Part 8

Steel filings gently thrown upon a magnet, adhere to it in a curious manner; and the filings, acquiring magnetism by the contact, adhere together, and form a number of small magnets, which arrange themselves according to the attraction of the poles of the original magnet. This experiment is made to the most advantage upon a piece of pasteboard, or paper, placed over the magnet.

Magnetism is communicated by the friction, or the near position, of a magnet to a piece of steel of a size less than it. For this reason a combination of magnetical bars will have a greater effect than a single one; and in the following manner, beginning without any magnetism at all, the greatest quantity may be procured. Six bars of steel may be rendered slightly magnetical by fixing each of them successively to an upright poker, and stroking it several times from the bottom to the top with the lower end of an old pair of tongs. If then four of these bars be joined, the magnetism of the remaining two will be much increased by a proper method of rubbing with them; and by changing their places, joining the strongest, and acting upon the weakest, they may all be made as magnetical as they are capable of being.

The strength of a natural magnet may be increased by covering its polar extremities with steel. This is called the _arming_ of the loadstone.

To account for the variation of the needle, Dr. Halley supposed the earth to consist of two parts, an external _shell_ and an internal _nucleus_, detached, and having a revolution distinct from it; and that the action of the poles of the shell and of the nucleus would explain all the varieties in the position of the needle. But others think that the cause of the magnetism of the earth is not _within_, but _without_ itself. One reason for this opinion is, that a magnet is liable to be affected by a strong aurora borealis; and another is, that the variation of the needle proceeds in such manner as supposes that the motion of the nucleus must be quicker than that of the shell of the earth; whereas, since it is most natural to suppose that motion was communicated to the nucleus by the shell, it would be slower.

Some idea of the quantity and the progress of the variation of the needle may be formed from the following facts.--At the Cape of Good Hope, when it was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1486, there was no variation, the needle there pointing due north; in 1622 it was about 2 degrees westward, in 1675 it was 8° W. in 1700 about 11° W. in 1756 about 18° W. and in 1774 about 21½° W. In London, in 1580, the variation was 11 degrees 15 seconds E.; in 1622 it was 6° E. in 1634 it was 4 deg. 5 min. E. in 1657 it was nothing at all; in 1672 it was 2 deg. 30 min. W. in 1692 it was 6 deg. W. in 1753 it was about 16 W. and at present it is about 21 W.

The longitude may in some places be found by the variation of the needle; and Mr. Churchman, of America, having given much attention to the subject, comparing the observations of others, and many of his own, thinks that he has found a method of determining the longitude to a great degree of certainty, in most cases, by this means.

He says there are two magnetic poles of the earth, one to the north and the other to the south, at different distances from the poles of the earth, and revolving in different times; and from the combined influence of these two poles he deduces rules for the position of the needle in all places of the earth, and at all times, past, present, or to come.

The north magnetic pole, he says, makes a complete revolution in 426 years, 77 days, 9 hours, and the south pole in about 5459 years. In the beginning of the year 1777 the north magnetic pole was in 76 deg. 4 min. north latitude; and in longitude from Greenwich 140 deg. east; and the south was in 72 deg. south latitude, and 140 deg. east from Greenwich.

LECTURE XXXIV.

_Of Electricity._

Electricity is a property belonging to, or capable of being communicated to, all substances whatever; and whereas by some of them it is transmitted with great ease, and by others with much difficulty, they have been divided into two classes, and denominated _conductors_ or _non-conductors_ of electricity. Also the latter receiving this power by friction, and other means, are termed _electrics_, and the former _non-electrics_.

Metals of all kinds, and water, are conductors, though in very different degrees; so also is charcoal. All other substances, and also a perfect vacuum, are non-conductors of electricity. But many of these substances, when they are made very hot, as glass, resin, baked wood, and perhaps all the rest on which the experiment can be made in this state, are conductors.

It is the property of all kinds of electrics, when they are rubbed by bodies different from themselves, to attract light substances of all kinds, to exhibit an appearance of _light_, attended with a particular _sound_, on the approach of any conductor; and if the nostrils are presented, they are affected with a _smell_ like that of phosphorus. This attraction is most easily explained by supposing that electricity is produced by a fluid exceedingly elastic, or repulsive of itself, and attracted by all other substances.

