CHAPTER XXXVI

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The selection of the system of transmission and distribution of electric energy from the generating plant to lamps, motors, and other devices, is governed mainly by the cost of the metallic conductors, which in many electrical installations, is a larger item than the cost of the generating plant itself. This is especially true in case of long distance transmission, while in those of the lighting plants, the cost of wiring is usually more expensive than that of the boilers, engines, and generators combined.

The principal distribution systems, are classed as:

1. Series; 2. Parallel; 3. Series-parallel; 4. Parallel-series.

=Ques. What is the characteristic feature of each class?=

Ans. In the series systems the current is constant, but the voltage varies. In the parallel systems, the voltage is constant, but the current varies.

=Series System of Distribution.=—A series system affords the simplest arrangement of lamps, motors, or other devices supplied with electric energy. The connections of such a system are shown in fig. 783. The current from the terminal of the dynamo passes through the lamps, L, L, L, L, one after the other and finally returns to the terminal. The current remains practically constant, but the voltage falls throughout the circuit in direct proportion to the resistance, and the difference in pressure between any two points in the circuit is equal to the current in amperes multiplied by the resistance in ohms included between them.

For example. Each open arc lamp requires about 50 volts. In the system shown in fig. 783, the pressure measured across the brushes of the dynamo is assumed to be 1,000 volts. As this current flows through the circuit 45 volts will be actually lost in each lamp, and as the drop on the line wire is usually about 10 per cent. of the total voltage, there will be a drop of 5 volts on the conductor between any two lamps. In the circuit shown, there are twenty lamps, therefore, the difference in pressure between either terminal of the dynamo and middle point A of the circuit will be 10 lamps × 50 volts = 500 volts. Likewise, the difference in pressure between any two points on the circuit will be equal to 50 volts multiplied by the number of lamps included between them.

=Ques. Describe the danger in a series arc light system?=

Ans. Since the total voltage of the system is equal to the sum of the volts consumed in all of the lamps, it is high enough to be dangerous to personal safety.

This is illustrated in fig. 783. If the line be grounded at B owing to defective insulation, the pressure of the circuit at that point will be zero, and therefore, a man standing on the ground could touch that point without receiving a shock, but if he should touch the line at the point C, he will receive a slight shock of 150 volts, as there are three lamps between the point C, and the ground connection B. Therefore, the danger of touching the circuit increases directly with the resistance between the point touched and the ground connection, so that if a man touch the circuit at the point D, he will receive a dangerous shock of 16 × 50 = 800 volts. In practice, sixty lamps are often placed on a single arc lighting circuit, so that its total pressure is about 3,000 volts, thus greatly increasing the danger of the system.

=Ques. What is a constant current system?=

Ans. The series system is a constant current system, and is so called because the current remains practically constant, while the voltage falls throughout the circuit in direct proportion to the resistance.

=Ques. What are the principal applications of the series system?=

Ans. For arc lighting, and telegraphic circuits.

=Ques. What are the advantages of the series system?=

Ans. In the case of telegraphic circuits only one wire is required, and for lighting and power transmission and distribution, only two wires; therefore, it is simpler and cheaper than any other system.

=Ques. What is the disadvantage of the series system?=

Ans. The danger due to the high voltage in installations such as arc lighting circuits.

=Parallel System.=—Parallel or multiple systems are usually more complicated than series systems, but since the voltage can be maintained nearly constant by various methods, practically all incandescent lamps, electric motors, and a large proportion of arc lamps are supplied by parallel systems.

The general principle of the parallel system is shown in fig. 784. With six lamps on the circuit, each requiring one-half ampere of current, at 110 volts, the dynamo will have to supply a current of 3 amperes at a pressure of 112 volts, and this current will flow through the circuit and distribute itself as shown on account of the lesser resistance of the wire relatively to that of the lamps. At the first lamp, the 3 amperes will divide, ½ ampere flowing through the lamp and the remaining 2½ amperes passing on to the next lamp and so on through the entire circuit. The reduction of pressure from 112 volts across the brushes to 110 volts at the last lamp is due to the resistance of the conducting wires.

=Ques. What three effects are due to this drop in pressure?=

Ans. 1, All the lamps or motors in the circuit receive a lower voltage than that at the dynamo, 2, some lamps or motors may receive a lower voltage than the others, and 3, the voltage at some lamps or motors may vary when the others are turned on or off.

