes with consular power instead of Consuls were elected occasionally from 444 to 367 B.C. 20. +Veios.+ The capture of Veii by Camillus (396 B.C.), in consequence of the introduction of military pay, was enormously important to Rome.]

+Reference.+ Ihne, _Hist._ vol. i. pp. 243-4.

D20

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (2)

A. _Lament over Veii._

Heu, Veii veteres, et vos tum regna fuistis, Et vestro posita est aurea sella foro: Nunc intra muros pastoris bucina lenti Cantat, et in vestris ossibus arva metunt. 30

PROPERTIUS, IV. (V.) x. 27-30.

[Linenotes: 27. +Veii+ (Isola Farnese) on R. Cremera, about 12 miles N.W. of Rome. 28. +aurea sella+, i.e. the official seat of the King. Cf. the Sella Curulis at Rome, introduced from Etruria. 29. +bucina+ = _horn_. 30. +et ... metunt+ = _and reapers gather the harvests from fields_ (+metunt arva+) _enriched by the bones of your buried heroes_ (+in ossibus vestris+).]

B. _The Rise of the Alban Lake._

Quid, quod in annalibus habemus, Veienti {5} bello, cum lacus Albanus praeter modum crevisset, Veientem quemdam ad nos hominem nobilem profugisse, eumque dixisse, ex fatis, quae Veientes scripta haberent, Veios capi non posse, dum lacus is redundaret: et, si lacus emissus lapsu et cursu suo ad {10} mare profluxisset, perniciosum populo Romano: sin autem ita esset eductus, ut ad mare pervenire non posset, tum salutare nostris fore? Ex quo illa admirabilis a maioribus Albanae aquae facta deductio est. Cum autem Veientes bello fessi legatos ad {15} senatum misissent, tum ex his quidam dixisse dicitur, non omnia illum transfugam ausum esse senatu dicere: in iisdem enim fatis scriptum Veientes habere, 'Fore ut brevi a Gallis Roma caperetur:' quod quidem sexennio post Veios captos esse factum {20} videmus.

CICERO, _de Divinatione_, I. xliv. 100.

[Linenotes: 5. +in annalibus+, e.g. in Livy, v. 15. 6. +crevisset+, perh. partly due to the excessive snows of the preceding winter, 397 B.C. 7. +profugisse.+ Livy says he was treacherously made prisoner. 8-9. +ex fatis ... haberent+, i.e. the Etruscan +Libri fatales+, _Books of fate_, cf. the +Libri Sibyllini+ = the Roman Books of fate. 10. +lapsu et cursu suo+ = _in its natural course and stream_. 14. +deductio+ = _draining_ (lit. _a leading off_). The tunnel then cut still carries off the superfluous waters of the lake. 20. +sexennio post+ = _six years after_, i.e. 390 B.C. For the 10 years' siege of Veii, cf. the Trojan War.]

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Camillus_, iii.-v. Livy, v. 15.

D21

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B.C. (3)

_The Conquest of Veii._

Veientes ignari se iam a suis vatibus, iam ab externis oraculis proditos, iam in partem praedae suae vocatos deos, alios votis ex urbe sua evocatos hostium templa novasque sedes spectare, seque ultimum illum diem agere, nihil minus timentes {5} quam subrutis cuniculo moenibus arcem iam plenam hostium esse, in muros pro se quisque armati discurrunt mirantes, quidnam id esset, quod, cum tot per dies nemo se ab stationibus Romanus movisset, tum velut repentino icti furore improvidi currerent ad {10} muros. . . . Cuniculus delectis militibus eo tempore plenus in aedem Iunonis, quae in Veientana arce erat, armatos repente edidit, et pars aversos in muris invadunt hostes, pars claustra portarum revellunt, pars, cum ex tectis saxa tegulaeque a mulieribus ac {15} servitiis iacerentur, inferunt ignes. Clamor omnia variis terrentium ac paventium vocibus mixto mulierum ac puerorum ploratu complet. Momento temporis deiectis ex muro undique armatis patefactisque portis cum alii agmine irruerent, alii {20} desertos scanderent muros, urbs hostibus impletur; omnibus locis pugnatur; deinde multa iam edita caede senescit pugna, et dictator praecones edicere iubet, ut ab inermi abstineatur.

LIVY, V. 21.

[Linenotes: 1. +a suis vatibus+, i.e. by the captured Etruscan soothsayer (_haruspex_). 1-2. +ab externis oraculis+, i.e. by the Delphic Oracle. 2-3. +iam in partem ... (alios) deos.+ Camillus had vowed to give to Apollo the tenth part of the spoils of Veii. 3-4. +alios ... spectare+, i.e. Juno. 'It was a Roman practice to invite the patron deity of a place or country to leave it, and to promise a more honourable worship at Rome.' --Whibley. 5-6. +subrutis cunîculo+ = _undermined_. Camillus had a tunnel (_cuniculum--rabbit-burrow_, cf. _cony_) cut from the Roman camp under the wall to the Temple of Juno on the citadel of Veii. 7. +discurrunt+ = _run every man to his post_, cf. _ad arma discurritur_. 15. +têgulae+ = _tiles_, _roof-tiles_ (_t[)e]go_). 23. +senescit+ = _abates_, lit. _grows old_, _becomes exhausted_.]

+Results of the War.+ 'By the Conquest of Veii, Rome's territory, wealth, and population were largely increased. Rome was now emerging from the position of a federal capital of the Latins to become the mistress of a large country, when she was suddenly and unexpectedly overtaken by a disaster (+the Invasion of the Gauls+) which threatened not only her growth but her life.' --Ihne.

D22

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (1)

_The Battle of the Allia._

Ibi tribuni militum non loco castris ante capto, non praemunito vallo, quo receptus esset, non deorum saltem, si non hominum, memores, nec auspicato nec litato instruunt aciem diductam in cornua, ne circumveniri multitudine hostium possent; {5} nec tamen aequari frontes poterant, cum extenuando infirmam et vix cohaerentem mediam aciem haberent. Paulum erat ab dextera editi loci, quem subsidiariis repleri placuit; eaque res ut initium pavoris ac fugae, sic una salus fugientibus fuit. Nam Brennus, regulus {10} Gallorum, in paucitate hostium artem maxime timens, ratus ad id captum superiorem locum, ut, ubi Galli cum acie legionum recta fronte concurrissent, subsidia in aversos transversosque impetum darent, ad subsidiarios signa convertit, si eos loco depulisset, {15} haud dubius facilem in aequo campi tantum superanti multitudine victoriam fore; adeo non fortuna modo sed ratio etiam cum barbaris stabat. In altera acie nihil simile Romanis, non apud duces, non apud milites erat. Pavor fugaque occupaverat animos et {20} tanta omnium oblivio, ut multo maior pars Veios, in hostium urbem, cum Tiberis arceret, quam recto itinere Romam ad coniuges ac liberos fugerent.

LIVY, V. 38.

[Linenotes: 4. +nec litato+ = _without obtaining favourable omens_ (= #kallierein#). 4-5. +diductam in cornua+ = _extended (drawn out) towards the wings_. 6-7. +cum ... haberent+ = _though they made_, concessive subjunctive. 8. +Paulum ... editi loci+ = lit. _a little piece of rising ground_. 10. +Brennus+ = lit. _King of the army_. Cf. the Saxon _Heretoga_. 13. +recta fronte+ = _front to front_. --Whibley. 14. +in aversos transversosque+ = _on their rear and flank_. 16-17. +superanti multitudine+ = i. _(the victory) would be (easy) to him superior_ (+superanti+) _in point of numbers_, or ii. abl, of cause--_as he was so much superior in numbers_. 21-22. +Veios, in hostium urbem.+ An exaggeration as Veii was in ruins. 22. +cum T. arceret+ = _though the Tiber stood in their way_.]

+The Invasion of the Gauls.+ 'The most advanced tribe of the Gauls were the Senones who had settled on the Adriatic to the E. of Central Etruria. While the Romans reduced S. Etruria to a state of subjection, these Gauls suddenly crossed the Apennines, threatened Clusium, and then marched on Rome. +Thus for the first time the Gallic race was brought to the knowledge of the civilised world.+ The two armies met on July 18 at the small R. Allia, only 15 miles from Rome.' --Ihne.

D23

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (2)

A. _The Battle of the Allia_ (cont.)

Parumper subsidiarios tutatus est locus; in reliqua acie simul est clamor proximis ab latere, ultimis ab tergo auditus, ignotum hostem prius paene quam viderent, non modo non temptato certamine sed ne clamore quidem reddito integri intactique {5} fugerunt; nec ulla caedes pugnantium fuit; terga caesa suomet ipsorum certamine in turba impedientium fugam. Circa ripam Tiberis, quo armis abiectis totum sinistrum cornu refugit, magna strages facta est, multosque imperitos nandi aut invalidos, {10} graves loricis aliisque tegminibus, hausere gurgites. Maxima tamen pars incolumis Veios perfugit, unde non modo praesidii quicquam, sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam est missus. Ab dextro cornu, quod procul a flumine et magis sub monte steterat, {15} Romam omnes petiere et ne clausis quidem portis urbis in arcem confugerunt.

LIVY, v. 38.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +simul (= simul ac) ... auditus+ = _as soon as the shout was heard, by those nearest on the flank, by the most distant in the rear_. '+Proximi+ denotes the Romans on the right wing, who were the first to be attacked; the Gauls after routing them pressed on to the rear of the Romans and attacked the centre and left wing (+ultimi+) from behind.' --Whibley. 7-8. +suomet ... fugam+ = _as they hindered their own flight by their struggling with one another in the crush_.] 11. +graves+ = _weighed down with_, equivalent to a pass. partic. +hausere gurgites+ = _the currents sucked down_. --W 15. +sub monte+, i.e. the Colles Crustumini, which run parallel to the South bank of the Tiber.]

B. _July 18th, a Dies Nefastus._

Pharsalia tanti Causa mali. Cedant feralia nomina Cannae, Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis.

LUCAN, _Phars._ vii. 407-9.

[Linenotes: 407. +Pharsalia+, Battle of, 48 B.C. Caesar signally defeated Pompey. 408. +feralia+ = _fatal_ (= +funesta+). 409. +fastis+, i.e. _Fasti consulares_, the registers of the higher magistrates. Cf. the Saxon Chronicle.]

+The Battle.+ 'The defeat of the Allia was never forgotten by the Romans. The panic (due to the strange appearance of the barbarians and their unwonted method of fighting) which alone had caused the defeat, struck so deep into their minds that for centuries afterwards the name and the sight of Gauls inspired them with terror.' --Ihne.

D24

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (3)

_Roman Dignity and Courage._

Romae interim satis iam omnibus ut in tali re ad tuendam arcem compositis turba seniorum domos regressi adventum hostium obstinato ad mortem animo exspectabant. Qui eorum curules gesserant magistratus, ut in fortunae pristinae honorumque ac {5} virtutis insignibus morerentur, quae augustissima vestis est tensas ducentibus triumphantibusve, ea vestiti medio aedium eburneis sellis sedere. Galli autem ingressi postero die urbem patente Collina porta in forum perveniunt; ubi eos plebis aedificiis {10} obseratis, patentibus atriis principum, maior prope cunctatio tenebat aperta quam clausa invadendi; adeo haud secus quam venerabundi intuebantur in aedium vestibulis sedentes viros, praeter ornatum habitumque humano augustiorem maiestate etiam, {15} quam vultus gravitasque oris prae se ferebat, simillimos dis. Ad eos velut ad simulacra versi cum starent, M. Papirius, unus ex eis, dicitur Gallo barbam suam, ut tum omnibus promissa erat, permulcenti scipione eburneo in caput incusso iram {20} movisse, atque ab eo initium caedis ortum, ceteros in sedibus suis trucidatos; post principum caedem nulli deinde mortalium parci, diripi tecta, exhaustis inici ignes.

LIVY, v. 41 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 1. +ut in tali re+ = _considering the circumstances_. 3. +obstinato ad+ = _firmly resolved on_... --Rawlins. 4-5. +curules magistratus+ = _curule magistracies_, i.e. of Dictator, Censor, Consul, Praetor, Curule Aedile, who possessed the right of using _sellae curules_ (_the ivory chairs of State_), originally an emblem of kingly power. 5-6. +in fortunae ... insignibus+ = _in the emblems of their old rank_ (+fortunae+) _and office_ (+honorum+) _and prowess_ (+virtutis+ i.e. prizes for valour; e.g. _phalerae_ = _bosses_, _coronae_ = _crowns_). 7. +tensas+ = _state cars_ in which the statues of the gods were drawn in solemn procession to the Circensian games. 11. +obseratis+ = _shut up_, lit. _barred_, +ob + sera+, cf. _s[)e]ro_ = join. 14. +vestibulis+ = _entrance-courts_, only found in large houses. 14-15. +praeter ornatum habitumque+ = _not only in their garb and bearing_. --Whibley. 19. +ut tum ... erat+ = _worn long_ (+promissa+) _as was then the custom with all_, or _worn long in accordance with the fashion of the time_. --R. 20. +scipione eburneo+ = _the ivory staff_, one of the _insignia_ of the _triumphator_. 23. +exhaustis+ (sc. _aedibus_) = _when completely pillaged_.]

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Camillus_, xxi. xxii.

D25

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (4)

A. _Manlius Capitolinus and the Sacred Geese._

In summo custos Tarpeiae Manlius arcis Stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat, Romuleoque recens horrebat regia culmo. Atque his auratis volitans argenteus anser 655 Porticibus Gallos in limine adesse canebat; Galli per dumos aderant, arcemque tenebant, Defensi tenebris et dono noctis opacae; Aurea caesaries ollis, atque aurea vestis; Virgatis lucent sagulis; tum lactea colla 660 Auro innectuntur; duo quisque Alpina coruscant Gaesa manu, scutis protecti corpora longis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ viii. 652-662.

+Context.+ Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shield whereon were wrought scenes of the story of Rome to be.

[Linenotes: 652. +in summo+ (sc. +clipeo+), _on the top of the shield_, as held in position. 654. +Romuleoque ... culmo+ = lit. _and the palace was stiff freshly covered_ (+recens+) _with the thatch of Romulus_. 655-656. +auratis ... porticibus+ = _the gilded colonnades_ of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus of Vergil's day, restored 69 B.C. 660. +virgatis sagulis+ = _with striped cloaks_--+virgatus+ = with bands or bars like shoots (_virgae_)--an effect produced by inlaying. C. 661-662. +Alpina gaesa+ = _Alpine_ (i.e. _native_) _javelins_.]

B. _The Fate of Manlius, 384 B.C._

M. Manlius, unde Gallos depulerat, inde ipse praecipitatus est, quia fortiter defensam libertatem nefarie opprimere conatus fuerat. Cuius iustae ultionis nimirum haec praefatio fuit: 'Manlius eras {15} mihi, cum praecipites agebas Senones; postquam imitari coepisti, unus factus es ex Senonibus.' Huius supplicio aeternae memoriae nota inserta est: propter illum enim lege sanciri placuit ne quis patricius in arce aut Capitolio habitaret, quia domum eo loco {20} habuerat, ubi nunc aedem Monetae videmus.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, vi. _De Severitate_.

[Linenotes: 13-14. +quia ... fuerat.+ Manlius in reality fell a victim to his sympathies with the Plebeians. Cf. the fate of Sp. Cassius 485 B.C. 18. +nota+ = _a mark (brand) of infamy_. 20-21. +quia ... habuerat.+ His house on the Capitol was razed to the ground. 21. +aedem Monetae+, a surname of Juno, in whose temple on the Arx money was coined. Cf. our Mint.]

'Thus ended the life of Manlius, the deliverer of Rome, the humane friend of an oppressed people, condemned by this very people to die the death of a traitor.' --Ihne.

D26

THE INVASION OF ROME BY THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (5)

_Camillus, Parens Patriae._

Sed diique et homines prohibuere redemptos vivere Romanos. Nam forte quadam, priusquam infanda merces perficeretur, per altercationem nondum omni auro appenso dictator intervenit auferrique aurum de medio et Gallos submoveri iubet. Cum {5} illi renitentes pactos dicerent sese, negat eam pactionem ratam esse, quae, postquam ipse dictator creatus esset, iniussu suo ab inferioris iuris magistratu facta esset, denuntiatque Gallis, ut se ad proelium expediant ... Instruit deinde aciem, ut {10} loci natura patiebatur, in semirutae solo urbis et natura inaequali, et omnia, quae arte belli secunda suis eligi praepararive poterant, providit. Galli nova re trepidi arma capiunt, iraque magis quam consilio in Romanos incurrunt. Primo concursu haud {15} maiore momento fusi Galli sunt, quam ad Alliam vicerant. Iustiore altero deinde proelio ad octavum lapidem Gabina via, quo se ex fuga contulerant, eiusdem ductu auspicioque Camilli vincuntur. Ibi caedes omnia obtinuit; castra capiuntur, et ne {20} nuntius quidem cladis relictus. Dictator recuperata ex hostibus patria triumphans in urbem redit, interque iocos militares, quos inconditos iaciunt, Romulus ac parens patriae conditorque alter urbis haud vanis laudibus appellabatur. {25}

LIVY, v. 49 (sel.)

+Context.+ The Romans on the Capitol, despairing of outside help, agreed with Brennus that Rome should be redeemed by a ransom of 1000 pounds of gold. _Nondum omnni auro appenso_, Camillus appeared at the head of his troops.

[Linenotes: 3. +per altercationem+ = _owing to the dispute_. When the Consular Tribune Sulpicius complained that the Gauls used unjust weights, Brennus in derision threw his sword into the scale and said _Vae victis!_ 13-14. +nova re+ = _at the change in their fortunes_. --Whibley. 15-16. +haud maiore momento+ = _with no greater difficulty (effort)_. 17. +Iustiore altero proelio+ = _in a second and more regular engagement_. -- W. 23. +incondîtos+ = _rough_, _unpolished_. 'The Gaul shall come against thee From the land of snow and night: Thou shalt give his fair-haired armies To the raven and the kite.' --Macaulay.]

D27

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B.C. (6)

A. _The Migration to Veii abandoned._

Movisse eos Camillus cum alia oratione tum ea, quae ad religiones pertinebat, maxime dicitur; sed rem dubiam decrevit vox opportune missa, quod, cum senatus post paulo de his rebus in curia Hostilia haberetur, cohortesque ex praesidiis revertentes forte {5} agmine forum transirent, centurio in comitio exclamavit: 'Signifer, statue signum; hic manebimus optime.' Qua voce audita et senatus accipere se omen ex curia egressus conclamavit, et plebs circumfusa approbavit. Antiquata deinde lege promiscue {10} urbs aedificari coepta.

LIVY, v. 55.

[Linenotes: 1. +cum alia tum+ = _especially_ +ea+ = _ea parte orationis_. 3. +vox opportune missa+ = _a phrase seasonably let fall_. 10. +Antiquata deinde lege+ (= _rogatione_) = _the proposed law was then rejected_, +antiquare+ = _to leave in its former state_.]