An electric exhibiting the appearances above mentioned, is said to be _excited_, and some of them, particularly the _tourmaline_, are excited by heating and cooling, as well as by friction. It appears, however, that excitation consists in the mere transferring of electricity from one substance to another, and that the great source of electricity is in the earth. On this account it is necessary to the considerable excitation of any electric, that the substance against which it is rubbed (hence termed _the rubber_) have a communication with the earth, by means of conductors; for if the rubber be _insulated_, that is cut off from all communication with the earth by means of electrics, the friction has but little effect.

When insulated bodies have been attracted by, and brought into contact with, an excited electric, they begin to be repelled by it, and also to repel one another; nor will they be attracted again till they have been brought into contact with some conductor communicating with the earth; but after this they will be attracted as at first.

If conductors be _insulated_, electric powers may be communicated to them by the approach of excited electrics, or the contact of other electrified bodies. They will then attract light bodies, and give sparks, &c. like the excited electrics themselves.

When electricity is strongly communicated to insulated animal bodies, the pulse is quickened, and perspiration increased; and if they receive, or part with, their electricity on a sudden, a painful sensation is felt at the place of communication. But what is more extraordinary, is, that the influence of the brain and nerves upon the muscles seems to be of an electric nature.

This is one of the last and most important of all philosophical discoveries. I shall, therefore, give the result of all the observations that have hitherto been made on the subject, in a _series of propositions_, drawn up by an intelligent friend, who has given much more attention to it than I have done.

1. The nerve of the limb of an animal being laid bare, and surrounded with a piece of sheet lead, or of tinfoil, if a communication be formed between the nerve thus armed and any of the neighbouring muscles, by means of a piece of zinc, strong contractions will be produced in the limb.

2. If a portion of the nerve which has been laid bare be armed as above, contractions will be produced as powerfully, by forming the communication between the armed and bare part of the nerve, as between the armed part and muscle.

3. A similar effect is produced by arming a nerve and simply touching the armed part of the nerve with the metallic conductor.

4. Contractions will take place if a muscle be armed, and a communication be formed by means of the conductor between it and a neighbouring nerve. The same effect will be produced if the communication be formed between the armed muscle and another muscle, which is contiguous to it.

5. Contractions may be produced in the limb of an animal by bringing the pieces of metal into contact with each other at some distance from the limb, provided the latter make part of a line of communication between the two metallic conductors.

The experiment which proves this is made in the following manner. The amputated limb of an animal being placed upon a table, let the operator hold with one hand the principal nerve, previously laid bare, and in the other let him hold a piece of zinc; let a small plate of lead or silver be then laid upon the table, at some distance from the limb, and a communication be formed, by means of water, between the limb and the part of the table where the metal is lying. If the operator touch the piece of silver with the zinc, contractions will be produced in the limb the moment that the metals come into contact with each other. The same effect will be produced if the two pieces of metal be previously placed in contact, and the operator touch one of them with his finger. This fact was discovered by Mr. William Cruikshank.

6. Contractions can be produced in the amputated leg of a frog, by putting it into water, and bringing the two metals into contact with each other at a small distance from the limb.

7. The influence which has passed through, and excited contractions in, one limb, may be made to pass through, and excite contractions in, another limb. In performing this experiment it is necessary to attend to the following circumstances: let two amputated limbs of a frog be taken; let one of them be laid upon a table, and its foot be folded in a piece of silver; let a person lift up the nerve of this limb with a silver probe, and another person hold in his hand a piece of zinc, with which he is to touch the silver including the foot; let the person holding the zinc in one hand catch with the other the nerve of the second limb, and he who touches the nerve of the first limb is to hold in his other hand the foot of the second; let the zinc now be applied to the silver including the foot of the first limb, and contractions will immediately be excited in both limbs.

8. The heart is the only involuntary muscle in which contractions can be excited by these experiments.

9. Contractions are produced more strongly, the farther the coating is placed from the origin of the nerve.

10. Animals which were almost dead have been found to be considerably revived by exciting this influence.

11. When these experiments are repeated upon an animal that has been killed by opium, or by the electric shock, very slight contractions are produced; and no contractions whatever will take place in an animal that has been killed by corrosive sublimate, or that has been starved to death.

12. Zinc appears to be the best exciter when applied to gold, silver, molybdena, steel, or copper. The latter metals, however, excite but feeble contractions when applied to each other. Next to zinc, in contact with these metals, tin and lead, and silver and lead, appear to be the most powerful exciters.