The first is the least harmful and may be counteracted by running the dynamo at a little higher voltage; but the second and third are very objectionable and difficult to overcome. They are counteracted successfully in practice, however, by various methods of regulation, the use of _boosters_, and the operation of dynamos in parallel.

=Ques. What are the principal applications of parallel or constant pressure systems?=

Ans. They are used on practically all incandescent lamp and electric motor circuits, and on some arc lamp circuits.

=Ques. Why is it specially applicable to incandescent lamp circuits?=

Ans. Incandescent lamps cannot be made to stand a pressure much over 220 volts, and therefore have to be operated on low voltage systems.

=Ques. What is the principal disadvantage of a parallel system as compared with a series system?=

Ans. The greater cost of the copper conductors.

=Ques. What is the usual arrangement of parallel systems?=

Ans. Conductors known as _a feeder_ run out from the station, and connected to these are other conductors known as _a main_ to which in turn the lamps or other devices are connected as shown in fig. 785.

=Ques. In what two ways may feeders be connected?=

Ans. They may be connected at the same end of the mains, known as _parallel feeding_, or they may be connected at the opposite end of the main, called _anti-parallel feeding_.

The main may be of uniform cross section throughout, or it may change in size so as to keep the current density approximately constant. The above condition gives rise to four possible combinations:

1. Cylindrical conductors parallel feeding, fig. 786; 2. Tapering conductors, parallel feeding, fig. 787; 3. Cylindrical conductors, anti-parallel feeding, fig. 788; 4. Tapering conductors, anti-parallel feeding, fig. 789.

=Series-Parallel System.=—This is a combination of the series and parallel systems, and is arranged as indicated in fig. 790. Several lamps are arranged in parallel to form a group, and a number of such sets are connected in series, as shown. It is not necessary for the groups to be identical, provided they are all adapted to take the same current in amperes, which should be kept constant, and provided the lamps of each set agree in voltage. For example, on the ordinary 10-ampere arc circuit, one group might consist of 5 lamps, each requiring 2 amperes at 50 volts; the next might be composed of 10 lamps, each taking 1 ampere at 100 volts, and so on.

=Parallel-Series System.=—In this method of connection, one or more groups of lamp are connected in series and the groups in parallel as shown in fig. 791.

=Ques. When is a parallel-series system used?=

Ans. When it is desired to operate a number of lamps or motors on a line where voltage is several times that required to operate a single lamp or motor.

The parallel-series system is employed chiefly in the lighting circuit on electric traction lines; here, usually five 110 volt lamps are connected to the source of supply which has a pressure of 550 volts.

=Center of Distribution.=—It is important to determine the point at which the feeders should be attached to the mains in order to minimize the amount of copper required. The method employed is similar to that used in determining the best location of a power plant as regards amount of copper required. The center of distribution may be called the electrical center of gravity of the system, and is found by separately obtaining the center of gravity of straight sections and then determining the total resultant and point of application of this resultant of the straight sections.

Feeders (feeding cables or conductors) are run from the source of supply to the distributing centers, and, as these feeders are in many cases of considerable length, a substantial loss of pressure generally occurs in them. The pressure at the source of supply, however, is so regulated as to compensate for the drop in the feeders, and the pressure at the distributing centers is thus kept constant; or the same result is obtained by the use of regulating devices in the feeders. The essential condition in most systems is that the pressure at the distributing centers shall be kept practically constant, irrespective of the load.

=Edison Three Wire System.=—In electric lighting systems used up to about 1897, it was not considered practicable to use incandescent lamps requiring a pressure exceeding 120 volts. This limited the operating voltage of parallel systems, and necessitated the use of conductors of large size and weight, especially where the current had to be transmitted a considerable distance.

The effect of this limiting voltage is more apparent when it is clearly understood that the size of wire required to carry a current depends upon the amperes and not upon the volts.

A wire capable of carrying a current of 10 amperes at 20 volts, can carry 10 amperes at 20,000 volts or any other voltage. Therefore, since the amount of electric energy or power transmitted through a conductor is equal to the amperes multiplied by the volts, it is clear that by increasing the voltage, the power transmitting capacity of a current can be almost indefinitely increased without increasing the size of the conducting wire. This is the reason why considerations of economy dictate the use of the highest voltages possible in long distance transmissions. The voltage of the current is determined, however, by the requirements of the apparatus to be operated.