B. _Juno forbids the Rebuilding of Troy._

'Sed bellicosis fata Quiritibus Hac lege dico, ne nimium pii Rebusque fidentes avitae Tecta velint reparare Troiae. 60 'Troiae renascens alite lugubri Fortuna tristi clade iterabitur, Ducente victrices catervas Coniuge me Iovis et sorore.' 64

HORACE, _Odes_, III. iii. 57-64.

[Linenotes: 58. +hac lege+ = _on this condition_, i.e. that Rome should always be the capital. +nimium pii+ = _too dutiful_ to their mother-city Troy. 58-60. +ne ... reparare Troiae.+ There was a rumour, even in Caesar's time (v. Suet. _Iul. Caes._ 79) that he meant to migrate to Alexandria or Ilium. Horace, prob. with the sanction of Augustus, sets himself to discourage it. Cf. the Speech of Camillus, Livy, v. 51-54. 61-62. +Troiae ... iterabitur+ = the _fortunes of Troy, if with evil omen it is called to life again_ (+renascens+), _shall be repeated in an overthrow as sad as before_. --Wickham.]

'The Burning of Rome by the Gauls involved the destruction of all the existing records, and great loss of property. Yet in spite of all the damage done, the Romans set to work to establish the state anew, to rebuild the City, and to reassert their commanding position among their allies and neighbours.' --Ihne.

+The Speech of Camillus.+ Its object was to show the growth of Rome under the guidance of Providence. Cf. the purpose of the _Aeneid_.

D28

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B.C. (1)

_First Plebeian Consul, 366 B.C._

Occasio videbatur rerum novandarum propter ingentem vim aeris alieni, cuius levamen mali plebes nisi suis in summo imperio locatis, nullum speraret: accingendum ad eam cogitationem esse; conando agendoque iam eo gradum fecisse plebeios, unde, {5} si porro annitantur, pervenire ad summa et patribus aequari tam honore quam virtute possent. In praesentia tribunes plebis fieri placuit, quo in magistratu sibimet ipsi viam ad ceteros honores aperirent. Creatique tribuni C. Licinius et L. Sextius promulgavere {10} leges omnes adversus opes patriciorum et pro commodis plebis, unam de aere alieno, ut deducto eo de capite, quod usuris pernumeratum esset, id, quod superesset, triennio aequis pensionibus persolveretur; alteram de modo agrorum, ne quis plus quingenta {15} iugera agri possideret; tertiam, ne tribunorum militum comitia fierent, consulumque utique alter ex plebe crearetur; cuncta ingentia et quae sine certamine maximo obtineri non possent. . . . Ita ab diutina ira tandem in concordiam redacti sunt ordines. {20}

LIVY, vi. 35.

[Linenotes: 1. +Occasio.+ This, so Livy tells us, was the jealousy between the Fabian sisters, the one married to the patrician Sulpicius, the other to the plebeian Licinius Stolo. 1-2. +propter ... alieni.+ The old Roman law of debt was very harsh and severe. 3. +in summo imperio+, i.e. the Consulate. 4. +accingendum ... esse+ = _they must brace themselves to the execution of that idea_. --R. +accingendum+, reflexive here. 5. +iam eo+, i.e. to the office of Consular Tribune, created 444 B.C. 6. +si porro annitantur+ = _if they +now+ make a further effort_. This use of Pres. Subj. in Or. Obl. frequent in Livy. 7. +tam honore quam virtute+ = _in official rank as (they were already) in merit_. --Rawlins. 12-14. +ut deducto ... persolveretur+ = '_after deducting from the amount of the loan_ (+capite+ = _principal_) _what had been paid in interest, the balance should be paid in three equal instalments_.' --Cluer and Matheson. 15. +de modo agrorum+ = _relating to the limitation of land-holding_. 16-17. +tribunorum militum+ (sc. _cum consulari potestate_) created 444 B.C., but no plebeian obtained that honour till 400 B.C., and only two after that date. 17. +utique+ = _one at any rate_.]

+Result.+ 'The principle was established that Patricians and Plebeians were both citizens of the State, and equally eligible to the honours and dignities of the Republic.' --Ihne.

D29

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B.C. (2)

_The Origin of the Floralia, 238 B.C._

'Dic, dea,' respondi, 'ludorum quae sit origo.' Vix bene desieram; rettulit illa mihi: 'Cetera luxuriae nondum instrumenta vigebant: Aut pecus, aut latam dives habebat humum; 4 Hinc etiam locuples, hinc ipsa pecunia dicta est. Sed iam de vetito quisque parabat opes. Venerat in morem populi depascere saltus; Idque diu licuit, poenaque nulla fuit. 8 Vindice servabat nullo sua publica vulgus; Iamque in privato pascere inertis erat. Plebis ad aediles perducta licentia talis Publicios: animus defuit ante viris. 12 Rem populus recipit: multam subiere nocentes: Vindicibus laudi publica cura fuit. Multa data est ex parte mihi, magnoque favore Victores ludos instituere novos. 16 Parte locant Clivum, qui tunc erat ardua rupes: Utile nunc iter est. Publiciumque vocant.'

OVID, _Fasti_, v. 237-254, H. [V. 277-294]

[Linenotes: 2. +illa+, i.e. _Flora_, the Roman goddess of Flowers and Spring. 3. +luxuriae instrumenta+ = _appliance of luxury_. 5. +locuples+ (_locus + plenus_) = _rich in lands_. +pecunia+ from +pecus+, _cattle_ being in olden time the chief form of wealth and the chief medium of exchange. For +pecus+, cf. _fee_, _fief_, _feudal_. 7. +Venerat ... saltus+ = _it had grown into a custom to feed (cattle) on the public forest-pastures_. (Cf. the ager publicus.) --H. 9. +sua publica+ = _their common property_, i.e. their interest in the public land. +vulgus+ here = _the commons_, not the _plebs_ as opposed to the _populus_. 10. +inertis erat+ = _it was the mark of a man wanting in spirit_. 12. +Publicios.+ L. and M. Publicius Malleolus,[21] plebeian aediles, B.C. 241. +animus ... viris+, i.e. information had before been given but no aedile dared to act upon it. 13. +recipit+ = _takes up the charge at the Comitia_. +multam+ = _a fine_. Cf. to mulct = to fine. 14. +publica cura+ = _their public spirit_. --H. 15. +multa ... mihi+, i.e. a new Temple was built to Flora near the Circus Maximus. +ludos novos+ = _the Floralia_. 16. +Parte locant+ (sc. _muniendum_) +Clivum+ = _with the (other) part they contract for (the making of) the Clivus_, a sloping road, called the Clivus Publicius, which led up to the Aventine.]

[Footnote 21: For Malleolus, cf. Charles Martel of France, 'The Hammer' circ. 689-741 A.D.]

THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B.C.

D30

SECOND INVASION OF THE GAULS, 361 B.C.

_Manlius and his son Torquatus._

L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribunus plebis diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset; criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus appellatus, ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare {5} iussisset. Quod cum audivisset adulescens filius negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse Romam et cum prima luce Pomponii domum venisse dicitur. Cui cum esset nuntiatum, qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur, surrexit e {10} lectulo remotisque arbitris ad se adulescentem iussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladium destrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum, nisi ius iurandum sibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum. Iuravit hoc terrore coactus Pomponius; {15} rem ad populum detulit, docuit cur sibi causa desistere necesse esset, Manlium missum fecit. Tantum temporibus illis ius iurandum valebat. Atque hic T. Manlius is est, qui ad Anienem Galli, quem ab eo provocatus occiderat, torque detracto cognomen {20} invenit, cuius tertio consulatu Latini ad Veserim fusi et fugati.

CICERO, _de Officiis_, iii. § 112.

[Linenotes: 1. +L. Manlio+, i.e. L. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus, appointed Dictator 363 B.C. 'to drive in a nail (_clavi figendi causa_) on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter, to mark the number of the year, because written documents were rare in those times.' 2. +diem dixit+ = _named a day (for his trial before the Comitia)_. 4-6. +quod Titum filium ... iussisset.+ Livy, vii. 4, says 'And for what offence? Because he was a little slow of speech and not ready with his tongue.' 4. +Torquatus+, Dictator 353 and 349 B.C., and three times Consul. 6. +negotium exhiberi patri+ = lit. _that trouble was being brought upon his father_, i.e. _that his father was in trouble_. 9-10. +qui arbitraretur+ = _inasmuch as he thought_. Adject. causal clause. --Holden. 11. +remotis arbitris+ = _when he had put out of the room all witnesses_. --H. +arbiter+[22] = (ar = ad + bito = eo) = spectator, umpire. 14-15. +missum facturum+ = _would set at liberty_. 19. +ad Anienem Galli.+ On this, their second invasion, the Gauls advanced as far as the Anio. Livy tells us that after the death of their champion the Gauls fled under cover of night. 21-22. +cuius ... fugati+, i.e. the great battle of Vesuvius fought 340 B.C. by the Veseris, a R. in Campania near Mount Vesuvius, which established for ever the supremacy of Rome over Latium.]

[Footnote 22: Cf. _arbiter pugnae_, _bibendi_, Horace.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, vii. 4, 5, 9, 10.

D31

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B.C. (1)

_An Important Epoch in Roman History._

Maiora iam hinc bella et viribus hostium et longinquitate vel regionum vel temporum, quibus bellatum est, dicentur. Namque eo anno adversus Samnites, gentem opibus armisque validam, mota arma; Samnitium bellum ancipiti Marte gestum {5} Pyrrhus hostis, Pyrrhum Poeni secuti. Quanta rerum moles! quoties in extrema periculoram ventum, ut in hanc magnitudinem, quae vix sustinetur, erigi imperium posset! Belli autem causa cum Samnitibus Romanis, cum societate amicitiaque iuncti essent, {10} extrinsecus venit, non orta inter ipsos est. Samnites Sidicinis iniusta arma, quia viribus plus poterant, cum intulissent, coacti inopes ad opulentiorum auxilium confugere Campanis sese coniungunt. Campani magis nomen ad praesidium sociorum quam {15} vires cum attulissent, fluentes luxu ab duratis usu armorum in Sidicino pulsi agro, in se deinde molem omnem belli verterunt. Namque Samnites, omissis Sidicinis ipsam arcem finitimorum Campanos adorti, unde aeque facilis victoria, praedae atque gloriae {20} plus esset, Tifata, imminentes Capuae colles, cum praesidio firmo occupassent, descendunt inde quadrato agmine in planitiem, quae Capuam Tifataque interiacet. Ibi rursus acie dimicatum; adversoque proelio Campani intra moenia compulsi, cum robore iuventutis {25} suae acciso nulla propinqua spes esset, coacti sunt ab Romanis petere auxilium.

LIVY, vii. 29.

[Linenotes: 1. +iam hinc+, i.e. 343-266 B.C. 2. +longinquitate ... temporum+ = _the distance of the theatre of war_ (+regionum+) _and the length of the campaign_ (+temporum+).--Rawlins. 6-7. +quanta rerum moles+ = _What stupendous exertions!_--R. 8. +in hanc magnitudinem+, i.e. in the reign of Augustus. 10. +cum societate+, i.e. from 354 B.C. 12. +Sidicinis+, a Sabellian people N.W. of Campania, on the Samnite border. 16. +fluentes (luxu)+ = _enervated_ (lit. _relaxed_) by luxury. 21. +Tifâta+ (neut. Plur.), a mountain range N.E. of Capua. 22-23. +quadrato agmine+ = _in regular order of battle_, so that the whole army formed a parallelogram.]

+The Cause of the War.+ 'The interference of Rome was a breach of the Treaty with the Samnites. Livy admits this, but asserts that Capua had formally surrendered to Rome, and as a subject state claimed her protection. The story is confessedly false, for Capua remained, what it had always been, an independent town.' --R.

D32

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B.C. (2)

_Battle of Mt. Gaurus. M. Valerius Corvus._

Non alias militi familiarior dux fuit, omnia inter infimos militum haud gravate munia obeundo. In ludo praeterea militari, cum velocitatis viriumque inter se aequales certamina ineunt, comiter facilis; vincere ac vinci vultu eodem, nec quemquam aspernari {5} parem, qui se offerret; factis benignus pro re, dictis haud minus libertatis alienae quam suae dignitatis memor, et, quo nihil popularius est, quibus artibus petierat magistratus, iisdem gerebat. Itaque universus exercitus incredibili alacritate adhortationem {10} prosecutus ducis castris egreditur. . . . Primus omnium consul invadit hostem et, cum quo forte contulit gradum, obtruncat. Hoc spectaculo accensi dextra laevaque ante se quisque memorandum proelium ciet; stant obnixi Samnites, quamquam {15} plura accipiunt quam inferunt vulnera. Aliquamdiu iam pugnatum erat, atrox caedes circa signa Samnitium, fuga ab nulladum parte erat; adeo morte sola vinci destinaverant animis. Itaque Romani, cum et fluere iam lassitudine vires sentirent et diei {20} haud multum superesse, accensi ira concitant se in hostem. Tum primum referri pedem atque inclinari rem in fugam apparuit; tum capi, occidi Samnis; nec superfuissent multi, ni nox victoriam magis quam proelium diremisset. {25}

LIVY, vii. 33.

[Linenotes: 1. +familiarior+ = _on better terms with_. --Cluer and Matheson. 2. +haud gravate+ = _without reluctance_ (_ungrudgingly_). Compare Sallust's description of Marius and Sulla. 4. +aequales+ = _competitors_, lit. _well-matched_. +comiter facilis+ = _he was courteously good-natured_. 6-7. +pro re+ = _to suit the occasion_. 9. +artibus iisdem+ = _in the same spirit_. --Weissenborn. 11. +prosecutus+ = _welcoming_, lit. _attending_. 12-13. +cum ... gradum+ = _with whom he happened to engage_. Cf. _collato pede_ = _fighting foot to foot_. 15. +stant obnixi+ = _stand their ground firmly_. +obnixus+ (+ob + nitor+, _strive + against_), _resolute_. 23. +Samnis+, nom. sing. +capi+, +occidi+, Historic Infinitives. 25. +diremisset+ = _had broken off_. _dirimo_ (_dis + emo_) = _take apart_.]

+The Battle of Mt. Gaurus.+ The battle was fought on the volcanic range of mountains between Cumae and Neapolis. The Consul in command, M. Valerius, obtained the surname of Corvus (Raven), because when serving as a military Tribune under Camillus in 349 B.C., he defeated the Gallic champion by the aid of a raven. See next page, A. l. 4. [[line 66]]

D33

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (1)

_Self-Sacrifice of Decius Mus, 340 B.C._

A. _Rome's Empire safe in the keeping of Augustus._

Curtius expletis statuit monimenta lacunis; At Decius misso proelia rupit equo; 64 Coclitis abscissos testatur semita pontes: Est cui cognomen corvus habere dedit. Haec di condiderunt, haec di quoque moenia servant: Vix timeat, salvo Caesare, Roma Iovem. 68

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) xi. (x.) 63-68.

[Linenotes: 63. +Curtius ... lacunis+, in allusion to the spot called _Lacus Curtius_ (marked by a circular pavement) in the Forum which served as a memorial (_monimenta_) of his heroic sacrifice. Livy, vii. 6. +lacuna+ (cf. _lacus_) = _a hole_, _pool_, _chasm_. 65. +semita+ (_sed + meo_ = _go + aside_) = _a path_, _road_. Cocles, apparently, gave his name to the street running up from the bridge which he 'kept so well.' --Ramsay. 66. +cui+, i.e. M. Valerius Corvus, the hero of Mt. Gaurus. See p. 91. [[previous selection]] 67-68. i.e. _with Caesar_ (_Augustus_) _safe_, Rome has none to fear, nay, scarce Jove himself. Flattery can go no further than this!]

B. _The Dream of the Consuls on the Eve of Battle._

Illud etiam somnium et magnae admirationis et clari exitus, quod eadem nocte duo consules P. Decius Mus et T. Manlius Torquatus Latino bello gravi ac periculoso non procul a Vesuvi montis radicibus {10} positis castris viderunt. Utrique enim quaedam per quietem species praedixit ex altera acie imperatorem, ex altera exercitum dis Manibus matrique Terrae deberi; utrius autem dux copias hostium superque eas sese ipsum devovisset, victricem abituram. Id {15} luce proxima consulibus sacrificio vel expiaturis, si posset averti, vel, si certum deorum etiam monitu visum foret, exsecuturis, hostiarum exta somnio congruerunt, convenitque inter eos, cuius cornu prius laborare coepisset, ut is capite suo fata patriae lueret. {20} Quae neutro reformidante Decium depoposcerunt.

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, i. _De Somniis_.

[Linenotes: 13. +Dis Manibus+ = _the deified souls of the dead_, usually looked upon as beneficent spirits. 15. +victricem+, sc. _aciem_. 17. +deorum etiam monitu+ = _by the warning of the gods also_, i.e. by the auspices as well as by the dream. 19-20. +cuius cornu ... coepisset.+ The left wing led by Decius was repulsed by the Latins, and Decius accordingly devoted himself to death.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, viii. 6. 9.

D34

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B.C. (2)

_The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, 340 B.C._

Procedente deinde certamine cum aliis partibus multitudo superaret Latinorum, Manlius consul audito eventu collegae paulisper addubitavit, an consurgendi iam triariis tempus esset; deinde melius ratus integros eos ad ultimum discrimen servari, {5} Accensos ab novissima acie ante signa procedere iubet. Qui ubi subiere, extemplo Latini, tamquam idem adversarii fecissent, triarios suos excitaverunt; qui aliquamdiu pugna atroci cum et semet ipsi fatigassent et hastas aut praefregissent aut hebetassent, {10} pellerent vi tamen hostem, debellatum iam rati perventumque ad extremam aciem, tum consul triariis 'Consurgite nunc' inquit 'integri adversus fessos, memores patriae parentumque et coniugum ac liberorum, memores consulis pro vestra victoria {15} morte occubantis.' Ubi triarii consurrexerunt, integri, refulgentibus armis, nova ex improviso exorta acies, receptis in intervalla ordinum antepilanis, clamore sublato principia Latinorum perturbant hastisque ora fodientes primo robore virorum caeso per alios manipulos {20} velut inermes prope intacti evasere tantaque caede perrupere cuneos, ut vix quartam partem relinquerent hostium.

LIVY, viii. 10.