At least two kinds of fishes, the _torpedo_ and the _electrical eel_, have a voluntary power of giving so strong a shock to the water in which they swim, as to affect fishes and other animals which come near them; and by a conducing communication between different parts of these fishes, an electric shock may be given exactly like that of the Leyden phial, which will be described hereafter; and if the communication be interrupted, a flash of electric light will be perceived.

The growth of vegetables is also quickened by electricity.

LECTURE XXXV.

_The same Subject continued._

No electric can be excited without producing electric appearances in the body with which it is excited, provided that body be insulated; for this insulated rubber will attract light bodies, give sparks, and make a snapping noise, upon the approach of a conductor, as well as the excited electric.

If an insulated conductor be pointed, or if a pointed conductor, communicating with the earth, be held pretty near it, little or no electric appearance will be exhibited, only a light will appear at each of the points during the act of excitation, and a current of air will be sensible from off them both.

The effect of pointed bodies is best explained on the supposition of the electric matter in one body repelling that in another; and consequently the electricity belonging to a body with a large surface making a greater resistance to the entrance of foreign electricity than that belonging to a smaller.

These two electricities, viz. that of the excited electric, and that of the rubber, though similar to, are the reverse of, one another. A body attracted by the one will be repelled by the other, and they will attract, and in all respects act upon, one another more sensibly than upon other bodies; so that two pieces of glass or silk possessed of contrary electricities will cohere firmly together, and require a considerable force to separate them.

These two electricities having been first discovered by producing one of them from glass, and the other from amber, sealing-wax, sulphur, rosin, &c. first obtained the names of _vitreous_ and _resinous_ electricity; and it being afterwards imagined that one of them was a redundancy, and the other a deficiency, of a supposed electric fluid, the former has obtained the name of _positive_, and the latter that of _negative_, electricity; and these terms are now principally in use.

Positive and negative electricity may be distinguished from each other by the manner in which they appear at the points of bodies. From a pointed body electrified positively, there issues a stream of light, divided into denser streams, at the extremities; whereas, when the point is electrified negatively, the light is more minutely divided, and diffused equally. The former of these is called a _brush_, and the latter a _star_.

If a conductor not insulated be brought within the atmosphere (that is the sphere of action) of any electrified body, it acquires the electricity opposite to that of the electrified body, and the nearer it is brought, the stronger opposite electricity does it acquire, till the one receive a spark from the other, and then the electricity of both will be discharged.

The electric substance which separates the two conductors possessing these two opposite kinds of electricity, is said to be _charged_. Plates of glass are the most convenient for this purpose, and the thinner the plate the greater is the charge it is capable of holding. The conductors contiguous to each side of the glass are called their _coating_.

Agreeably to the above-mentioned general principle, it is necessary that one side of the charged glass have a communication with the rubber, while the other receives the electricity from the conductor, or with the conductor, while the other receives from the rubber.

It follows also, that the two sides of the plate thus charged are always possessed of the two opposite electricities; that side which communicates with the excited electric having the electricity of the electric, and that which communicates with the rubber, that of the rubber.

There is, consequently, a very eager attraction between these two electricities with which the different sides of the plate are charged, and when a proper communication is made by means of conductors, a flash of electric light, attended with a report (which is greater or less in proportion to the quantity of electricity communicated to them, and the goodness of the conductors) is perceived between them, and the electricity of both sides is thereby discharged.

The substance of the glass itself in, or upon, which these electricities exist, is impervious to electricity, and does not permit them to unite; but if they be very strong, and the plate of glass very thin, they will force a passage through the glass. This, however, always breaks the glass, and renders it incapable of another charge.

The flash of light, together with the explosion between the two opposite sides of a charged electric, is generally called the _electric shock_, on account of the disagreeable sensation it gives any animal whose body is made use of to form the communication been them.

The electric shock is always found to perform the circuit from one side of the charged glass to the other by the shortest passage through the best conductors. Common communicated electricity also observes the same rule in its transmission from one body to another.

It has not been found, that the electric shock takes up any sensible space of time in being transmitted to the greatest distances.

The electric shock, as also the common electric spark, displaces the air through which it passes; and if its passage from conductor to conductor be interrupted by non-conductors of a moderate thickness, it will rend and tear them in its passage, in such a manner as to exhibit the appearance of a sudden expansion of the air about the center of the shock.

If the electric circuit be interrupted, the electric matter, during the discharge, will pass to any other body that lies near its path, and instantly return. This may be called the _lateral explosion_. The effect of this lateral explosion through a brass chain, when the quantity of electricity is very great, will be the discolouring and partial burning of the paper on which it lies.