Incandescent lamps usually require a pressure of 110 volts, and the current required by a 16 candle power lamp at that voltage is about ½ ampere. Therefore if the lamp be designed for a pressure of 220 volts, the current will be reduced to ¼ ampere, and the same size of wire could be used to feed twice as many lamps.

The saving of copper is the sole merit of the three wire system, and the object which led to its invention was to effect this economy with the use of 110 volt lamps.

=Principle of the Three Wire System.=—In fig. 792, two dynamos A and B are shown supplying two independent incandescent lighting circuits, each circuit receiving 3 amperes of current at a pressure of 110 volts. It is evident that the dynamos could be connected with each other in series, and the lamps connected in series with two each, as shown in fig. 793, thus making the two wires K and L of the two independent circuits unnecessary, as the pressure will be increased to 220 volts while the current will remain at 3 amperes, and each lamp will require ¼ ampere.

The amount of copper saved will be 100 per cent., but this arrangement is open to the objection, that when one of the lamps is turned off, or burned out, its companion will also go out. This difficulty is avoided in the three wire system by running a third wire N, from the junction O, between the two dynamos, as shown in fig. 794, thus providing a supply or return conductor to any one of the lamps, and permitting any number of lamps to be disconnected without affecting those which remain. If the system be exactly balanced, no current will flow through the wire N, because the pressure _toward_ the - terminal of the dynamo A, will be equal to the pressure _from the_ + terminal of dynamo B, thus neutralizing the pressure in the wire. For this reason the middle wire of a three wire system is called the _neutral wire_, and is usually indicated by the symbol O or ± the latter meaning that it is positive to the first wire and negative to the second. If the system be unbalanced, a current will flow through the neutral wire, to or from the dynamos, according to the preponderance of lamps in the upper or lower sets. When the number in the lower set is the greater, the current in the neutral wire will flow _from_ the dynamos as shown in fig. 797, and _toward_ the dynamos under the reverse condition.

In the case represented in fig. 797, there are five lamps in circuit, requiring 2½ amperes of current at a pressure of 110 volts. The two lamps in the upper set will require 1 ampere, and the three lamps in the lower set, 1½ amperes. Since a pressure of 110 volts can force only a current of one ampere through resistance of the two lamps in the upper set, it is evident, that the additional ½ ampere required by the three lamps in the lower set will have to be supplied through the neutral wire, as shown.

=Balancing of Three Wire System.=—In practice it is impossible to obtain an exactly balanced system, as the turning on and off of lamps as required results in a preponderance of lamps in the upper or lower sets, and furthermore, even when the number of lamps in the two sets are equal, they may be located irregularly, thereby causing the currents to flow for short distances in the neutral line. Therefore, the larger the number of lamps in the circuit, the easier it will be to keep the system in a balanced condition.

=Copper Economy in Three Wire Systems.=—Theoretically, the size of the neutral wire has to be only sufficient to carry the largest current that will pass through it. A large margin of safety, however, is allowed in practice so that its cross section ranges from about one-third that of the outside line, in large central station systems, to the same as that of each outside line in small isolated systems.

If the neutral wire be made one-half the size of the outside conductor, as is usually the case in feeders, the amount of copper required is 5/16 of that necessary for the two wire system. For mains it is customary to make all three conductors the same size increasing the amount of copper to ⅜ of that required for the two wire system.

=Modifications of the Three Wire System.=—By the employment of suitable arrangements, it is possible to operate a three wire system with only one dynamo. Some of the various arrangements which have been used or proposed in this connection may be briefly mentioned as follows:

=Three Wire Storage Battery System=, in which a storage battery is connected between the two outside wires, and the pressure of the neutral wire varied to balance the system by shifting the point at which it is connected to the battery.

=Three Wire Double Dynamo System=, in which a double dynamo having two armature windings upon the same core, connected to two separate commutators, is used in the same manner as two separate dynamos connected in series.

=Three Wire Bridge System=, in which a resistance is connected across the two outside wires, and the neutral wire is brought to a point on the resistance through a movable switch. The pressures on the two sides of the circuit are equalized by adjusting the arm of the switch for any change of load.