[Linenotes: 3-4. +an consurgendi ... esset.+ Livy says 'The Triarii were posted crouching by the standards, their left leg extended forwards, holding their shields resting on their shoulders, and their spears fixed in the ground with the points erect, so that their line bristled as if enclosed by a rampart.' 6. +Accensos.+ The _Accensi_ (_ad + censeo_), originally supernumeraries to take the place of those who fell in battle, = _levis armatura_. +ante signa+, i.e. of the Hastati and Principes. 8. +excitaverunt+ = _surgere iusserunt_. --Weissenborn. 10. +hebetassent+ = _had blunted_. 18. +antepilanis+ = _prop._ both the Hastati and Principes who were drawn up before the Pilani or Triarii who formed the third line. 19. +principia+ = _the front line_, now the Triarii of the Latins. 22. +cuneos+ = _columns_ (lit. _wedges_), i.e. a body of soldiers drawn up in the shape of a wedge. Livy uses it of the phalanx.]

+The Cause of the War.+ The war was almost a civil one. The dispute was chiefly about a right to share in the privileges of the full Roman citizenship (espec. the right to vote and to hold office).

+Result of the War.+ Rome broke up the Latin Confederation by making separate treaties with the Latin towns, and by prohibiting commercial intercourse between them.

D35

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (1)

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse._

Ea fortuna pugnae fuit, ut nihil relictum sit, quo, si adfuisset Dictator, res melius geri potuerit; non dux militi, non miles duci defuit. Eques etiam, auctore L. Cominio tribuno militum, qui aliquotiens impetu capto perrumpere non poterat hostium agmen, {5} detraxit frenos equis atque ita concitatos calcaribus permisit, ut sustinere eos nulla vis posset; per arma, per viros late stragem dedere; secutus pedes impetum equitum turbatis hostibus intulit signa. Viginti milia hostium caesa eo die traduntur. Magister equitum, {10} ut ex tanta caede, multis potitus spoliis congesta in ingentem acervum hostilia arma subdito igne concremavit, seu votum id deorum cuiquam fuit, seu credere libet Fabio auctori eo factum, ne suae gloriae fructum Dictator caperet nomenque ibi scriberet aut {15} spolia in triumpho ferret. Litterae quoque de re prospere gesta ad senatum, non ad Dictatorem missae argumentum fuere minima cum eo communicantis laudes. Ita certe Dictator id factum accepit, ut laetis aliis victoria parta prae se ferret iram tristitiamque. {20}

LIVY, viii, 30.

[Linenotes: 2. +Dictator+ = L. Papirius Cursor, noted for the strictness of his military discipline. At this time he had gone to Rome to take the auspices anew (_ad auspicium repetendum_) and had given strict orders to his Master of the Horse, Q. Fabius Rullianus, to avoid all collision with the enemy during his absence. 7. +permisit+ = _gave them their heads_. Cf. _immittere habenas_. 9. +turbatis ... signa+ = _attacked the enemy_ (dative) _when in confusion_. 11. +spoliis+, i.e. the _arms_ taken from the fallen. 13-14. +seu credere ... factum+ = lit. _or whether one prefer to credit the authority of Fabius that it was done on this account_ (+eo+) ... +Fabius Pictor+, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in Greek and served in the 2nd Punic War. 15. +ibi+ (sc. _hostilia arma_) = _on them_. These, set up as a trophy with the victor's name inscribed, would have been borne in the triumphal procession. 19. +Ita certe ... accepit+ = _so_ (+ita+) _no doubt the Dictator interpreted his_ (Fabius') _action_.]

+The Cause of the War.+ The actual _casus belli_ was a dispute between Rome and the Samnites for the possession of Palaeopolis (= _old city_) near Neapolis (= _new city_). Cf. the First Punic War, 241 B.C., due to the struggle for the possession of Messana, and the war with Pyrrhus, 281 B.C., for the possession of Tarentum.

+Historic Parallel.+ Fabius Cunctator and Minucius. --Livy, xxii. 24-30.

D36

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (2)

_The Caudine Forks, 321 B.C._

Duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patens apertaque, sed quanto tutior, tanto fere longior, altera per Furculas Caudinas, brevior; sed ita natus locus est. Saltus duo alti, angusti silvosique sunt, montibus circa perpetuis {5} inter se iuncti. Iacet inter eos satis patens, clausus in medio, campus herbidus aquosusque, per quem medium iter est; sed antequam venias ad eum, intrandae primae angustiae sunt, et aut eadem, qua te insinuaveris, retro via repetenda, aut, si ire {10} porro pergas, per alium saltum, artiorem impeditioremque, evadendum. In eum campum via alia per cavam rupem Romani demisso agmine cum ad alias angustias protinus pergerent, saeptas deiectu arborum saxorumque ingentium obiacente mole {15} invenere. Cum fraus hostilis apparuisset, praesidium etiam in summo saltu conspicitur. Citati inde retro, qua venerant, pergunt repetere viam; eam quoque clausam sua obice armisque inveniunt. Sistunt inde gradum sine ullius imperio, intuentesque alii alios {20} diu immobiles silent.

LIVY, ix. 2.

[Linenotes: 1. +ad Luceriam+ = _in the direction of Luceria_, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, and now threatened by the Samnites. 1-2. +praeter ... maris+ = _along the coast of the upper sea_, i.e. the Adriatic. Taking this route, they would go N. of Samnium, through the Peligni, and S. through the Frentani into Apulia. 3. +fere+ = _just_. 3-4. +Furculas Caudinas+, two _fork-shaped_ defiles near Caudium, the capital of the Caudine Samnites, between Beneventum and Capua on what was afterwards the _Via Appia_. 5-6. +montibus ... iuncti+ = _united by a continuous ring_ (+perpetuis circa+) _of mountains_. 10. +insinuaveris+ = lit. _have wound your way_. 11-12. +artiorem impeditioremque+ = _more narrow and more difficult_ (i.e. _steeper_). 13. +per cavam rupem+ = _through an overhanging rocky defile_. +demisso agmine+ = _with their troops led down_ (the descent). 14. +protinus+ = _straightforward_. 14-15. +deiectu ... mole+ = lit. '_a barrier lying in the way (formed) by the throwing down of trees and large pieces of rock_.' +mole+ = an _abattis_ (a _knocking down_, _felling_).--Rawlins. 16. +cum fraus ...+ = _no sooner had ... when ..._ 17. +citati+ = _hurriedly_ (in hot haste). Partic. used adverbially. --Stephenson. 19. +sua obice+ = _with a barrier of its own_ (i.e. specially prepared).]

D37

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (3)

_The Caudine Forks. The Yoke._

Alii alios intueri, contemplari arma mox tradenda et inermes futuras dextras obnoxiaque corpora hosti; proponere sibimet ipsi ante oculos iugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos et per armatos inermium iter, inde foedi agminis miserabilem viam {5} per sociorum urbes, reditum in patriam ad parentes, quo saepe ipsi maioresque eorum triumphantes venissent: se solos sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acie victos: sibi non stringere licuisse gladios, non manum cum hoste conferre; sibi nequicquam animos datos. {10} Haec frementibus hora fatalis ignominiae advenit, omnia tristiora experiundo factura, quam quae praeceperant animis. Iam primum cum singulis vestimentis inermes extra vallum exire iussi, et primi traditi obsides atque in custodiam abducti. Primi {15} consules prope seminudi sub iugum missi; tum ut quisque gradu proximus erat, ita ignominiae obiectus; tum deinceps singulae legiones. Ita traducti sub iugum et, quod paene gravius erat, per hostium oculos, cum e saltu evasissent, etsi velut ab inferis {20} extracti tum primum lucem aspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deforme intuentibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit.

LIVY, ix. 5, 6.

[Linenotes: 1-10. +intueri; contemplari ...+ = _There they are looking one on another_. . . . By a string of infinitives the picture of a series of actions is put before the reader without the actions being thought of singly. --Lee Warner. 2. +obnoxia+ = _at the mercy of_ ...--Rawlins. 6. +per sociorum urbes+, e.g. _Capua_. 11. +fatalis ignominiae+ = _destined for their disgrace_. 12. +experiundo+ = _by experience_; +praeceperant+ = _they had anticipated_. 16. +seminudi+ = _with only their tunics on_. 17. +gradu+ = _in rank_. 18. +traducti+, 'always used in this sense of _disgraceful_ exhibition or parade.' --Stephenson. 22-23. +ipsa lux ... fuit+ = _the very light was to them as they gazed on so hideous a line of march more gloomy than any form of death_.]

+The Caudine Forks.+ Other writers state that the Romans were entrapped only after a severe defeat.

'By the side of those names (the Allia and Cannae) there was yet a third in the list of evil days--the name of the Caudine Pass.' --Ihne. Cf. p. 82, B. [[Selection D23 B]]

+Historic Parallels.+ Livy's account of Trasimene. The Kyber Pass, 1842. The Capitulation of Metz, 1870.

D38

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (4)

_Rome repudiates the Treaty._

At vero T. Veturius et Sp. Postumius, cum iterum consules assent, quia, cum male pugnatum apud Caudium esset, legionibus nostris sub iugum missis pacem cum Samnitibus fecerant, dediti sunt eis; iniussu enim populi senatusque fecerant. Eodemque {5} tempore Ti. Numicius, Q. Maelius, qui tum tribuni plebis erant, quod eorum auctoritate pax erat facta, dediti sunt, ut pax Samnitium repudiaretur. Atque huius deditionis ipse Postumius, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit. Quod idem multis annis post {10} C. Mancinus, qui ut Numantinis, quibuscum sine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat, dederetur, rogationem suasit eam, quam L. Furius, Sex. Atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant: qua accepta est hostibus deditus. Honestius hic quam Q. Pompeius, quo, {15} cum in eadem causa esset, deprecante accepta lex non est. Hic ea, quae videbatur utilitas, plus valuit quam honestas, apud superiores utilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est.

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 109.

[Linenotes: 4. +pacem ... fecerant+, i.e. _a military convention_, by which Rome and Samnium were to acknowledge each other as free peoples with equal rights and privileges, and Rome was to give up her conquests and colonies on Samnite territory. 5. +iniussu ... senatusque.+ 'The Senate considered it in the light of a _sponsio_, a convention made on personal responsibility, rather than a _pactio_ or _foedus_, a public treaty.' --Holden. 6. +tribuni plebis+, prob. only tribunes-elect (= _designati_), for the tribunes could not leave Rome even for one night. 11. +C. Mancinus+ commanded against Numantia in Spain, 137 B.C. 15. +Q. Pompeius+ commanded against Numantia, 140 B.C. 16. +cum in eadem causa esset+ = _though he was in the same case_, as Mancinus, i.e. had made a degrading peace with the Numantines. --H. 15-17. +quo ... deprecante ... non est+ = _through his begging to be let off, the law_ (i.e. for delivering him up to the enemy) _was not passed_. 17. +Hic+ = _in this case_, i.e. that of Pompeius. 18. +apud superiores+, i.e. Veturius, Postumius, and Mancinus. 18-19. +utilitatis species falsa+ = _the false semblance of expediency_.]

+The Repudiation of the Treaty.+ 'It is clear that Postumius and his brother officers could not bind the Roman Senate and people by the promise they had made in Caudium; but it is equally clear that they were bound by their promise to do what was in their power to cause the treaty to be ratified.' --Ihne.

D39

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B.C. (5)

_Battle of Bovianum, 305 B.C. Peace made, 304 B.C._

Eodem anno in campum Stellatem agri Campani Samnitium incursiones factae. Itaque ambo consules in Samnium missi cum diversas regiones, Tifernum Postumius, Bovianum Minucius petisset, Postumii prius ductu ad Tifernum pugnatum. Alii {5} haud dubie Samnites victos ac viginti milia hominum capta tradunt, alii Marte aequo discessum, et Postumium, metum simulantem, nocturno itinere clam in montes copias abduxisse, hostes secutos duo milia inde locis munitis et ipsos consedisse. Consul ut {10} stativa tuta copiosaque petisse videretur, postquam et munimentis castra firmavit et omni apparatu rerum utilium instruxit, relicto firmo praesidio de vigilia tertia, qua[23] proxime potest, expeditas legiones ad collegam, et ipsum adversus alios sedentem, ducit. {15} Ibi auctore Postumio Minucius cum hostibus signa confert, et, cum anceps proelium in multum diei processisset, tum Postumius integris legionibus defessam iam aciem hostium improviso invadit. Itaque cum lassitudo ac vulnera fugam quoque praepedissent, {20} occidione occisi hostes, signa unum et viginti capta.

LIVY, ix. 44.

[Footnote 23: qua _duci_ proxime potest. --W. and M.]

[Linenotes: 1. +In campum Stellatem.+ Stellas, a part of the Campanian plain, N. of Mt. Tifata (E. of Capua). 4. +Tifernum+, E. of Bovianum on the R. Tifernus. +Postumius ... Minucius+, Consuls 305 B.C. +Bovianum+, in Samnium, W. of Luceria (in Apulia). 11. +stativa tuta+ = _safe quarters_. Cf. _stativa castra_ = _a stationary camp_. 15. +et ipsum ... sedentem+ = _also lying encamped_ (+sedentem+) _in the face of another army_. --Stephenson. 20. +praepedissent+ = _hampered_, lit. _to entangle the feet_ (_prae_ + _pes_). 21. +occidione occisi.+ This has the force of _a superlative by the repetition_, a common idiom in Oriental[24] languages. --S.]

[Footnote 24: E.g. in Hebrew, Delivering I will deliver = I will surely deliver.]

+Results of the Second Samnite War.+ Roman influence became supreme in Campania and Apulia, and the Samnites were confined to their own mountains. In 304 B.C. the Romans renewed their ancient Treaty with the Samnites (as Livy tells us) by which they were left in possession of their independence.

+Why the Romans conquered.+ (1) Their conduct of the war was more systematic. (2) By their plan of fortified colonies (e.g. Cales, Fregellae, Luceria) they retained their hold on the conquered territory. (3) The diplomatic skill of the Senate secured the friendship of the neighbours of the Samnites (e.g. the Apulians and Lucanians).

D40

THIRD SAMNITE WAR, 298-290 B.C.

_Battle of Sentinum, 295 B.C. 'Novum pugnae genus.'_

Ferocior Decius et aetate et vigore animi quantumcunque virium habuit certamine primo effudit. Et quia lentior videbatur pedestris pugna, equitatum in pugnam concitat et ipse fortissimae iuvenum turmae immixtus orat proceres iuventutis, in hostem {5} ut secum impetum faciant: duplicem illorum gloriam fore, si ab laevo cornu et ab equite victoria incipiat. Bis avertere Gallicum equitatum; iterum longius evectos et iam inter media peditum agmina proelium cientes novum pugnae conterruit genus: essedis {10} carrisque superstans armatus hostis ingenti sonitu equorum rotarumque advenit et insolitos eius tumultus Romanorum conterruit eqnos. Ita victorem equitatum velut lymphaticus pavor dissipat; sternit inde ruentes equos virosque improvida fuga, {15} turbata hinc etiam signa legionum multique impetu equorum ac vehiculorum raptorum per agmen obtriti antesignani; et insecuta, simul territos hostes vidit, Gallica acies nullum spatium respirandi recipiendique se dedit. {20}

LIVY, x. 28.

[Linenotes: 1. +Decius.+ P. Decius Mus, Consul with Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, commanded the left wing at the Battle of Sentinum, where he was opposed to the Gauls, and when his troops began to give way before the Gaulish chariots (+essedae+) he, like his father at the Battle of Vesuvius, 340 B.C., devoted[25] himself with the hostile army 'to the gods of earth and of the grave.' 5. +proceres iuventutis+ = _the flower of the young men_. 8. +avertere+ (= +se avertere+) = _to retire_ (lit. _turn away_). 10. +essedis+ = _war-chariots_, on two wheels, open in front, but closed behind, and drawn by two horses; used also by the Britons. 14. +lymphaticus+ = _mad_, _frenzied_. 16. +turbata ... signa legionum+ = _the ranks of the legions were thrown into disorder_. +Signa+ is frequently used of military movement, as the most noticeable feature in an army.]

[Footnote 25: Cf. pp. 92, 93.]

+The Cause of the Third Samnite War.+ The democratic party among the Lucanians made overtures to the Samnites. The Romans peremptorily ordered the Samnites not to interfere in Lucania, an arrogant command which the Samnites declined to obey, and war broke out anew.

+Results of the War.+ After an obstinate struggle peace was concluded in 290 B.C., the Samnites retaining their independence.

D41

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS, 281-275 B.C. (1)

_The Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea, 280 B.C._

Pyrrhus rex Epiri cum iterata Tarentinorum legatione additis Samnitium et Lucanorum precibus, fatigaretur, non tam supplicum precibus quam spe invadendi Italiae imperii inductus venturum se cum exercitu pollicetur. In quam rem inclinatum semel {5} animum praecipitem agere coeperant exempla maiorum, ne aut inferior patruo suo Alexandro videretur, quo defensore idem Tarentini adversus Bruttios usi fuerant, aut minores animos magno Alexandro habuisse, qui tam longa a domo militia Orientem subegerat. {10} Igitur relicto custode regni Ptolemaeo filio annos xv nato exercitum in portu Tarentino exponit. Cuius audito adventu consul Romanus Valerius Laevinus festinans, ut prius cum eo congrederetur, quam auxilia sociorum convenirent, exercitum in {15} aciem educit. Nec rex, tametsi numero militum inferior esset, certamini moram fecit. Sed Romanos vincentes iam inusitata ante elephantorum forma stupere primo, mox cedere proelio coegit, victoresque iam nova Macedonum repente monstra vicerunt. {20} Nec hostibus incruenta victoria fuit. Nam et Pyrrhus ipse graviter vulneratus est, et magna pars militum eius caesa, maioremque gloriam eius victoriae quam laetitiam habuit.

JUSTINUS, xviii. 1.

[Linenotes: 1. +iterata legatione+ = _by a second embassy_. 3. +fatigaretur+ = _was importuned_. 3-4. +non tam ... inductus.+ Pyrrhus aimed at founding a western Grecian Empire in Italy and Sicily. 7-9. +patruo suo Alexandro ... fuerant.+ Alexander of Epirus had almost succeeded in uniting the whole of Magna Graecia (332-326 B.C.) when he was cut off by the hand of an assassin. 9. +magno Alexandro.+ Pyrrhus was acknowledged to be the first general of the school of Alexander, and Hannibal (so Plutarch tells us) considered him the greatest military genius. 18. +inusitata ante ... forma+ = _the unfamiliar appearance of_. 22-23. +magna pars militum.+ Pyrrhus is said to have lost 4000 men, 'a serious matter to him in a foreign country, where he could not easily replace the loss of his tried old warriors.' --Ihne.]

+Cause of the War.+ By 282 B.C. Rome had taken possession of Magna Graecia, with the exception of Tarentum. In 282 B.C. (in defiance of the treaty of 301 B.C.) a Roman fleet appeared before the Harbour of Tarentum. A naval battle ensued in which the Tarentines were victorious, and the war began.