If a great quantity of electricity be accumulated, as in a _battery_, the explosion will pass over the surfaces of imperfect conductors without entering them, and the effect will be a strong _concussion_ of the substance. Also the electric matter thus accumulated and condensed will, by its repulsion, form _concentric circles_, which will appear by melting the surface of a flat piece of metal on which the explosion is received.

If an electric shock, or strong spark, be made to pass through, or over, the belly of a muscle, it forces it to contract, as in a convulsion.

If a strong shock be sent through a small animal body, it will often deprive it instantly of life.

When the electric shock is very strong, it will give polarity to magnetic needles, and sometimes it reverses their poles.

Great shocks, by which animals are killed, are said to hasten putrefaction.

Electricity and lightning are in all respects the same thing; since every effect of lightning may be imitated by electricity, and every experiment in electricity may be made with lightning, brought down from the clouds by means of insulated pointed rods of metal.

LECTURE XXXVI.

_The same Subject continued._

Three curious and important instruments, which are among the latest improvements in electricity, deserve a particular explanation, and in all of them the effect depends upon the general principles mentioned above, viz. that bodies placed within the influence, or, as it is usually termed, within the atmosphere, of an electrified body, are affected by a contrary electricity, and that these two electricities mutually attract each other. These instruments are the _electrophorus_, the _condenser_ of electricity, and the _doubler_ of it.

The electrophorus consists of an insulated conducting plate applied to an insulated electric. If the latter have any electricity communicated to it, for example the negative, the positive electricity of the former will be attracted by it, and consequently the plate will be capable of receiving electricity from any body communicating with the earth; being, in this situation, capable of containing more electricity than its natural quantity. Consequently, when it is removed from the lower plate, and the whole of its electricity equally diffused through it, it will appear to have a redundance, and therefore will give a spark to any body communicating with the earth. Being then replaced upon the electric, and touched by any body communicating with the earth, it will be again affected as before, and give a spark on being raised; and this process may be continued at pleasure, the electrophorus supplying the place of any other electrical machine.

If the conducting plate of the electrophorus be applied to a piece of dry wood, marble, or any other substance through which electricity can pass but very slowly, or if the insulated conducting plate be covered with a piece of thin silk, which will make some resistance to the passage of electricity, and it be then applied to another plate communicating with the earth; and if, in either of these cases, a body with a large surface possessed of a weak electricity be applied to the conducting plate, the weak electricity not being able to overcome the obstruction presented to it, so as to be communicated to the other plate, will affect it with the contrary electricity, and this reacting on the first plate, will condense its electricity on that part of the plate to which it is contiguous; in consequence of which its capacity of receiving electricity will be increased; so that on the separation of the two plates, that electricity which was before condensed, being equally diffused through the whole plate, will have a greater intensity than it had before, attracting light bodies, or even giving a spark, when the body from which it received its electricity was incapable of it. For though it contained a great quantity of electricity, it was diffused through so large a space that its intensity was very small. This instrument is therefore called a _condenser of electricity_.

If an insulated plate of metal possessing the smallest degree of electricity be presented very near to another plate communicating with the earth, it will affect this plate with the opposite electricity; and this being, in the same manner, applied to a third plate, will put it into the same state with the first. If then these two plates be joined, and the first plate be presented to either of them, its own electricity being attracted by that of the plate presented, that of the other will be drawn into it, so that its quantity will be doubled. The same process being repeated, will again double the electricity of this plate, till, from being quite insensible to the most exquisite electrometer, it will become very conspicuous, or even give sparks. This instrument is therefore called a _doubler of electricity_, of excellent use in ascertaining the quality of atmospherical electricity when ever so small. If this instrument be so constructed that these three plates can be successively presented to one another by the revolution of one of them on an axis, it is called the _revolving doubler_; and in this form it is most convenient for use.

THE END.

Transcriber's Note: Details of corrections

|Position |Original |Correction | | | | | |Lecture I, first paragraph |limestone |lime-stone | |Lecture I, last paragraph |_attraction_ |_attraction_, | |Lecture III, first paragraph |viz |viz. | |Lecture III, last paragraph |1. |1 | |Lecture XVII, penultimate paragraph |dissoved |dissolved | |Lecture XIX, "Of Calcareous Earth" |hundreth |hundredth | |Lecture XXVI, "Of Semi-metals" |ignates |ignites | |Lecture XXVIII, first paragraph |animony |antimony |