=Three Wire Three Brush Dynamo System=, in which the neutral wire is connected to a third brush on the dynamo.

=Dobrowolsky Three Wire System=, in which a self-induction coil is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the armature of an ordinary direct current dynamo. The principle of this system is illustrated in fig. 795.

=Three Wire Auxiliary Dynamo System=, in which the neutral wire is connected to an auxiliary dynamo which supplies a pressure one-half as great as that of the main dynamo. The auxiliary dynamo is usually belt driven by the main dynamo, and acts as a dynamo when the load is greater on the negative side of the circuit, and as a motor when the excess of load is on the positive side.

=Three Wire Compensator System=, in which two auxiliary dynamos A and B called _compensators or equalizers_, are coupled together and connected to the system as shown in fig. 796. Each compensator generates one-half as much pressure as the main dynamo D, and serves to equalize the pressure and the load, the compensator on the lightly loaded side operating as a motor and driving the other as a dynamo. When the system is exactly balanced, both compensators run as motors under no load, therefore, consume very little energy. In this arrangement only one booster E, is required for both sides of the system, as the compensators are connected to the outside wires at a point beyond the boosters, and therefore, sub-divide the increased difference of pressure equally between the two sides of the system.

=Extension of the Three Wire Principle.=—In order to attain still greater economy in copper, the principles of the three wire system may be extended to include four, five, six, and seven wire systems. The comparative weights of copper required by such systems are as follows:

Two wire system 1.000 Three " " all wires of equal size .370 Three " " neutral wire one-half size .313 Four " " all wires of equal size .222 Five " " " " " " " .156 Seven " " " " " " " .096

The four wire system requires about two-ninths as much copper, and the seven wire system about one-tenth as much copper, as an equivalent two wire system; but neither is desirable, as their operation involves too much inconvenience, too many unavoidable complications, and create a possibility of accident, which more than offsets the saving in copper.

=The Five Wire System.=—This system is employed advantageously in many places in England and Europe, but has not as yet been introduced to any extent in America. It is very probable that in the future the three wire 440 volt system will be selected in preference to the five wire system.

=Dynamotor.=—This is a combination of dynamo and motor on the same shaft, one receiving current and the other delivering current, usually of different voltage, the motor being employed to drive the dynamo with a pressure either higher or lower than that received at the motor terminals.

The dynamotor in the direct current circuit corresponds to the transformer in the alternating current circuit.

=Ques. How is the dynamotor used as an equalizer in the three wire system?=

Ans. When thus used, the machine is connected as in fig. 798. When both sides of the system are balanced, there will be no current in the neutral lead N, and a small current will pass through the two armature windings of the dynamotor in series, both armatures acting as motors. If the load on one side of the system become larger than the load on the other side, there will be a greater drop in the leads connected to the overloaded side and consequently a lower voltage will exist over the larger load than exists over the smaller load. The armature winding of the dynamotor connected to the higher voltage will act as a dynamo, whose pressure will tend to raise the voltage of the more heavily loaded side.

The direction of the currents in an unbalanced three wire system that is being supplied with energy from a main dynamo is shown in the figure. The commutator at G is connected to the dynamo winding of the dynamotor and is supplying current to the upper or larger load, and the lower commutator is connected to the motor winding of the dynamotor and is taking current from the lightly loaded side.

=Motor-Dynamo or Balancing Set.=—A balancing set or balancer consists of a motor mechanically connected to a dynamo used to balance a three wire system. The operation of such a combination is practically the same as the dynamotor just described. The balancer is connected as shown in fig. 799.

When an unbalanced load comes on, the voltage on the lightly loaded side rises and on the heavily loaded side drops. The machine on the light side then takes power from the line and runs as a motor driving the machine on the heavy side as a dynamo, supplying the extra current for that side. This action tends to bring the voltage back to normal and gives good regulation.

In some cases the field of each machine is connected to the opposite side of the system which gives a quicker action. This regulation is automatic and the set takes care of unbalanced loads in either direction without adjustment.

=Balancing Coils.=—Another method of balancing a three wire system which does away with any additional rotating machines makes use of balance coils.