D42

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (2)

_Fabricius the Just. Honesty before Expediency._

Cum rex Pyrrhus populo Romano bellum ultro intulisset, cumque de imperio certamen esset cum rege generoso ac potenti, perfuga ab eo venit in castra Fabricii eique est pollicitus, si praemium sibi proposuisset, se, ut clam venisset, sic clam in Pyrrhi {5} castra rediturum et eum veneno necaturum. Hunc Fabricius reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum idque eius factum laudatum a senatu est. Atqui, si speciem utilitatis opinionemque quaerimus, magnum illud bellum perfuga unus et gravem adversarium imperi {10} sustulisset, sed magnum dedecus et flagitium, quicum laudis certamen fuisset, eum non virtute sed scelere superatum. Utrum igitur utilius vel Fabricio, qui talis in hac urbe qualis Aristides Athenis fuit, vel senatui nostro, qui numquam utilitatem a dignitate {15} seiunxit, armis cum hoste certare an venenis? Si gloriae causa imperium expetendum est, scelus absit, in quo non potest esse gloria: sin ipsae opes expetuntur quoquo modo, non poterunt utiles esse cum infamia. {20}

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 86, 87.

[Linenotes: 1-2. +bellum ultro intulisset+ = _had begun an aggressive_ (+ultro+) _war_. +ultro+ = lit. _to a place beyond_, hence = _beyond expectation_, _unprovoked_. 2. +de imperio+ = _uter imperaret_. --Holden. 3. +perfuga+ = _a deserter_. Aulus Gellius says the traitor was Nicias, a friend of Pyrrhus; Florus and Eutropius, a physician of Pyrrhus. 8. +atqui+ = _and yet_, a more emphatic +at+. 8-9. +speciem utilitatis opinionemque+ (sc. +utilitatis+) = _the semblance and (popular) opinion of expediency_. --H. 11-13. +sed magnum ... superatum+ = _but it would have been a lasting disgrace and scandal for a general, with whom the struggle lay for glory, to have been overcome by an act of wickedness and not by valour_. --H. 14. +Aristides Athenis.+ Aristides the Just. 'Sans Peur et sans Reproche.' 19. +quoquo modo+ = _in any way_. Cf. _quacumque ratione_. --H.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Eutropius ii. 7. 8. 14: _Tum Pyrrhus admiratus eum dixisse fertur: 'Ille est Fabricius, qui difficilius ab honestate quam sol a cursu suo averti potest.'_

+Fabricius+, like Cincinnatus and M'. Curius Dentatus, is the representative of the purity and honesty of the good old times.

D43

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3)

_Appius the Blind, 280 B.C._

Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset; tamen is, cum sententia senatus inclinaret ad pacem cum Pyrrho foedusque faciendum, non dubitavit dicere illa, quae versibus persecutus est Ennius: {5}

_Quo vobis mentes, rectae quae stare solebant Antehac, dementis sese flexere viai?_

ceteraque gravissime, notum enim vobis carmen est, et tamen ipsius Appi exstat oratio. Atque haec ille egit septemdecim annis post alterum consulatum, {10} cum inter duos consulatus anni decem interfuissent censorque ante superiorem consulatum fuisset, ex quo intelligitur Pyrrhi bello grandem sane fuisse. . . . Quattuor robustos filios, quinque filias, tantam domum, tantas clientelas Appius regebat et caecus {15} et senex; intentum enim animum tamquam arcum habebat nec languescens succumbebat senectuti. Tenebat non modo auctoritatem, sed etiam imperium in suos: metuebant servi, verebantur liberi, carum omnes habebant; vigebat in illo animus {20} patrius et disciplina.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 16, 37.

[Linenotes: 1. +Appi Claudi.+ This was the Appius Claudius whose Censorship, 312 B.C., was famous for his great public works, the +Via Appia+, the great South road of Rome, and the +Aqua Appia+, an aqueduct which brought water to Rome a distance of eight miles; and also for his measure (corresponding to a Parliamentary Reform Bill) admitting freedmen as full citizens by enrolling them in Tribes. 2-9. +tamen is ... exstat oratio.+ When the Senate was about to yield to the persuasive eloquence of Cineas, the envoy of Pyrrhus, he had himself led into the Senate-house to make the speech which turned the scale against the invader. 4. +versibus persecutus est+ = _has followed out in the lines_. J. S. R. 7. +viai+ (= _viae_ old genit.) = i. _quo viae_, cf. _ubi terrarum_, or ii. _sese flexere viae_, a Greek genitive. 9-10. +haec ille egit+ = _he made this speech_. 14-15. +tantam ... clientelas+ = _a large household_, _a large number of dependents_; +clientelas = clientes+. 16. +intentum+ (_in + tendo_) = _on the stretch_. Cf. opposite _remissus_. 19-21. +metuebant ... disciplina+ = _his slaves feared him, his children stood in awe of him, yet all held him dear; in him ancestral spirit and principles_ (+disciplina+) _were strong_. --J. S. Reid.]

+The Speech of Appius Claudius.+ For the substance of the Speech, _see_ Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, xi.

D44

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (4)

A. _The Battle of Asculum, 279 B.C._

In Apulia deinde apud Asculum melius dimicatum est Curio Fabricioque consulibus. Iam quippe terror[26] beluarum exoleverat, et Gaius Numicius quartae legionis hastatus unius proboscide abscisa mori posse beluas ostenderat. Itaque in ipsas pila congesta sunt {5} et in turres vibratae faces tota hostium agmina ardentibus ruinis operuerunt. Nec alius cladi finis fuit quam nox dirimeret, postremusque fugientium rex ipse a satellitibus umero saucius in armis suis referretur. {10}

[Footnote 26: Cf. p. 100, ll. 17-20.] [[Selection D41: "inusitata ... elephantorum forma"]

[Linenotes: 1. +Asculum+, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, between Beneventum and Canusium. 3. +exoleverat+ = _had grown less_ (lit. _had grown out of use_). 6. +in turres vibratae faces+ = _firebrands hurled against their towers_. 8. +dirimeret+ = _separated_ (the combatants).]

B. _The Battle near Beneventum, 275 B.C._

Lucaniae suprema pugna sub Arusinis, quos vocant, campis ducibus isdem quibus superius; sed tum tota victoria. Exitum, quem datura virtus fuit, casus dedit. Nam provectis in primam aciem rursus elephantis unum ex his pullum adacti in caput teli {15} gravis ictus avertit; qui cum per stragem suorum recurrens stridore quereretur, mater agnovit et quasi vindicaret exsiluit, tum omnia circa quasi hostilia gravi mole permiscuit. Ac sic eaedem ferae, quae primam victoriam abstulerunt, secundam parem {20} fecerunt, tertiam sine controversia tradiderunt.

FLORUS, I. xviii. 9-13.

[Linenotes: 11-12. +Lucaniae ... campis.+ The Battle was fought near Beneventum (orig. +Male-+_ventum_, perhaps from _male + ventus_ on account of its unwholesome air) in Samnium on the Via Appia, E. of Capua. 15-16. +unum ex his ... avertit+ = _the heavy stroke of a weapon driven home_ (+adacti+) _into the head of a young elephant_ (+pullum+) _made it turn aside_. 19. +gravi mole+ = _with her unwieldy bulk_.]

+The Battle of Asculum.+ It is clear that Pyrrhus was again victorious, but the Romans were able to retire into their fortified camp, and so lost fewer men than at Heraclea.

+The Battle of Beneventum.+ Pyrrhus, in his attempt to storm the entrenched camp of Curius Dentatus, was obliged to fight on unfavourable ground. The result was a total defeat, and no choice was left him but to give up the unequal contest.

D45

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (5)

_Death of Pyrrhus, 272 B.C._

_In praise of a great General._

Repulsus ab Spartanis Pyrrhus Argos petit: ibi, dum Antigonum in urbe clausum expugnare conatur, inter confertissimos violentissime dimicans, saxo de muris ictus occiditur. Caput eius Antigono refertur, qui victoria mitius usus filium eius Helenum {5} cum Epirotis sibi deditum in regnum remisit, eique insepulti patris ossa in patriam referenda tradidit.

Satis constans inter omnes auctores fama est, nullum nec eius nec superioris aetatis regem comparandum Pyrrho fuisse, raroque non inter reges {10} tantum, verum etiam inter illustres viros, aut vitae sanctioris aut iustitiae probatioris visum fuisse: scientiam certe rei militaris in illo viro tantam fuisse, ut cum adversus Lysimachum, Demetrium, Antigonum, tantos reges, bella gesserit, invictus {15} semper fuerit: Illyriorum quoque, Siculorum Romanorumque et Carthaginiensium bellis numquam inferior, plerumque etiam victor exstiterit; qui patriam certe suam angustam ignobilemque fama rerum gestarum et claritate nominis sui toto orbe {20} illustrem reddiderit.

JUSTINUS, xxv. 5.

[Linenotes: 1-4. +Repulsus ab Spartanis ... occiditur.+ At the invitation of Cleonymus, who had been excluded from the throne of Sparta, Pyrrhus undertook and failed in a desperate attack on the city. He then turned against Argos, to wrest it from Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, and was hit _by a tile thrown from a roof by a woman_.[27] As he lay helpless on the ground he was recognised and murdered. 8. +Satis constans fama+ = _a tolerably unanimous opinion_. 12. +iustitiae probatioris+ = _of more eminent_ (lit. _tested_) _justice_. 14. +Lysimachum+, one of Alexander's generals. About 286 B.C. King of Macedonia and Asia Minor. +Demetrium+, surnamed _Poliorcetes_ (_stormer of cities_), son of Antigonus, King of Asia (one of Alexander's generals). 16-17. +Siculorum bellis.+ During the years 280-276 B.C. Pyrrhus made himself master of all Sicily with the exception of the Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum.]

[Footnote 27: Cf. the death of Abimelech before Thebez, Judges ix. 53.]

+Character of Pyrrhus.+ 'He was not only one of the ablest generals and princes, but amiable also as a man, and worthy of our sympathy and respect.' --Ihne.

+Why he failed.+ 'From lack of accurate information he wholly underestimated the power of Rome. Here was the great error in his calculation, an error for which he can hardly be held responsible.' --Ihne.

+Reference.+ Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_.

D46

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (6)

_Manius Curius Dentatus, an old-time Roman._

A. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rerum rusticarum, sed ea ipsa quae dixi sentio fuisse longiora. Ignoscetis autem, nam et studio rerum rusticarum provectus sum, et senectus est natura loquacior, ne ab omnibus eam vitiis videar vindicare. {5} Ergo in hac vita M'. Curius, cum de Samnitibus, de Sabinis, de Pyrrho triumphavisset, consumpsit extremum tempus aetatis; cuius quidem ego villam contemplans, abest enim non longe a me, admirari satis non possum vel hominis ipsius continentiam {10} vel temporum disciplinam. Curio ad focum sedenti magnum auri pondus Samnites cum attulissent, repudiati sunt: non enim aurum habere praeclarum sibi videri dixit, sed eis qui haberent aurum imperare.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 55-56.

+Context.+ The speaker is Cato the Censor, 184 B.C., the founder of Latin Prose, whose manual of Agriculture, +de Re Rustica+, is still extant.

[Linenotes: 1. +Possum persequi+ = _I might follow out_. +oblectamenta+ = _amusements_ (cf. _de-lecto_, _delight_). 4. +provectus sum+ = _I have been carried away_. --J. S. Reid. 8. +extremum tempus aetatis+ = _the closing season of his life_. 9. +a me+ (= +a mea villa+) = _from my country-house_. 11. +disciplinam+ = _morals_ (lit. _teaching_). 11-13. After the close of the war Curius had become +patronus+ of the Samnites, and they were bringing the customary offering of +clientes+.--J. S. R.]

B.

Curius parvo quae legerat horto Ipse focis brevibus ponebat holuscula.

JUVENAL, xi. 78-79.

[Linenotes: 78-79. Plutarch, _Cato_ 2, tells the story. Curius was one of Milton's 'Men so poor | who could do mighty things.' --Duff. 79. +holuscula+ (dimin. of +h[)o]lus+) = _small herbs or vegetables_.]

C.

Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44

HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 41-44.

[Linenotes: 41. +Hunc+ = Fabricius. 43. +paupertas+ = _frugality_, not _poverty_ (= _egestas_). 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with its cottage home to match_ (+apto+). --W. 'Hurrah! for Manius Curius The bravest son of Rome, Thrice in utmost need sent forth, Thrice drawn in triumph home.' --Macaulay.]

D47

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (7)

_In Praise of Tarentum._

Unde si Parcae prohibent iniquae, Dulce pellîtis ovibus Galaesi Flumen et regnata petam Laconi Rura Phalantho. 12 Ille terrarum mihi praeter omnes Angulus ridêt, ubi non Hymetto Mella decedunt viridique certat Baca Venafro, 16 Ver ubi longum tepidasque praebet Iuppiter brumas et amicus Aulon Fertili Baccho minimum Falernis Invidet uvis. 20 Ille te mecum locus et beatae Postulant arces, ibi tu calentem Debita sparges lacrima favillam Vatis amici. 24

HORACE, _Odes_, II. vi. 9-end.

+Subject.+ 'Septimius, my dear friend who would accompany me to the ends of the earth, let me spend the close of my life at Tibur (Tivoli), or if not there, then at Tarentum. Let us go there together, and live there till I die.' --Wickham.

[Linenotes: 9. +unde+ = _from this place_, i.e. from Tibur. 10. +dulce pellitis ovibus+ = _dear to the skin-clad_ (+pellitis+) _sheep_, so clad to keep their fleeces clean. --Gow. 10-11. +Galaesi flumen+, flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, near the city. 12. +Phalantho+, an exile from Sparta, founded Tarentum, 708 B.C. 13, 21, 22. +Ille+ (13) ... +ille+ (21) ... +ibi+ (22) = _Tarentum_, emphatic guiding words. Cf. +te mecum+ (21) ... +tu amici+ (22, 24) = _Septimius and Horace_. 14-15. +ubi non ... decedunt+ = _where the honey does not give way to (is not inferior to) that of Hymettus_. 15-16. +viridi Venafro+ = _with the green (olive-groves of) Venafrum_ (N. of Campania). 16. +Baca+ = _the olive_, the noblest of berries. --Gow. 18. +Aulon+ = (_the grapes of_) _Aulon_, a hill and valley near Tarentum. 19. +Fertili+ = _who makes the vines fertile_. 22-24. +ibi tu ... vatis amici.+ 'There when life shall end, Your tear shall dew my yet warm pyre, Your bard and friend.' --Conington.]

+Reference.+ Polybius, x. 1. In 272 B.C. Milo with his garrison of Epirots marched out of Tarentum with all the honours of war.

+Rome now ruled supreme over the whole of Italy from Ariminum in the North to the Sicilian Straits.+

D48

THE PRAISE OF ITALY.

'_Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum._'

Adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem, 155 Tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis, Fluminaque antiquos subterlabentia muros. An mare, quod supra, memorem, quodque alluit infra? Anne lacus tantos? Te, Lari maxime, teque, Fluctibus et fremitu adsurgens Benace marino? 160 . . . . . . . Haec eadem argenti rivos aerisque metalla 165 Ostendit venis atque auro plurima fluxit. Haec genus acre virum, Marsos pubemque Sabellam, Adsuetumque malo Ligurem, Volscosque verutos Extulit: haec Decios, Marios, magnosque Camillos, Scipiadas duros bello, et te, maxime Caesar, 170 Qui nunc extremis Asiae iam victor in oris Imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum. Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum: tibi res antiquae laudis et artis Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, 175 Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen.

VERGIL, _Georg._ ii. 155-176.

[Linenotes: 158. +mare quod supra alluit+ = the _mare superum_ = the Adriatic. +mare quod infra alluit+ = the _mare inferum_ = the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian (#Turrhênos# = Tuscan) sea. 159. +Lari+ = Lake Larius (= _Como_), N. of Milan. 160. +Benace+ = Lake Benacus (= _Garda_), W. of Verona. +fremitu marino+ = _with roar as of the sea_. 168. +adsuetum malo+ = _trained in hardship_. --Mackail. +Volscosque verutos+ = _and the Volscian spearmen (light infantry)_. +verutos+ = armed with the _verutum_ (or _veru_ = lit. a _spit_), a _javelin_. 170. +Scipiadas+, Greek patronymic form = Lat. _Scîp[)i]ônês_. +maxime Caesar+ = Augustus. 172-173. After Actium, 31 B.C., Augustus spent more than a year in reducing and settling the East (+imbellem Indum+) whose forces had been wielded by Antony. --Sidgwick. 173. +Saturnia tellus+, in allusion to Saturn's reign in Latium in the age of gold. 174-175. +tibi res ... fontes+ = _for thee I enter on themes of ancient glory and skill_ (i.e. in agriculture) _and dare to unseal_ (+recludere+) _the sacred springs_; +res laudis+, the theme of the _Aeneid_, +res artis+, of the _Georgics_. 176. +Ascraeum carmen+ = _the song of Ascra_, i.e. the _Georgics_, because Hesiod (author of _Works and Days_ to which Vergil is much indebted) was born at Ascra, near Helicon, in Boeotia. --S.]

CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B.C.

C1

_The Vision of Anchises.--Rome's Heroes._

'Ille triumphata Capitolia ad alta Corintho Victor aget currum, caesis insignis Achivis. Eruet ille Argos Agamemnoniasque Mycenas, Ipsumque Aeaciden, genus armipotentis Achilli, Ultus avos Troiae, templa et temerata Minervae. 840 Quis te, magne Cato, tacitum, aut te, Cosse, relinquat? Quis Gracchi genus, aut geminos, duo fulmina belli, Scipiadas, cladem Libyae, parvoque potentem Fabricium, vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem? Quo fessum rapitis, Fabii? Tu Maximus ille es, 845 Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem.' . . . . . . . 'Aspice, ut insignis spoliis Marcellus opimis 855 Ingreditur, victorque viros supereminet omnes! Hic rem Romanam, magno turbante tumultu, Sistet, eques sternet Poenos Gallumque rebellem, Tertiaque arma patri suspendet capta Quirino.'

VERGIL, _Aen._ vi. 836-846, 855-859.

[Linenotes: 836. +Ille+ = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B.C. 838. +Ille+ = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= +Aeaciden+ l. 839) at Pydna, 168 B.C. 841. +Cosse+ = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time, 428 B.C. 842. +Gracchi genus+, e.g. (i.) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice Consul 215, 212 B.C., in 2nd Punic War; (ii.) T. S. G. distinguished in Spain; (iii.) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius. 843. +Scipiadas+ = (i.) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202 B.C.; (ii.) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B.C. 844. +Fabricium+, Consul 282 and 278 B.C. in war with Pyrrhus. Proof against bribes. +Serrane+ = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B.C., a prisoner, 255 B.C. True to his word. 845. +Maximus+ = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The Shield of Rome. 846. From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B.C.), often quoted. 855. +Marcellus+, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B.C. The Sword of Rome. 857. +magno ... tumultu+ = _when a great upheaving shakes it_. --Page. +Tumultus+ (as Cic. tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = _bellum_.) 858. +Sistet, ... sternet.+ Notice the antithesis and alliteration (assonance).]

+The Vision of Anchises+ is the imperishable record of the national life, where the poet 'sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-roll of the Eternal City.' --Myers.

C2

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B.C._

Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequi pararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit. . . . Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventu peregrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio {5} gaudentes in amicitiam sollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessos longa navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, corium in tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quam petierat, occupat: unde {10} postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit. Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibus venalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominum velut instar civitatis effectum. est. . . . Itaque consentientibus omnibus Carthago {15} conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis. In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspicium fructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propter quod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, {20} bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatam sedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus brevi et populus et civitas magna facta.

JUSTINUS, xviii. 5.

[Linenotes: 1. +Pygmalion+, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa (Dido). 4. +sinum+ = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray's Classical Atlas.) 5. +peregrinorum+ = _of strangers_. +per + ager+. Cf. _pilgrim_. Fr. _pèlerin_. +mutuarum rerum commercio+ = _barter_. 11. +Byrsae+, i.e., later, the Citadel quarter, as if from #bursa# = a _hide_, prob. corrupted from Phoen. _Bozra_ (= a _fort_). So _Carthage_ = _Kirjath (city)_; cp. _Kirjath-Arba_ (Hebron), and _Hannibal_ (= Hanniel) = _the grace of Baal_. 14. +velut instar c.+ = _as if the semblance of a state_; cf. 'instar montis equus,' Verg. --Post. 17. +bubulum+ = _of an ox_, adj. from _bos_. 22. +auspicatam+ = _auspicious_, in active sense.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Verg. _Aen._ i. 336-368, 418-438, and _Aen._ iv. 21-22.

+References.+ Bosworth Smith, _Carthage and the Carthaginians_. --Ihne, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. ii. pp. 3-21.

C3

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B.C._

Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi Imminet adversasque aspectat desuper arces. 420 Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam, Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum. Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros Molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa, Pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco; 425 Iura magistratusque legunt sanctumque senatum; Hic portus alii effodiunt; hinc lata theatris Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas Rupibus excidunt, scaenis decora alta futuris. Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura 430 Exercet sub sole labor, cum gentis adultos Educunt fetus, aut cum lîquentia mella Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas, Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent: 435 Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella. 'O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!' Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis.

VERGIL, _Aen._ i. 419-438.

[Linenotes: 419. +plurimus+ = _in huge mass_, with the predicate +imminet+. 421. +magalia+ = _huts_, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf. #megaron#. 422. +strata viarum+ = _stratas vias_ = _the paved roads_. --Sidgwick. 423, 424, 425. +ducere ... moliri ... subvolvere ... optare ... concludere+, dependent on the idea of _eagerness_ or _striving_ in +instant+.--S. 426. Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. _Aen._ i. 507-8. 430-436. This simile is a reproduction of _Georg._ iv. 162-169. Cf. Milton, _Par. Lost_, i. 768: 'As bees In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides, Pour forth their populous youth about the hive.' 432. +lîquentia+ = _liquid_, from +lîquor+, dep. Elsewhere Vergil uses +l[)i]quens+ from +l[)i]queo+. 433. +Stipant+ = _pack_, the notion of _pushing_ and _tightness_ being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in this line. --S. 435. +Ignavum ... arcent+ = _drive the drones, a slothful herd, from the enclosure_. Notice the order. --Page. 437. 'The want of a city is the key-note of the _Aeneid_.' --Conington.]

C4

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_A Roman Martyr. Country before Expediency._

M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus esset duce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisi redditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis {5} speciem videbat, sed eam, ut res declarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, esse domui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis {10} gradum. . . . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem. . . . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem {15} rediit neque eum caritas patriae retinuit nec suorum, . . . 'At stulte, qui non modo non censuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit.' Quo modo stulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutile reipublicae sit, id cuiquam {20} civi utile esse?

CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 99, 100.

[Linenotes: 1. +consul.+ Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B.C., and Proconsul in Africa 255 B.C., when he was defeated and taken prisoner by Xanthippus. 6. +speciem+ = the _specious (plausible) appearance (semblance)_. 12, 13. +sententiam ... recusavit+ = _declined to give his own opinion on the case_. 13. +iure iurando+ (sc. _dato_) = _by the oath sworn to his enemies_. 17. '+At stulte+' (sc. _fecit_) = '_But, it may he said, he acted like a fool._' 19. +etiamne+ (sc. _stulte fecit_) = _What, how did he act like a fool, if_ ...--Holden.] 20, 21. +potest autem ... utile esse.+ Cf. #Ho tê polei ouk esti blaberon oude ton politên blaptei# = that which is not harmful (#blaberon# = +inutile+) to the State is not harmful to the citizen.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of the embassy of Regulus); Pliny, _Ep._ vii. 2 (interesting letter on the death of Regulus); and espec. Hor. _Od._ III. v. 13-end.

'With counsel thus, ne'er else aread [_advised_], He nerved the Fathers' weak intent, And, girt by friends that mourn'd him, sped Into illustrious banishment.' --C.

C5

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

A. _First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B.C._

C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginienses missus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quam decoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit. His, quas ante pugnam hostes {5} valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa ad Liparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partim cepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et ex senatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: {10} 'Feci,' inquit, 'et victus sum.' Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hac poena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victor primum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columna rostrata in foro posita est. {15}

(_Adapted_) Cf. FLORUS, I. xviii. 7-10.

[Linenotes: 4. +corvos+ = _crows_ (the #korakes# of Polybius), boarding-bridges. A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy's ship. 6. +ad Liparas insulas+ = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N.E. of Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S.E. of these Islands. 8. +Dux+, i.e. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B.C.]

B. _Unique honour conferred on Duilius._

C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senem saepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibi nullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria. {20}

CICERO, _De Senectute_, xiii. § 44.

[Linenotes: 18. +cereo funali+,[28] i.e. _torchlight_. +nullo exemplo+ = _without any precedent_. 18-19. +sibi ... sumpserat.+ Cicero is wrong: more probably the honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa. 19. +dabat+ = _excused_; lit. _granted_, _allowed_. -- J. S. Reid.]

[Footnote 28: The +funale+ was a torch composed of twigs twisted into a rope (+funis+) and dipped in pitch or oil. --J. S. R.]

+References.+ Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the _corvi_, #korakes#. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy's _Reliques_). Lord Howard says:--

'Were twenty shippes, and he but one, I swear by kirke and bower and hall, He would overcome them every one If once his beames they do down fall.'

C6

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B.C._

_Rashness of Claudius._

Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarant nisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illa ostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimus licentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, {5} Amphiaraum, Calchantem, Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si res omnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorum conprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit, qui {10} etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli non pascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam esse nollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populo Romano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius {15} eodem bello nonne tempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudius a populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit.

CICERO, _De Nat. Deorum_, II. 3. 7-8.

[Linenotes: 3. +ostenta ... dicuntur+ = _are called in Latin_ '_ostenta_,' '_monstra_,' etc. --Walford. 4. +prodigium+ for _prodicium_ = _pro_ + [Rt]_dic-_ #deik-# = _point out_. 5. +Mopsum+, etc. = _all those stories about Mopsus_, _etc._, in apposition to +ea+: poetical construction. +Mopsum+, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts. +Tiresiam+, the blind prophet of Thebes. 6. +Amphiaraum+, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes. +Helenus+, son of Priam. A seer of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_. 10. +P. Claudi temeritas.+ P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius, the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N.W. corner of Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum). 15. +Iunius.+ L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B.C. His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Pachynus (C. Passaro) the same year.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Florus ii. 2 says that 'Claudius was overthrown, not by the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he had despised.'

+The Defeat off Drepana.+ 'The reason of the defeat lay in the superiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperience of Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knew nothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet of Junius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in the year 249 B.C., the most dismal time of the whole war.' --Ihne.

C7

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B.C.

_Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B.C._

_Peace with Carthage._

A. Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio, consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque rem arbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod {5} patriam, exhaustam sumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sed ita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae, bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissent aut victi manus dedissent. {10}

CORN. NEPOS, _Hamilcar_, i.

[Linenotes: 1. +apud insulas Aegates+, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala). 3. +statuerunt belli facere finem.+ This victory led to the close of the First Punic War. 5. +paci serviendum+ = _to devote himself to (obtaining) peace_. 9. +donicum+ (= _donec_), lit. '_at the time of day when ----_' 10. +virtute vicissent+ = _they (the Romans) should have conquered by (superior) prowess_.]

B.

Hic dum stagnosi spectat templumque domosque Literni ductor, varia splendentia cernit Pictura belli patribus monumenta prioris 655 Exhausti: nam porticibus signata manebant, Quis inerat longus rerum et spectabilis ordo. . . . . . . . Addiderant geminas medio consurgere fluctu Aegates: lacerae circum fragmenta videres 685 Classis et effusos fluitare in gurgite Poenos. Possessor pelagi pronaque Lutatius aura Captivas puppes ad litora victor agebat.

SILIUS ITALICUS, vi. 653-657, 684-688.

[Linenotes: 653-654. +stagnosi Literni.+ Town and River on the coast of Campania, N. of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna palus. 654. +ductor+ = Hannibal. 654-657. Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees carved the tale of Troy. Verg. _Aen._ i. 445-493.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Polybius, i. caps. 59-63.

+Terms of Peace.+ Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make war upon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years.

+Sicily the first Roman Province.+

C8

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _Great Importance of the Second Punic War._

In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duce Carthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibus ullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt {5} arma, neque his ipsis tantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes inter sese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortuna belli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt. Odiis etiam prope {10} maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanis indignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quod superbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse.

[Linenotes: 3. +Hannibale duce.+ Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was the life and soul the 'Hannibalian War.' 6. +his ipsis+, sc. _Romanis Poenisque_, with _validiores_. 6-7. +virium aut roboris+ = _offensive or defensive strength_. --R. 8. +expertas+ = _tested_, in a passive sense. 9. +ut propius ... vicerunt+, e.g. after Cannae, 216 B.C. 12. +ultro inferrent arma+ = _should presume to attack_. --Dimsdale. 13. +Poenis+, sc. _indignantibus_. +superbe avareque.+ 'When the war of the mercenaries broke out in Africa (241-238 B.C.) Rome availed herself of the distress of Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war indemnity by 1200 talents.' --Ihne.]

B. _The Oath of the Boy Hannibal._

Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme {15} novem, pueriliter blandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfecto Africo bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum, tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem fore populo Romano. {20}

LIVY, xxi. 1.

[Linenotes: 16. +blandientem+ = _coaxingly entreating_. --D. 17. +perfecto Africo bello+, i.e. between Carthage and her mutinous mercenaries, 241-237 B.C.]

+Parallel Passage.+ For Hannibal's Oath, Livy xxxv. 19.

+Importance of the War.+ 'It was a struggle for existence, for supremacy or destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisation of the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East was to be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all future time.' --Ihne.

C9

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

'_The paths of glory lead but to the grave._'

Expende Hannibalem: quot libras in duce summo 147 Invenies? . . . . Additur imperiis Hispania, Pyrenaeum 151 Transilit. Opposuit natura Alpemque nivemque: Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto. Iam tenet Italiam, tamen ultra pergere tendit: 'Actum,' inquit, 'nihil est, nisi Poeno milite portas 155 Frangimus et media vexillum pono Subura.' O qualis facies et quali digna tabella, Cum Gaetula ducem portaret belua luscum! Exitus ergo quis est? O gloria! vincitur idem Nempe et in exilium praeceps fugit, atque ibi magnus 160 Mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis, Donec Bithyno libeat vigilare tyranno. Finem animae, quae res humanas miscuit olim, Non gladii, non saxa dabunt, nec tela, sed ille Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor, 165 Anulus. I, demens, et saevas curre per Alpes, Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias.

JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 147-167.

[Linenotes: 147-148. +Expende ... invenies+ = _if you lay_ (lit. 'weigh') _Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the greatest of commanders?_ --Duff. Cf. Ov. _Met._ xii. 615: Iam cinis est: et de tam magno restat Achille Nescio quid parvam quod non bene compleat urnam. 156. +media Subura+, i.e. in the heart of Rome. The Subura was one of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome. 157. +O qualis facies ... tabella+ = _what a sight and how fit for caricature!_ lit. 'worthy of what a picture' i.e. how ridiculous a picture it would have made. --Hardy. 158. +luscum+ = _one-eyed_. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B.C. 160. +in exilium+, i.e. first to Antiochus of Syria, and then to Prusias of Bithynia. 166. +anulus.+ Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring (+anulus+) 183 B.C., aged 76. 167. +ut ... fias+ = _to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become the subject of their speeches_. --Duff.]

+For the thought+, cf. Shak. Ham. V. i. 232:

Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, Might stop a hole to keep the wind away: O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe Should patch a wall to expel the winter's flaw!

C10

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Character of Hannibal._

Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori an exercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle, ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum {5} esset, neque milites alio duce plus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda, plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpus fatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par; cibi potionisque {10} desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus; vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quod gerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato neque silentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem {15} inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihil inter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitum peditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes {20} ingentia vitia aequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio.

LIVY, xxi. 4.

[Linenotes: 2. +habilius+ = _better adapted_, lit. 'more easily handled'; cf. our _handy_. 7. +ad pericula capessenda+ = _in incurring peril_. 12. +discriminata+ = _regulated_, lit. 'divided off'; cf. _dis-cerno_, _dis-crimen_. 14. +accersita+ (= _arcessita_) = _wooed_. 15. +sagulo+ = _in his military cloak_: diminutive of _sagum_. 21. +inhumana crudelitas.+ Polybius says that many of his alleged cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus. 21-23. +perfidia plus quam Punica.+ 'This does not seem to have been anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his enemies.' --Church and Brodribb. Cf. 'Perfidious Albion.' 23. +nulla religio+ = _no scruples_, i.e. no force binding (_re + ligare_) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor--Sallust _Cat._ 5 of Catiline--Polybius ix. 22-26 (important).

'Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, the most deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they did not hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations.' --Ihne.

C11

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B.C._

Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallem vergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibus admoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineis fuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, {5} postquam ad effectum operis ventum est, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut in suspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, et iuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vi maiore obsistebant. {10} Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem nec quicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modo atque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaque hostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus {15} haud ferme plures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murum incautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tanta circa fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera ac vineae desererentur. {20}

LIVY, xxi. 7.

[Linenotes: 2. +quam cetera+ (sc. _loca_) +circa+ = _than the neighbouring country_. 4-5. +ut ... ita+ = lit. _as ... so_, i.e. _although ... yet ..._ 6. +postquam ... ventum est+ = _when they came to attack the wall in earnest_. +Effectum+ (verbal noun in _us_) = _the completion of the work_, i.e. the bringing up of the ram. --Dimsdale. 8. +ut in suspecto loco+ = _as (was natural) in a suspected_ (i.e. weak) _spot_. --Capes. 11-12. +nec quicquam ... pati+ = _they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety_, lit. not (even) moderate safety. --D. 18. +adversum femur+ = _in the front of the thigh_.]

+SAGUNTUM+ (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about 20 miles S. of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greek colonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B.C. Rome made an alliance with Saguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked the city ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies of Carthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city in his rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months' siege and a heroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm 219 B.C.

_Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum._

LUCAN, _Phars._ iii. 349-50.

Cf. also Juv. _Sat._ xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A.D.

C12

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _The Dream of Hannibal._

Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnis a Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse ut Italiae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illum utentem cum exercitu progredi {5} coepisse; tum ei ducem illum praecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisse elatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta {10} pervertere.

CICERO, _De Divinatione_, i. 24, 49.

[Linenotes: 1. +Coelius+, i.e. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B.C.), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative. 7. +id ... non potuisse.+ Cf. Livy 'temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes.' 8. +cupiditate+ = _from curiosity_. Cf. Livy 'cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind.' 8-11. +visam belluam ... pervertere+ = _he thought he saw a monster overthrowing_.]

B. _The Interpretation--Vastitatem esse Italiae._

Hoc trepidus monstro ... ardua quae sit, 198...200 Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu. Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris: 'Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella, Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo 205 Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur. Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens, Et late umectat terras spumante veneno: 210 Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris.'

SILIUS ITALICUS, iii. 198-213.

[Linenotes: 202. +hiatu+ = _with its wide-open mouth_. 203. +Cyllenes+, i.e. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled _Cyllenius_. 209. +tergore = tergo+. poet. and post-Augustian.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii. 47.

C13

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants._

Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variat memoria actae rei. . . . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esse elephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terra in amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne {5} secunda aqua deferretur, pluribus validis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humo iniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, {10} huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viam praegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressi sunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis ab actuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita {15} primis expositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta ab ceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibus extremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum {20} edebant, donec quietem ipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientes quidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribus quaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. {25}

LIVY, xxi. 28.

[Linenotes: 2. +variat ... rei+ = _the accounts of what was done differ_. --Dimsdale. 7. +parte superiore ... pontis+ = _fastened to the upper part of the bank_, i.e. to the bank at a point higher up stream. --D. 9. +per solum+ = _on firm ground_. 14. +ab actuariis+ = _by some light craft_, lit. 'Easily moved' (_ago_). 17-18. +donec ... agerentur+ = _So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land._ --C. and B. _Agebantur_ would be more usual, but _agerentur_ may give the reason of _nihil trepidabant_. Cf. _donec--fecisset_ ll. 21-22. 19. +in altum+ = _into mid stream_, usu. of the Sea. --D. +inter se+ = _one on another_, _alii alios_. 24. +quaerendis pedetemptim vadis+ = _feeling their way into shallow water_. +pedetemptim+ = _step by step_, lit. 'stretching out the feet' (_pes + tendo_). Cf. _paulatim_, _sensim_.]

+Reference.+ Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought that elephants could not swim.

C14

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers._

Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atque Italiam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigando adhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terror invaserit. . . . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, {5} gignere atque alere animantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidem eorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibus saepe agminibus cum {10} liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tuto transmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belli portanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! {15} Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduum videri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiri posse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute genti per eos dies totiens ab se victae, {20} aut itineris finem sperent campum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis.

LIVY, xxi. 30.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +varie ... versat+ = _works on their minds by different methods_, i.e. +castigando adhortandoque+.--Dimsdale. 4-5. +repens terror.+ Livy says that H.'s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps. 7. +Eos ipsos legatos+, i.e. of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan). 9. +advenas Italiae cultores+ = _foreign settlers in Italy_. _advenas_ = adj. here. --D. 11. +migrantium modo+ = _as immigrants_. 16. +Romam caput orbis.+ A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e.g. the Boii not subdued until 191 B.C.). 18. +Cepisse Gallos.+ The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B.C. 20. +genti ... victae+, e.g. at the Passage of the Rhone. 21. +campum+, i.e. the Campus Martius, N.W. of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. p. 116, ll. 7, 8.] [[Selection C9, lines 155, 156]]

+The Speeches of Livy.+ 'He does not intend in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of the time in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying character and motive.' --Mackail.