=Ques. Describe the type of dynamo used with balancing coils?=

Ans. The regular two wire dynamo is used supplying power to the outside wires, but there are collector rings connected to the armature. These rings are much lighter than they would be for a converter as they carry only about ⅛ of the dynamo load. These rings being light are usually placed at the end of the commutator and are connected directly to the commutator bars.

=Ques. How are the balancing coils constructed?=

Ans. They are built of standard transformer parts, and are placed in cases similar to those of ordinary small transformers.

=Ques. What is the action of the coils in equalizing the load?=

Ans. On balanced load, the coils take a small alternating exciting current from the collector rings as any transformer does when connected to an alternating current line with its secondary open. When an unbalanced load comes on, the current in the neutral divides, half going to each coil. This enters the coil at the middle point and half flows each way through the coil and the slip rings into the armature winding. The unbalanced current is thus fed back directly into the dynamo armature continuously.

The coils are small and can be placed back of the switchboard or below the floor, as they require no attention. The current flowing to each slip ring is 25% of the direct current in the neutral wire with the small exciting current taken by the coil added.

The coils are usually built to take care of current in the neutral equal to 25% of full load current of the dynamo with a voltage regulation not to exceed 2 per cent.

=Ques. Upon what does the operation of the balancing coil system depend?=

Ans. It depends on the following points: First, the _impedance_[1] of the coils keeps the exciting current which they take from the collector rings down to a small value as it is alternating current. At the same time the current from the neutral wire flows through the four half coils in parallel, and being direct current is impeded only by the ohmic resistance of the coils, which is low, giving only a slight loss in the coils. The common point to which the neutral wire is connected must at all times be neutral to the - and + direct current brushes.

[1] NOTE.—The term _impedance_ means the total opposition in an electric circuit to the flow of an alternating current, being made up of the actual or ohmic resistance and the apparent resistance due to self-induction, or if the circuit contain also capacity, the resultant apparent resistance due to self-induction and capacity.

That this common point is at all times neutral is readily shown. Referring to fig. 804, let AE, BF, CG and DH represent the balance coil and its connection for different positions of the armature of a bipolar machine. Let O be the tap to the middle point of the winding.

Take the instant when the balance coil taps are directly under the direct current brushes as shown at position AE. It is evident that since the point O is the middle point of the coil, it is neutral between A and E. When the armature turns so that the balance coils take the position BF, the voltage drop between A and E may be divided into 4 parts, AB, BO, OF and FE. As in the first instance, O is neutral between the ends of the coil, and the voltage drop over OF equals that over OB.

Since the space AB includes the same number of armature coils as space FE and they are in fields of equal strength, the voltages across the two spaces will be equal, and the voltage over AB equals that over FE. Then adding equals: AB + BO = FE + FO and O is neutral between A and E as in the first case.

In the same way it can be shown that O is neutral between the direct current brushes for any position of the balance coil taps. One coil will operate the system, but two coils, giving four points spaced 90 electrical degrees apart, give better distribution of the current to the armature winding and better regulation of the voltage.

=Boosters.=—A booster may be defined as, _a dynamo inserted in a circuit at a point when it is necessary to change the voltage_. A booster is generally driven by a motor, the two armatures being directly coupled, although boosters are sometimes driven from the engine or line shaft.

=Ques. Explain the use of a booster?=

Ans. When a number of feeders run out from a station, the longest and those carrying the heaviest loads will have so much drop on the line that the pressure at distant points is too low. It is therefore necessary to raise the pressure to compensate for the drop and this is done by inserting a booster in the circuit.

It would not be economical to raise the voltage on all the lines by supplying current from the main dynamo at higher pressure, hence the voltage is raised only on the lines which need it by means of the booster working in series with the main dynamo.

=Ques. For what other service are boosters employed?=

Ans. They are used in connection with storage battery plants for the purpose of raising the voltage of the bus bars to the pressure necessary for charging storage batteries.

=Ques. What is an auxiliary bus bar?=

Ans. An extra bus bar which is kept at higher pressure than the main bar.

=Ques. What is the object of an auxiliary bus bar?=

Ans. It is used in place of a booster as shown in fig. 806. One or more dynamos maintain the pressure between the auxiliary bar and the common negative bar. The feeders which need boosting are connected to the common negative bar and the auxiliary bar as shown.