C15

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps._

Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum mille admodum altitudinem abruptus erat. . . . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atque hominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum loco purgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque {5} egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupem muniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendum esset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struem ingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni {10} coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso aceto putrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntque anfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiam deduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum {15} iumentis prope fame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habent rivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta in pabulum missa, et quies {20} muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo inde ad planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis.

LIVY, xxi. 36, 37.

+Context.+ At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. the Little St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in the road, caused by a landslip or avalanche.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +in pedum ... abruptus erat.+ Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. _in length_. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. _in depth_. 3-4. +Tandem ... fatigatis+, i.e. after H.'s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed. 4. +in iugo+, i.e. on the higher level where the road was broken away. 6. +ad rupem muniendam+ = _to cut a way through the rock_. _Munire_ (cf. _moenia_) = lit. 'to wall,' 'to build.' So _munire viam_ = _to make a road_. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace. 9. +detruncatis+ = _trimmed_, (lit. 'lopped off'), i.e. cleared of branches. 11-12. +infuso aceto.+ Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the _posca_, the soldiers' regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this. 13-14. +molliuntque ... clivos+ = _relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths_. _Anfractus_, from _ambi + frango_.]

+References.+ Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179.

C16

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B.C._

Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consulis castra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos in insidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Semproni credulitatem adequitare vallo eius {5} iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut ad primum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul et adortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitu fluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem {10} opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuit partibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 5. 23.

[Linenotes: 1. +ad Trebiam+, a small tributary S. of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. of Placentia (Piacenza). 2. +castra.+ Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. or left bank of the Trebia. 8-9. +ieiunum ... rigefecit+, i.e. Sempronius _made stiff_ (+rigefecit+) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men _faint with hunger_ (+ieiunum+). 11. +oleoque+, i.e. _ut mollirent artus_ = _to make their limbs supple_. 12-13. +nec defuit ... caederet.+ The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear.]

B. _The River bars the Retreat._

Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis, 570 Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat. Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas. Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus, 575 Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet. Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis. 580

SILIUS ITALICUS, iv. 570-580.

[Linenotes: 574. +precibus ... undas.+ The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal. 576. +soli frustrata+ = _prevented from reaching firm ground_. 577. +lento+ = _sticky_. 579. +resoluta+ = _crumbling_.]

+References+. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191.

C17

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (1)

Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexplorato postero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam in patentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod ex adverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super {5} caput _haud[29] detectae_ insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus et circumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simul invadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magis Romanis subita atque improvisa {10} res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebula campo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribus collibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariter decucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum {15} esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnari coeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringique gladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut[30] in re trepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos {20} clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adire audirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 4, 5.

[Footnote 29: Var. lect. _decepere_.]

[Footnote 30: For this qualifying use of _ut_ cf. p. 42, iii. (b) and p. 83 line 1.] [[Demonstration IV.iii and Selection D24]]

[Linenotes: 1. +Flaminius+ (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B.C., conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B.C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second time) 217 B.C., defeated and killed at Trasimene. 2. +inexplorato+ = _without reconnoitring_. 'This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great.' --Dimsdale. 4. +pandi+ (= _se pandere_) = _to deploy_. 13. +ipsa ... conspecta+ = _were sufficiently visible to each other_. 15. +prius quam satis cerneret+ = _before he could clearly distinguish anything_. --D. 19. +ut in re trepida+ = _considering the confusion of the moment_. --D.]

+The Scene of the Battle.+ At the N.W. end of the Lake the mountains of Cortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. the pass expands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from ½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. end of the plain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibal encamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troops behind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N., and his cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. to cut off the Roman retreat.

C18

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (2)

Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipi poterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locum noscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis {5} quam tecti. Et erat in tanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorum ictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos _strepentium_[31] paventiumque clamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globo illati {10} haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientium agmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ab lateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium acies claudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis {15} spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam et nova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principes hastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa alia pugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus {20} cuique ante aut post pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeo intentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiae magnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. {25}

LIVY, xxii. 5.

[Footnote 31: Var. lect. _terrentium_ = of those causing fear.]

[Linenotes: 4. +ad arma capienda aptandaque+ = _to seize and put on for the battle their arms_. --Dimsdale. 5. +onerati:+ i.e. most were cut down in their full marching equipment. 8-9. +mixtos ... clamores+ = _the mingled shouts of noisy triumph_ (+strepentium+) _or dismay_. 10. +pugnantium ... haerebant+ = _rushed upon a knot_ (+globo+) _of combatants, and became entangled with it_. --Jebb. 14. +a fronte+, i.e. by Hannibal's African and Spanish infantry. +ab tergo+, i.e. by Hannibal's cavalry and the Gauls. 18-19. +non illa ... triarios+ = _not in that well-known_ (+illa+) _mode of fighting_ (sc. +pugna+) _arranged according to_. . . . Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. +hastati+, _of young men_, ii. +principes+, _of men at their prime_, iii. +triarii+, _of middle-aged men_.]

+References:+ Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, _Hist._ vol, i. pp. 204-10.

C19

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B.C._ (3)

_The Death of Flaminius._

Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes, Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri 645 Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi Victoris vultus, 'Tune, inquit, maximus ille Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo, 650 Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis. Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres. Ultrix hora vocat.' Pariter tunc undique fusis 655 Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis 660 Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo 665 Ceu tumulo, texere virum.

SILIUS ITALICUS, v. 644-666.

[Linenotes: 644. +Dum ... hostes+, i.e. after Flaminius' vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (_inexplorato_[32] _angustiis superatis_) with his life. 646. +Ducarius+--Livy, 'an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper.' 651. +mânet+ = _will flow_. Cf. _emanate_. 652. +populares+ = _fellow-countrymen_, but of Romans usu. _civis_. 658-666. Livy says more simply 'He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields.' 660. +laeva+ = _unfavourable_, lit. 'on the left side.' Cf. _sinister_.]

[Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note.] [[Selection C17, "inexplorato"]]

+Parallel Passages.+--Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. iii. 84.

+Character of Flaminius.+ 'The party feelings which have so coloured the language of the ancient writers (e.g. Livy, Polybius) respecting him need not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed an unequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul and as Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile of Trasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourable grave.' Arnold, _Hist. Rome_, iii. 110.

C20

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator._

Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, nec senectus mores mutaverat. . . . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cum plane grandis esset, et Hannibalem {5} iuveniliter exsultantem patientia sua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:

_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem; Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem; Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret._ 10

Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatem dividenti. . . . Multa in eo viro praeclara {15} cognovi, sed nihil admirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri et consularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophum non contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civium magnus, sed intus {20} domique praestantior.

CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 10-12.

[Linenotes: 1. +Ego+, i.e. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B.C. +eum qui Tarentum recepit.+ Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B.C. and _recovered_ by Fabius 209 B.C. 2-3. +Erat ... gravitas+ = _that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy_. --J. S. R. +condita+ (_condio_) = lit. _seasoned_. 5. +grandis+, sc. _natu_. He was consul for a first time in 233 B.C. 6. +iuveniliter.+ Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps. +exsultantem+ = _wildly roaming_, of a horse galloping at will. 7. +noster Ennius+, circ. 239-169 B.C., famous espec. for his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre. 9. +Noenum+ (_ne + oinum_ = _not one thing_) = _non_. Cf. _nihil_ = _ne + hilum_ = not a whit, nothing. 12-14. Flaminius, when tribune 232 B.C., by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i.e. by a _plebiscitum_) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (_contra senatus auctoritatem_) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens. 18. +laudatio+, sc. _funebris_, the funeral speech. 19-20. +in luce ... civium+ = _in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen_. --J. S. R.]

+References.+ Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, _Fabius_, vi.

C21

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B.C._

Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditum esset, Minucius convocatis militibus 'Saepe ego' inquit 'audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui {5} nec ipse consulere nec alteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animi ingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperare discimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabio iungamus; ad praetorium {10} eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eum parentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignum est, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis {15} animorum gloriam dies hic dederit.' Signo dato conclamatur inde, ut colligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra in admirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. {20}

LIVY, xxii. 29, 30.

+Context.+ Fabius' policy of 'masterly inactivity' had become so unpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided between Fabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from a destruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid of Fabius. +Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness.+

[Linenotes: 4. +consulat+ = _can give counsel_--so _consulere_ l. 6. 6-7. +extremi ingenii+ = _has the meanest capacity_. gen. of quality. 7-8. +prima ... sors est+ = _the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect_. --Dimsdale. 14. +patronos+ = _as the authors of your freedom_. +Patronus+ = legal title used by a freed slave (_libertus_) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as _liberti_, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their +patroni+. 17. +ut colligantur vasa+, i.e. _impedimenta_. Cf. _signa movere_.]

+Fabius Cunctator.+ 'Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it to war, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully and persistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that any general could at that time render to the State. It was probably at this time that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (_corona graminea_), the highest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved a besieged town.' --Ihne.

C22

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 218 B.C. (1)

_The Destruction of the Roman Infantry._

Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo et viribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandem Romani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum {5} validum a cetera prominentem acie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenore uno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimque reductis {10} alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontem primum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornua fecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere {15} alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum terga ceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus {20} circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cum recentibus ac vegetis pugnabant.

LIVY, xxii. 47.

[Linenotes: 1. +Sub ... certaminis+, i.e. _at the close of_ (+sub+) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated. 2-3. +constabant ... Hispanisque.+ These formed Hannibal's centre, the _convex_ of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind. 4. +obliqua fronte+, perh. = _concave_, so as to surround _the projecting part of the enemy's line_ (+a cetera prominentem acie+). 5. +cuneum:+ here = the _convex_ formation of the Gauls and Spaniards. 8-9. +in mediam aciem+ = _the centre of the line_, i.e. of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first. 10. +subsidia+ = _reserves_, i.e. the Africans, on the right and left. 14-16. +Afri circa ... alas.+ Hannibal's formation is now reversed.[33] The horns (+cornua+) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and _outflanked_ (+circumdedere alas+) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly _into the intervening space_ (+in medium+, i.e. the _concave_ part of H.'s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards). 21-22. +recentibus ac vegetis+ = _fresh in body and mind_.]

[Footnote 33: i.e. the Africans now formed the horns of a _crescent_ in relation to their centre, while it formed the _concave_ part of the crescent. --D.]

+Results of the Battle.+ Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, and the Romans lose (including 23,000 taken prisoners) about 70,000 men.

C23

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (2)

'_Paulus animae magnae prodigus._'

Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxo cruore oppletum consulem vidisset, 'L. Aemili' inquit, 'quem unum insontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, {5} et comes ego te tollere possum ac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sine hoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est.' Ad ea consul: 'Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e {10} manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiis firment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem et vixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac {15} strage militum meorum patere exspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegae existam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam.' Haec eos agentes prius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulem ignorantes, {20} quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultum arripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt.

LIVY, xxii. 49.

[Linenotes: 1. +praetervehens equo+ = _riding by_. +praetervehor+ used here as a deponent. --Dimsdale. 2. +oppletum+ (= _perfusum_) = _covered_ (lit. _filled up_), or _drenched_. 4. +respicere+ = _to look on with favour_. --D. 9. +macte virtute esto+ = lit. _go on and prosper in your courage_. +mactus+ = i. _magis + auctus_ = _increased_, _glorified_, or more prob. ii. = old partic. of obsolete _mago_ (= _augeo_), from [Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar#. Vocative used as nominative. 14. +praeceptorum.+ His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death. 15. +et vixisse adhuc et mori+ = _died as he had ever lived_. --D. 17. +reus iterum e consulatu+ = _a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship_, i.e. on a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B.C.) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War. 18-19. +ut ... protegam.+ The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae.]

'The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but the Romans would have given up the idea of further resistance.' --Ihne.

C24

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C. CANNAE, 216 B.C. (3)

A. _Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome._

Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, ut tanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentis quietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbal praefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, 'Immo {5} ut, quid hac pugna sit actum, scias, die quinto' inquit 'victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam.' Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capere animo posset. Itaque voluntatem {10} se laudare Maharbalis ait; ad consilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: 'Non omnia nimirum eidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.' Mora eius diei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. {15}

LIVY, xxii. 51.

[Linenotes: 2-4. +diei ... sumeret+ = _he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest_. --Church and Brodribb. 8. +venisse+, sc. +te+, suggested by +sequere+. --Dimsdale. 9. +res+ = _the idea_, i.e. of such a rapid termination to the war. --D. Hannibal was too far off (11 days' march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art.]

B. _Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy._

Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magna reliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo talia agitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se {20} sua interfecturum, nisi qui iurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse se primus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximis minatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplo coegit ad iurandum. {25}

FRONTINUS, _Strat._ iv. 7. 39.

[Linenote: 18. +P. Scipio adulescens+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, _fatalis dux huiusce belli_, the predestined champion in this war.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, where Camillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii.

C25

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

A. _Rome's Heroes._

Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno Gratus insigni referam Camena Fabriciumque. 40 Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44 Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes Iulium sidus velut inter ignes Luna minores. 48

HORACE, _Odes_, I. xii. 37-48.

[Linenotes: 37. +Scauros+[34] (= +Scaurum+) = _such men as Scaurus_. Censor, 100 B.C. 40. +Fabricium+, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B.C. See p. 101, Fabricius the Just. [[Selection D42]] 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with homestead to match_. --Gow.]

[Footnote 34: Cf. in French, _Les Vergiles_.]

B. _The Dream of Propertius._

Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra, Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi, Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum, Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis; 4 Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora, Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit, Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila, Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate, 8 Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos, Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes, Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem. 12

PROPERTIUS, III. (IV.) iii. (ii.) 1-12.

+Subject:+--Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with his lips (l. 5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow the example of Ennius.

[Linenotes: 2. i.e. the Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties. 4. +nervis ... meis+ = _that I had strength to gasp forth_. --Ramsay. 7. +Curios+ = _Curiatios_. +Horatia pila+: see pp. 67-68. [[Selections D8, D9]] 8. +Aemilia+, i.e. of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B.C. over Perseus of Macedon. 10. +versos ... deos+, i.e. the solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods _turned a ready ear_ (+versos+). 12. +fuisse+, dependent on +cecini+ l. 19. +Iovem+, i.e. _Iovis Capitolini templum_. See p. 84.] [[Selection D25]]

C26

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (1)

A. _Capua aspires to rival Rome._

Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi, Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus, 4 Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox, Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal: 8 Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas, Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum.

HORACE, _Epod._ xvi. 1-10.

[Linenotes: 5. +Aemula virtus Capuae.+ In 216 B.C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy. +Spartacus acer+, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B.C. 6. +novis rebus infidelis+ = _faithless to revolution_, because they assisted in betraying Catiline's plot 63 B.C.--Wickham. 9. +impia ... aetas+ = _we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed_ (i.e. there is a curse on us) _shall destroy_ (Rome).]

B. _Decius Magius defies Hannibal._

Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendique Decium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cum manente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectae catenae, ducique ante lictorem {15} in castra est iussus. Quoad capite aperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undique multitudinem vociferans: 'Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis: foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundus vinctus ad mortem {20} rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Ite obviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, ut hunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis.'

LIVY, xxiii. 10.

+Context.+ After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entry into the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magius and his son, poured out to meet him.

[Linenotes: 11. +in templo magistratuum+ = _on the magistrates' bench_, (or _tribunal_). 12. +Decium Magium+, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome. 14-15. +negaret ... posse+ = _urged that by the terms of the treaty_ (i.e. between the Capuans and H.) _this could not be insisted on_. --Church and Brodribb.]

C27

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B.C._ (2)

A. _'Capua,' it is said, 'became Hannibal's Cannae.'_

Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma Campaniam Tarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeo ut vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictum Alpibus, indomitum armis Campani--quis {5} crederet?--soles et tepentes fontibus Baiae subegerunt.

FLORUS, II. vi. 21-22.

[Linenotes: 2. +Campaniam Tarentumque+, once the two most fertile districts in Italy. 4. +Capuam ... fuisse.+ Ihne says: 'Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal's troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates.' 7-8. +tepentes fontibus Baiae+, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs.]

B. _The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B.C._

Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobiles Campani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes in custodias {10} dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civium Campanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem {15} omni fertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servata est, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudo incolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omnis et tecta publica populi Romani facta. {20}

LIVY, xxvi. 16.

[Linenotes: 10. +sociorum Latini nominis+ = _sociorum_ +ac+ _Latini nominis_, which includes all the Italian allies. 'The _Nomen Latinum_ were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B.C. after the Latin War.' --Rawlins. 13. +delendam.+ Cf. Cato's _Delenda est Carthago_. 15-17. +agrum ... in Italia esse.+ Cf. Verg. _Georg._ ii. 224-5: 'Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge.' --Mackail. 18. +frequentandae+ = _for the purpose of peopling_. 19. +institorum+ = _pedlars or dealers_. Cf. our 'commercial travellers'. 20. +publica ... facta+ = _confiscated_. 'This _ager publicus_ was leased by the censors to farmers (_aratores_) who paid rent (_vectigal_) for it.' --R.]

C28

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Marcellus at Nola, 216 B.C._

Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercitum instruxit. . . . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali sub signis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stanti primo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus {5} porta egrederetur nec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquia esse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussos propere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satis fidens, si cunctantibus {10} instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebem moturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signa succeditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signa canere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto {15} maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroris tumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere. . . . Ingens victoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta {20} est; non vinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere.

LIVY, xxiii. 16.

+Context.+ The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joining Hannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, as elsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time to inform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger of a revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the town with a strong garrison.

[Linenotes: 3-5. +Hannibali ... primo miraculo esse+ = _Hannibal, who ... had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that_. --Church and Brodribb. 7. +colloquia esse+, i.e. his _communications_ (+colloquia+) with the Carthaginian party in Nola. 8. +res[)i]des+ = _inactive_, lit. _that remains sitting_ (+re + sedeo+). 10. +si cunctantibus instaret+ = _if he met hesitation with prompt action_. --Church and Brodribb. Lit. _if he pressed upon those hesitating_. 12. +in sua ... ministeria+ = _to their several posts_. 19-21. +Ingens ... gesta est+ = _a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day_.]

+Nola+, an important town in Campania, S.E. of Capua. It remained faithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campanian towns revolted to Hannibal.

+Marcellus at Nola.+ 'It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nola from being taken.' --Ihne.

C29

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Cicero's Description of Syracuse._

Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omnium saepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cum munito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: et portus habet prope in aedificatione {5} aspectuque urbis inclusos: qui cum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur et confluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, mari disiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta est urbs, ut ex {10} quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum una est ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusque portus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronis regis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs {15} Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimae porticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumque egregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunae fanum antiquum fuit, {20} Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasium amplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars et habitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postrema coaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum est maximum. {25}

CICERO, _In Verrem_, ii. 4. 117-119.

[Linenotes: 5-6. +prope ... inclusos+, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e.g. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens. 7. +in exitu+ = _at their outlet_, i.e. the narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours. 9. +disiuncta+ = _separated from the rest_ (+dis+--). 12. +Insula+, i.e. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited. 14. +Hieronis regis+, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C., distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B.C. till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome. 16. +Achradina+, the mainland N. of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B.C., the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina. 18. +prytaneum+ = _town-hall_ (#prutaneion# = _the presidents' hall_). 25. +theatrum est maximum+, capable of holding 25,000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains.]

+Reference.+ Freeman's _History of Sicily_.

C30

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Engineering Skill of Archimedes._

Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormenta in muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingenti pondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebat telis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela {5} in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quae cava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorum essent, in {10} eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmae catenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbi recelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; dein remissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum {15} ingenti trepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si recta reciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusa omnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed ea quoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa {20} erat Hieronis impensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte.

LIVY, xxiv, 34.

[Linenotes: 1. +adversus ... apparatum+, i.e. to oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina. 7. +cubitalibus fere cavis+ = _with holes_ (fr. +cavum+ = noun) _about 1½ feet square_, +cubitalibus+ (_cubitum_) = _a cubit long_. Polybius has a _palm_ long, about 3 inches. This is more probable. 8. +scorpionibus+ = _crossbows_ or _manuballistae_. 10. +quo interiores ... essent+ = _so as to be too close in to be hit by_ (+intertores ictibus+) _the engines_. 10-12. +in eas+ (sc. +proras+) +iniecta+ = _on their bows was dropped_ ... 11. +tollenone+ = _from a swing beam_, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum. 12-13. +cum (ferrea manus) gravique ... ad solum+ = lit. _when (the grappling-iron) swung back_ (+recelleret+) _to the ground by a heavyweight of lead_. 'This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (_inland_) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground.' --Rawlins. 15. +remissa+ (sc. +ferrea manus+) = _the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly let go_. 16. +ita undae affligebat+ = _was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water_ (+undae+).]

+Cause of the War.+ Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B.C., his whole family was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into the hands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal's agents.

C31

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Marcellus laments over Syracuse._

Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium ferme ilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimasse dicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloria urbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo {5} ingentes exercitus cum duobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cum Carthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta, tot tam opulenti tyranni regesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum ante omnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque {10} sua dederat, beneficiis in populum Romanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretque cogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, {15} qui intra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes ad dedendam urbem. . . . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multa irae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriae proditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum {20} pavor captae urbis in discursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas in pulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegre id Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiam inquisitis honori praesidioque {25} nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse.

LIVY, xxv. 24, 31.

[Linenotes: 1-2. +ex superioribus locis+, i.e. from the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days' festival of Artemis. 6. +ducibus+, e.g. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes. 7-8. +tot bella ... gesta+, e.g. at Himera, 480 B.C., on the same day as Salamis. 8-9. +tot tam ... regesque+, e.g. Gelo, 485 B.C.; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B.C.; Hiero II., the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B.C. 8. +tyranni+, i.e. _absolute rulers, despots_, with reference rather to the _irregular way_ in which the power was gained, than the way in which it _was exercised_. 16. +qui ... fuerant+, i.e. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse. 22. +formis+ = _diagrams_. 24. +sepulturae+. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54.]

+The Treatment of Syracuse.+ It would have been the undying glory of Marcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy city from further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, a precedent afterwards followed.

C32

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Death of Marcellus, 208 B.C._

Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique et conspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae rei positus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castris progressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut {5} pariter ab suis quisque latebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipso consurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in ea valle {10} consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatum ab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamen diutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris {15} iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab Etruscis Fregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnando rem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiam transfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum {20} videre, tum et ipsi--perpauci autem supererant--cum Crispino consule duobus iaculis ieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt.

LIVY, xxvii. 27.

+Context+. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B.C. After the attempt to retake Locri (S.E. of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adopted Fabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explore the country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +Numidis speculator+. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen. 4-5. +si quos possent excipere+ = _on the chance of their being able to intercept_. --Stephenson. 6-8. +Non ante ... circumiere+ = _those who were to spring on the enemy_ (lit. _those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy_ +obviis+) _from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round_ (+circumiere+).--S. 10. +valle+ = _a hollow_, i.e. a depression on the Roman side of the hill. 16. +Fregellani+. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B.C. 17. +ipsique ex parte pugnando+ = _taking their share in fighting_. --S.]

+Character of Marcellus+. 'He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepid patriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as a general no match for Hannibal.' --Ihne.

C33

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Character of Scipio Africanus Maior._

Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoque quadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apud multitudinem aut _ut_ per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitus mente monita agens, sive et ipse capti {5} quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctatione exsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togam virilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam {10} in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumque solus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitam servabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdam fecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia {15} eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuvene excesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturae tantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit.

LIVY, xxvi. 19.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +in ostentationem earum compositus+ = _he made a study_ (+compositus+) _of displaying them_, implying artificiality. --R. 3-5. +pleraque ... agens+ = _in most of his dealings_ (+pleraque agens+) _with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired_ (+visa+) _by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration_ (+divinitus mente monita+). 7. +sorte+ = _by an oracular response_ (which was often written on a little tablet or _lot_, +sors+). 11. +aedem+, i.e. the _cella_ (_chapel_, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 13-14. +seu consulto seu temere vulgatae+ = _whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad_. 17. +humanae+ = _which one has for a mere man_. --Rawlins. 19. +tantam rerum molem+ = _so stupendous a task_. --R. In 212 or 211 B.C. the two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B.C. sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11,000 men.]

+Character of Scipio.+ 'He was a man far above the average of his contemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not fail to rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by not only daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry them out.' --Ihne.

C34

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B.C._

Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatores Tarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadis pervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitum dari, eo secum armatos quingentos {5} duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamine intravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omnium non animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantium spectantiumque {10} et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergo senserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimque ancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moenia capta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox {15} caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armati impetum fecerunt. . . . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passim factae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo dato caedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, {20} quae ingens omnis generis fuit.

LIVY, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 3. +vadis pervagatos stagnum+ = _made their way through the pool by wading_ (+vadis+). 8. +contractum+ = _concentrated (confined)_. 13. +ancipitem+ = _double_, _twofold_, _on two opposite sides_. 15. +intus forisque+ = _both within and without_. +foris+, adv. (an abl. form from an obsolete nom. +fora+) = _out of doors_, _without_. Cf. +foras+ = _out through the doors_, _forth_. 16-17. +caedendo ... distractis foribus+ = _when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows_.]

+Carthago Nova+ (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle of Hannibal) 243 B.C. The city is situated on a promontory running out into the sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weak side, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tide the water of the shallow pool W. of the town fell so much that it was fordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. He first made a feint attack on the N. wall and then led 500 men across the ford, who scaled the W. wall and opened the nearest gate from the inside.

+Result of its Capture.+ 'New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis of operations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thus determining the issue of the Spanish War.' --Ihne.

C35

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Nero's famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B.C._

Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum Frentanum Praetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusque commeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equos iumentaque alia producerent, ut {5} vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipse de toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex milia peditum, mille equites. . . . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibus virorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et {10} laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanae imperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumque suorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasque precabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura {15} ex hostibus victoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos post dies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisque et offerre et fatigare {20} precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usui essent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestia certare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem {25} ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare.

LIVY, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel.)

+Context.+ Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen of Hasdrubal's march and plans--to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then to march on Narnia and Rome--with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrew secretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forced march joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus.

[Linenotes: 1-2. +Larinatem+, etc., districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order. 15. +faustum+ (for _favostus_, _fav-eo_) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: +felix+ = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it. --Stephenson. 16-17. +damnarentur ... votorum+ = _condemned (to pay) their vows_. Cf. Verg. _Voti reus_ = _bound to my vow_, i.e. bound to fulfilment. 23. +Modestia certare+ (sc. _cum iis_) +... sumerent+ = _the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything_ ...--S.]

'Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassed the average qualifications of Roman generals.' --Ihne.

C36

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_The Metaurus, 207 B.C._

Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis; Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum Virtus, neque imbellem feroces Progenerant aquilae columbam; 32 Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, Rectique cultus pectora roborant; Utcumque defecere mores, Indecorant bene nata culpae. 36 Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal Devictus et pulcher fugatis Ille dies Latio tenebris, 40 Qui primus alma risit adorea, Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus Per Siculas equitavit undas. 44 Post hoc secundis usque laboribus Romana pubes crevit, et impio Vastata Poenorum tumultu Fana deos habuere rectos. 48

HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 29-48.

[Linenotes: 29-36. The thought is: 'It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet _education_ (+doctrina+ = _training_ l. 33) _brings out the innate force_.' 29. +fortibus et bonis.+ For the combined epithets cf. #kalos kagathos#. 36. +Indecorant ... culpae+ = _faults disfigure_ (+indecorant = dedecorant+) _scions of an honourable stock_ (+bene nata+). 37. +Neronibus+, e.g. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus. 41. +alma adorea+ = _with kindly (refreshing) success_. 43. +ceu flamma per taedas+ = _like fire through a pine-forest_. --W. 44. +equitavit+ = _galloped_, _careered_, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with +flamma+ and +Eurus+. 46-47. +impio tumultu+ = _by the sacrilegious invasion_ (or _riot_, _outrage_), possibly with reference to Livy's story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia. 48. +rectos+ = _upright_, i.e. of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again.]

+Results of the Battle.+ 'The war in Italy was to all appearances finished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain.' --Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, he foresaw the doom of Carthage:--

'Lost, lost is all: A nation's hope, a nation's name, They died with dying Hasdrubal.' --C. (Hor. _Od._ IV. iv. 70-73).

C37

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B.C._

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoque legati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus ad Magonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans dicitur legatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, 'Iam non perplexe,' inquit, 'sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum et pecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populus Romanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10} obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit.' Iam hoc ipsum praesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militum turba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metu quam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat in Africam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causa relinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostium terra excedentem.

LIVY, xxx. 19, 20.

+Context.+ Scipio (204 B.C.) landed in Africa and won such decisive victories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, that ii was necessary in 203 B.C. to recall both Mago and Hannibal.

[Linenotes: 3-4. +ad Magonem.+ Mago, H.'s youngest brother, had in 205 B.C. been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B.C. fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa. 6. +Iam non perplexe+ = _now in no veiled manner_ (lit. _not obscurely_). 8. +iam pridem trahebant+ = _began long ago to try to pull me back_. --Rawlins. 11. +obtrectatione+ = _by disparagement_. 13. +Hanno+, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons.]

+Hannibal's Speech.+ ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustrates the bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. was personally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfish and party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheld supplies and reinforcements. Ihne says 'The whole course of the war is a sufficient refutation of these charges.'

C38

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (1) _Before the Battle._

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verba praelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, arma expedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diem sed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iura gentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam aut Italiam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculum praemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romanis effugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremo auxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimen procedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longe clarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora aut cumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebant animos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis {20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristia obversabantur.

LIVY, xxx. 31, 32.

[Linenotes: 1-2. +Ita infecta pace ... renuntiant+, referring to Livy's picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace. 7-10. +Roma an Carthago ... praemium fore.+ 'By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage.' --Ihne. 14. +effuso+ = _dispersed_, i.e. _defeated_. 15. +discrimen+ = _decisive point_, _decision_. 18. +aut cumulaturi aut eversuri+ = _either to augment_ (lit. _heap up_) _or overthrow_. 21. +pensarent vires+ = _they estimated (weighed) their strength_.]

+The Battle of Zama.+ 'Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous to their own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see +C+ 39, B. note), and were of no further use; while others, driven aside by the Roman skirmishers, threw H.'s Carthaginian cavalry into such disorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio's horse. The first Roman line threw H.'s mercenaries back upon their reserves of the second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced with his second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely until Scipio's Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit of H.'s horse, fell upon the enemy's rear and decided the battle.' --Ihne.

C39

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B.C.

_Zama, 202 B.C._ (2) _The Order of Battle._

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in prima fronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures et Baliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergo stantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certe fatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integri exciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorum ab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}

+Hannibal's Army.+ It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partly Carthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians).

These he placed in his _third_ line.

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia.

These he placed in his _second_ line.

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Balearic contingent, and the Spaniards.

These he placed in his _first_ line.

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry.

These he placed on his _wings_.

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his _front_, to open the attack.

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronte ordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuas construxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sine perturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibus implevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetum elephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde in cornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistro Numidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubie causa victoriae fuit.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3. 16.

+Scipio's order of battle.+ Instead of drawing up his manipuli like the black squares of a chessboard--the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line--he placed them one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leave spaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass without trampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e.g.:

+not+ +but+ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY.

C40

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (1)

_Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B.C._

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primo bestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus e tribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorum militibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevi circuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergo adortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali re trepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedem referentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc loco etiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclive pulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15} Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem inter ceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortuna esset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circa iuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit.

LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10.

+Context.+ Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in 215 B.C., and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B.C.) by an attack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum in Epirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble he had caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A _casus belli_ was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B.C.) asking for help against Philip.

[Linenotes: 3-4. +unus ... militum.+ Ihne says 'He seized the favourable opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a brilliant victory for Rome.' 5. +signorum+ (= _manipulorum_) = _companies_, i.e. with some 3500 men. 13. +loco premebantur+ = _they_ (i.e. _the phalanx_) _began to feel the disadvantage of position_. --Rawlins. 16. +in medio caesi+ = _cut down from both sides_. --R.]

+Cynoscephalae+ (_Dog's Heads_), a low chain of hills between Pherae and Scotussa in Thessaly.

+Results of the Battle.+ 'The Romans lost only 700 men. That was the price paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Great in the dust.' --Ihne.

+Terms of Peace+, 196 B.C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunk to the level of a vassal state.

C41

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B.C. (2)

_Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B.C._

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cum propter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generis artium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propter opportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum usus ministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatus erat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sed exspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae sua fortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indici solet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: 'Senatus Romanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusque devictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas.' ... Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quae sua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertate aliorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes; hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutis et fortunae ingentis.

LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel.)

[Linenotes: 1. +Isthmiorum statum ludicrum+ = _time fixed_ (+statum+) _for the Isthmian Games_ (celebrated at Corinth every two years). 3-4. +quo certamina ... visuntur+ = _which makes them go to see contests of every kind of artistic performance_ (+artium+) _and of feats of strength and agility_. --Rawlins. 7. +concilium is mercatus erat ...+ = _that gathering was the general rendezvous_ (+mercatus+) _of_ ... +mercatus+ = i. _trade_, or _mart_; ii. _a festival assemblage_ (#panêguris#). 11. +in mediam aream+ = _into the centre of the open space (of the stadium)_. 17. +Locrensesque omnes+, i.e. E. & W. Locris. 18. +Perrhaebos+, N. of Thessaly. +Achaeos Phthiotas+ = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S.E. of Thessaly). 19-24. +Esse aliquam ... ingentis:+ in these words the Greeks express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the boon conferred upon them.]

+The Freedom of Greece.+ 'The Greeks believed with a childlike simplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that they had crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from a foreign yoke. . . . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, and particularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for he understood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so many other Romans, to Greek views and opinions.' --Ihne.

C42

WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B.C.

A. _Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B.C. Victory due to Cato._

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaia pro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritus tantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eo Porcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populo factus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, qui praesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergo subitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimque irrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt.

FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 4. 4.

+Context.+ In 192 B.C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted the invitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B.C., had been snubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny of Rome.

B. _Battle of Magnesia, 190 B.C._

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor Carthaginis Africanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iam toto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnem montemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibus auxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitum falcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensae magnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciem utrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hoc imbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}

FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18.

+Context.+ In 190 B.C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war into Asia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer.

[Linenotes: 14-15. +Et iam toto cesserat mari+, as the result of the decisive defeat, in 190 B.C., of the Syrian fleet off +Myonnesus+. 15-16. +Maeandrum ... ponuntur.+ The battle was fought near Magnesia (N.W. of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus.]

+Parallel Passage.+ Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, 'The +Battle of Magnesia+ decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of +Zama+ and +Cynoscephalae+ had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia.' --Ihne.

C43

_Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B.C._

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit et omnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo ante praeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. 'Liberemus,' inquit, 'diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longum censent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininus victoriam feret.' Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, et hospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculum exhausit. . . . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum non tempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemo eorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnes non in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal et Philopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen in carcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20} damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsilium indixit.

LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel.)

+Context.+ After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (_Suffete_ = L. _praetura_) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome _as making plans for a new war_, and in 195 B.C. he was forced to flee from Carthage and took refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. found for seven years a safe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not be at ease so long as H. lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greece undertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal.

[Linenotes: 13-15. +non tempore magis congruente quam+ = _not so much in coincidence of_ (+congruente+, lit. _agreeing with_) _date as_. --R. 18. +Philopoemen+, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (+in carcere+, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison. 20-23. +Scipio+ was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the tribune Naevius (185 B.C.) of having been bribed by Antiochus to procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at Liternum, where _by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and his grave to exile_ (+voluntarium ... indixit+). '_Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes._' Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself.]

C44

_M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B.C._ (1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Nam et in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictum addidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatus non modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit.

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollers et peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator et cupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque de Graecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Ab adulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam rem omnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse.

NEPOS, _Cato_, ii., iii.

[Linenotes: 1. +Censor+, 184 B.C., with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life. 3. +in edictum.+ The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued a _proclamation_ or _edict_, setting forth the principles upon which they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended to use his power for the suppression of luxury. 5. +pullulare+ = _to spread, increase_; lit. _to put forth_, of plants and animals. Cf. _pull-us_ (our _pullet_), _pu-er_, #pôlos# (= _a foal_).] +octoginta.+ This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when he died 149 B.C. 6-7. +rei publicae ... non destitit.+ Seneca says: _Scipio cum hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit._ 7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time acquitted. 11. +iuris consultus+ = _lawyer_. 12. +magnus imperator+, e.g. in the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae (191 B.C.) was mainly due to Cato. +probabilis orator+ = _a tolerable, acceptable orator_. Oscar Browning. 17-21. His two great works were his treatise +De Re Rustica+ (or +De Agri Cultura+), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his +Origines+, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. 'It was Cato's great merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for literary prose composition.' --Ihne.]

+Cato the Censor.+ 'He deserves our highest respect for the defiant and manly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices of the age.' --Ihne.

C45

_M. Porcius Cato._ (2)

Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae Moles relinquent, undique latius Extenta visentur Lucrino Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4 Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et Myrtus et omnis copia narium Spargent olivetis odorem Fertilibus domino priori; 8 Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12 Privatus illis census erat brevis, Commune magnum: nulla decempedis Metata privatis opacam Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16 Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem Leges sinebant, oppida publico Sumptu iubentes et deorum Templa novo decorare saxo. 20

HORACE, _Odes_, II. xv.

+Argument.+ 'Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens are supplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. +This is not the spirit of Romulus or of Cato.+ Their rule was private thrift, public magnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples of hewn stone.' --W.

[Linenotes: 1. +Iam+ = _presently_. 1-2. +regiae moles+ = _princely piles_. +moles+, lit. _masses_, of _huge buildings_. 2-4. +undique ... lacu+ = _and fish-ponds_ (+stagna+) _of wider extent than the L. lake will be sights to see_ (+visentur+).--Wickham. 4. +platanus caelebs+ = _the bachelor plane_, so called because vines were not _wedded to it_ (i.e. trained upon it).--Gow. 6. +omnis copia narium+ = _all that is sweet to smell_. Lit. _all the fulness of the nostrils_. 10. +ictus+ (sc. _solis_). The point is that formerly trees were stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun is excluded. --Gow. 11. +intonsi+ (= _antiqui_) = _old-fashioned_. Cf. Cic.'s use of _barbatus_. 13. +census erat brevis+ = _list of property was short_. 14. +commune+ (= #to koinon#) = _the common (public) stock_. 14-15. +decempedis metata privatis+ = _measured with ten-foot rods for private owners_. In old days the +porticûs+ were always _publicae_. 17. +fortuitum caespitem+ = _the chance-cut (handy) turf_. 20. +novo saxo+ = _with fresh-hewn stone_, i.e. hewn on purpose. --W.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, _Catiline_ 12, 13.

'Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavoured without success to bring this old time back.' --Ihne.

C46

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maior sexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculique capessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratis erat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidem phalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, unde circa fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alas sociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraque nova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, non quemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commenta Macedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecuti sunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}

LIVY, xliv. 41.

+Context.+ Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the death of his father in 179 B.C. He did all he could to prepare for the inevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as the Liberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus of Syria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174 B.C., the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiating with Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. The Senate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B.C.), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to the supreme command in Macedonia.

[Linenotes: 4. +caetratos+ = _Targeteers_, armed with the _small_ round shield. 5-7. +A tergo ... habebat+ (sc. +legio prima+) = _the (first) Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards the Shieldmen_. --Rawlins. 6. +clipeatos+ = _Shieldmen_, armed with the _large_ round shield. 7. +chalcaspides+ = _Brazen Shields_, Right Division of phalanx. 9. +leucaspidem+ = _White Shields_, Left Division of phalanx. 10. +in dextrum cornu+ (sc. +Romanum+), i.e. nearest to the sea. 13-15. +commenta ... oportet+ = lit. _the contrivances of men, though in theory_ (+in verbis+) _they had some importance_ (+vim+) _yet upon trial_ (+experiendo+) _when there is need of action and not of discussion_ (+edisseri+) _how to act_. . . . 17. +commenta Macedonum.+ Perh. with reference to Perseus' contrivances (e.g. by the use of _dummy_ elephants) to prepare his men and horses to make a stand against _real_ elephants.]

C47

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B.C.

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B.C._ (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ulla evidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuius confertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; si carptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitate hastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut ab tergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tum adversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariam acie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos. . . . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, ab tergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15} inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphas concurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venire rati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidam etiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphis caederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliam foediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litus acti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque.

LIVY, xliv. 41, 42.

[Linenotes: 1. +In medio ... immissa+ = _On the centre the second legion charged_ (+immissa+), i.e. into the interstices of the phalanx, which was not preserving its usual close order. --Rawlins. 4-6. +fluctuantem ... vires sunt+ = _first demoralised the phalanx so as to make it waver_, (+fluctuantem+), _and then shattered it. Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles with couched_ (+intentis+) _spears, is irresistible_ (+intolerabiles+). 6. +carptim aggrediendo+ = _by repeated harassing attacks_. 10. +ruinae modo+ = _in hopeless confusion_. --R. 17. +classe.+ The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with the army.]

+Results of the Battle+. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom was divided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had fought its last great battle.

+Character of Paulus+. 'He was a model of the Roman of the best time. He was not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everything old; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious to preserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them.' --Ihne.

C48

THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Carthage, 146 B.C._

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvis profligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionum videbatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem belli reposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent esse morientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quam cum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mari Romanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis parte foderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere posse credebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iam diebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, nova perditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribus flamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorum se dederunt quod minus credas--duce Hasdrubale. {20}

FLORUS, II. xv. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B.C. to inquire into the affairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must be destroyed--_delenda est Carthago_. A pretext was soon found in the war (151 B.C.) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally of Rome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitions of war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city and settle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die rather than give up the sacred soil of their country.

[Linenotes: 5. +profligato+ = _almost finished_. 6. +in alium Scipionem+, i.e. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal. 12. +alterum portum+, i.e. they pierced the narrow strip of land separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea. 18. +deploratis+ = _was looked upon as lost_, lit. _wept for bitterly_. 20. +duce Hasdrubale:+ 'Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of _the last Carthaginian_ in the best sense of the word, as a representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and patriotism of his race.' --Ihne.]

'The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemn curse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build a new town on that spot.' --Ihne.

+Africa made a Roman Province.+

C49

WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B.C.

_Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B.C._

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annos DCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alter Africanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novis hominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversi imperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegans liberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, ut Polybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domi militiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantius intervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacis serviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpus periculis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas ac statuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, si eas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13.

+Context.+ In 149 B.C. an adventurer named Andriscus claimed to be Philip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B.C. his army was routed and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, _no longer needing the help of Greek troops_, determined to break up the Achaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but the Greeks were easily defeated (146 B.C.) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, and Corinth itself was plundered and destroyed.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +quam ... condita.+ Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city #Dios Korinthos#. 10. +Panaetium+, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor. 13. +dispunxit+ = _he devoted, gave up_ (lit. _marked off_). 19. +locaret+ = _he hired_ (lit. _place out_, i.e. _give out on contract_). +conducentibus+ = _to the contractors_.]

+The Destruction of Corinth.+ 'The flames which consumed Miletus (destroyed by the Persians 494 B.C.) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480 B.C.) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of a magnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came the long dark night.' --Ihne.

+Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of the Roman governor of Macedonia+.

C50

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B.C.

_The Lusitanian Hannibal._

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solis gentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vir calliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito dux atque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, non contentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omnia citra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiam praetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene ad internecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibus nostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iam Fabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violata victoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem et extrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticos percussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vinci non posse.

FLORUS, II. xvii. 13-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ After the defeat of Perseus (168 B.C.) and before the outbreak of the third Punic War (149 B.C.) a suitable opportunity seemed to present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest of Spain; but 'for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and of humble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured for himself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal and Mithridates.' Ihne.

[Linenotes: 1. +cum Lusitanis.+ The Lusitani (S. of the R. Tagus = mod. Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B.C. 6. +cessisset+ (= _concessisset_) = _had permitted._ 10-12. +Claudium Unimanum ... fixit+, i.e. in 147 B.C. 'The captured fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e.g. +trabeis+, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains.' --Ihne. 13. +Fabius Maximus consul+, i.e. Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141 B.C., and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome soon found a pretext for breaking. 17. +percussores+ = _assassins_, lit. _strikers_ (_per + cutio_ = _quatio_). Cf. the fate of Sertorius, 72 B.C.]

+The War with Viriathus.+ 'It was sad and disgraceful for the Roman arms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability and the moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than even in the war with Viriathus.' --Ihne.

C51

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B.C.

_Destruction of Numantia, 133 B.C._

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redacto in disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum se umquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossa atque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duce orantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10} fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorum cingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deplorato exitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce se suos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Macte fortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem! Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manu aetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitas nullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus non fuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: arma ipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine.

FLORUS, II. xviii. 11-17 (sel.).

+Context.+ In 143 B.C. the Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged by the successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their most important town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius (Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consul failed to take it, until in 134 B.C. Scipio Africanus Minor, the conqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborn city.

[Linenotes: 2-3. +Sic redacto ... a Scipione.+ 'Scipio's first task, when he arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there, once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and cowardice--the most unroman of all vices--had begun to creep in.' --Ihne. 7. +lorica+ = _a breastwork_, serving as _a screen_. Usu. = _a cuirass_. 11. +sedit+ = _was decided on_, lit. _settled_. 16. +Macte+ = _a blessing on_ or _hail to thee_. +Mactus+ prob. from [Rt]#mak#, e.g. in #mak-ar# = _blessed_, but cf. _mag-nus_. 18. +Asseruit+ = _it protected_. +assero+ (_ad + sero_) = lit. _join-to_.]

+Destruction of Numantia.+ Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town to the ground, and received the added surname of +Numantinus+.

+Roman Province in Spain.+

C52

_Rome the Invincible._

Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal: 'Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium, Sectamur ultro, quos opimus Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52 Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra Natosque maturosque patres Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56 Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Per damna, per caedes ab ipso Ducit opes animumque ferro 60 Non Hydra secto corpore firmior Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem, Monstrumve submisere Colchi Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64 Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit; Luctere: multa proruet integrum Cum laude victorem geretque Proelia coniugibus loquenda.' 68

HORACE, _Odes_, IV. iv. 49-68.

[Linenotes: 51. +ultro+ = _aggressively, needlessly_. --Wickham. 51-52. +opimus triumphus+ = _a rare_ (lit. _rich, noble_) _triumph_. Cf. _spolia opima_. 53-56. 'This stanza is a _résumé_ of the story of the _Aeneid_.' --W. 53. +gens+ (sc. +illa+), i.e. the Roman stock. 57-60. 'The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from its pyre.' --W. 58. +frondis+ with +feraci+. Cf. _fertilis frugum_. 59-60. +ab ipso ... ferro+ = _from the very edge of the steel itself, the holm-oak_ (= _the Roman stock_) _draws fresh power and spirit_. 61-62. Cf. the saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, 'I see that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent.' 63-64. i.e. of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon's teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes. 63. +submisere+ = _produced, raised_. 64. +Echioniae Thebae.+ Echion was one of the five survivors of the #Spartoi# (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes. 65. +Merses+ (= +si mersaris+) = _plunge it if you will_. +evenit+ = _it emerges (comes forth)_. 66-67. +multa cum laude+ = _amid loud applause_, of a feat in a wrestling match. --W. 68. +coniugibus+ = i. _by Roman wives_ or ii. _by Carthaginian widows_. So Conington, 'Whose story widow'd wives shall tell.']

CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B.C.

B1

THE GRACCHI.

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliis bellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem et paucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quos spes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10} Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haud satis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo more iniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usa multos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibi timoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitates pessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbius ulcisci volunt.

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 42.

[Linenotes: 1-3. +quorum maiores ... addiderant+, e.g. their grandfather P. Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (in Spain and Sardinia). 3-4. +paucorum scelera ... coepere.+ (i) Tib. Gracchus by his Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the ruling class (in excess of the 500 _iugera_ limit of the Licinian Laws, 367 B.C.). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried the Sempronian Law, 'one of the cornerstones of individual liberty.' 5. +per socios ... Latinum+, by working on Roman jealousy against the Italians, for whom equality was claimed. 6. +spes societatis+, i.e. the hope of sharing with the nobility in office, and in provincial appointments. 10. +triumvirum c. d.+, one of the three Commissioners for establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the _ager publicus_. 11. +Fulvio Flacco+, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B.C. 17. +pessum dedit+ = _has destroyed_. _pessum_ (prob.) = _pedis_ + _versum_ = _towards the feet, to the ground_, cf. _pessum ire_.]

+The aim of the Gracchi.+ 'Their object was to reduce the excessive power of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, which had become merely nominal, a reality.' --Ihne.

+Their political mistake.+ 'Their error consisted in the belief that such a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the old Comitia. They overlooked the necessity of +remodelling the Roman people itself+ by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in reality make them represent the people.' --Ihne.

B2

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI.

A. _On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B.C._

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindenda Numantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit.

_De Off._ i. 76.

[Linenotes: 2. +Numantia+, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus, 133 B.C. 3. +P. Nasîca+, a partisan leader of the Senate. +privatus+ = _not in office_. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it suits his purpose, e.g. in _de lege agraria_, ii. § 10, _duos (Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae viros ... quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video partes constitutas_.]

B. _On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B.C._

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset et effudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verba audiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legem frumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendum venerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem: quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentum petat, quam dissuaserit. 'Nolim' inquit 'mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritim dividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam.' Parumne declaravit vir {15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari? Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices.

_Tusc. Disput._ iii. 20, 48.

[Linenotes: 8. +L. Piso ille Frugi+ = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of _worth_), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus. 8-9. +legem frumentariam+, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens at about half the market price. 'One of the worst measures ever proposed by a well-meaning statesman.' --Ihne. 12. +qui+ = _how_, old abl. of _qui_.]

C. _On C. Gracchus as an Orator._

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studio et doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse.

_Brutus_, 125.

[Linenote: 20. +doctus a puero.+ CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education; so Cic. _Brut._ 104 _Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero doctus et Graecis literis eruditus_. 'From her they had received that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering, which animated their political action.' --Ihne.]

B3

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B.C.

_The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B.C._

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sed nocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secum ipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quae scilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremo Sullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidias tendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haud procul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obvius honoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem {15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Marium deductus est. {20}

SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 113.

[Linenotes: 2. +Bocchus+, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha, coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance. +Sullam+, appointed Quaestor 107 B.C. by Marius, who superseded Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War. 9. +quae scilicet ... patefecisse+, i.e. the external signs of his irresolution,--the calling and then dismissing his people (+adhibitis ... remotis+, ll. 6, 7), and the changes of his countenance (+voltu ... varius+, ll. 8, 9). +Scilicet+ is here used with the Infinitive +patefecisse+, the verbal sense of the word (= _scire_ + _licet_) being prominent. 10. +accersi+ (= _arcessiri_), frequent in Sallust. 16. +necessariis+ (_necesse_) = _friends_. Cf. #anankaioi# (#anankê#). 19. +Iugurtha Sullae ... traditur.+ Sulla is said to have been so proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him. (Plutarch, _Sulla_, 3.)]

+Jugurtha.+ 'Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic for six years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherous promises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law.' --Ihne.

B4

A. _Arpinum--Birthplace of Cicero and Marius._

Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237 Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243 Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit. Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245 Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro, Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem, Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra; Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250

JUVENAL, _Sat._ viii. 237-239, 243-250.

[Linenotes: 239. +in omni monte+, i.e. in every part of Rome, on each of the seven hills. 244. +patrem patriae:+ under the Empire the title _pater patriae_ became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor. +libera+ = _while yet free_, emphatic. The State was no longer free when Augustus received this title, 2 B.C.--Duff. 247. +frangebat vertice vitem+ = _he had the vine-switch (rattan) broken on his head_, i.e. served as a common soldier. --D. 248. +dolabra+ = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe for digging the fossa. For +dolabra+, cf. _Dolabella_. 249. +Cimbros+, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae, 101 B.C. 250. +Excipit+ = _faced_ (lit. _is ready to receive_); metaphor from field-sports. --D.]

B. _From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius._

Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4 . . . . . . . Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur, Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit, Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris: Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen.

[Linenotes: 1. +Iovis pinnata satelles+, i.e. the Eagle. Cf. Pindar, _Pyth._ i. 6: #heudei d' ana skaptô (= skêptrô) Dios aietos#, _and sleeps on the staff of Zeus his eagle_. 3. +Surrigit+ (= _surgit_) = _raises up_; very rare in this sense. The _v.l._ +Sûbigit+ (for _s[)u]bigit_) = _carries aloft_.]

Compare Plutarch's story of the eagle's nest, with seven young ones in it, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so the diviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul.

B5

_The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B.C._

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eorum inundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique et Gallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castra Silani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibi terrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibus inter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armis petere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10} secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset. . . . Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in loco quem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque medium hostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone id egerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certe necessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquam exercitu, 'Si viri estis' inquit, 'en, illic habetis.' Itaque tanto ardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruento flumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}

FLORUS, III. iii. 1-9 (sel).

[Linenotes: 5. +Silani+ = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B.C. 11. +Mallius--Caepio+, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the Rhone, 105 B.C. Plutarch, _Lucullus_ 27, says: 'The 6th Oct., on which day the battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B.C.' 12. +Actum erat+, sc. _de republica_. 14. +compendiis+ = _short ways_; cf. our _compendium_ = _an abridgement_. 16. +Aquas Sextias+, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B.C. = Aix, 18 miles N. of Marseilles. 23. +caedes hostium.+ 150,000 (Vell.) and 200,000 (Liv. Ep. lxviii.). 'By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the Cimbri, 101 B.C.), the movement of the German races southward was for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was Marius, the champion of the people.' --Ihne.]

+Parallel Passages.+ Propert. IV. iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. lxviii.

+References.+ Plutarch, _Marius_, 15. Ihne, _Hist. Rome_, vol. v. pp. 98-105.

B6

MARIUS, 157-86 B.C.

A. _His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time._

Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori, 'Non alios,' inquit, 'motus tum fata parabant, Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70 Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor. Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75 Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas. Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35] Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit; Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80 Audieratque pavens: "Fas haec contingere non est Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem." Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis, Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem.' 85

LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 67-85.

[Footnote 35: Postgate, _actu_.]

[Linenotes: 67. +exempla timori+ = _precedents to hear out his fears_. --Haskins. 70. +Exsul.+ 88-7 B.C. For details see Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-40. 72. +Fortuna+, i.e. the _evil_ destiny of Rome, protecting him because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 _debet ... mortes_. 73. +in carcere+, i.e. at Minturnae, S.E. of Latium. There were extensive marshes in the neighbourhood. +paedor+ = _filth_. 82. +legibus aevi+ = _the laws that govern time_ = _fatis_. --H.]

B. _Marius outlived his fame._

Quid illo cive tulisset Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam, Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280 Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam, Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?

JUVENAL, _Sat._ x. 278-282.

_Marius outlived his powers and his reputation._

'Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of the greatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstained with any blood save that of foreign foes.' --Ihne.

+Parallel Passages.+ Ov. _P. Ep._ iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. x. 276-278.

+References.+ Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. iv. pp. 336-7, vol. v. pp. 111-12.

B7

_Cicero on Civil Strife._

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum eas quas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huius urbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partim interemit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit: omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis viris interfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huius victoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quanta deminutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae. . . . Atque illae tamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandam rempublicam {15} pertinebant--non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed in ea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se in hac urbe florere voluerunt--eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliatione concordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}

CICERO, _In Cat._ iii. 10.

[Linenotes: 4. +P. Sulpicium+, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As Tribunus Plebis 88 B.C. carried the Leges Sulpiciae. 6. +Cn. Octavius+, one of Sulla's chief supporters. Consul 87 B.C. Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair. 9-11. +Superavit ... exstincta sunt+, i.e. 87-6 B.C. The Reign of Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. ii. 22 'Nihil illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta.' 10. +lumina civitatis+, e.g. the Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula; Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. and C. Caesar. 11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat.