Chapter IV

WEATHER-VANES AND WINDMILLS

From the time of the earliest habitation of the earth, nature’s great forces, wind and water, have been employed to furnish power for man’s uses. Wind engines and mills for motive power have become almost obsolete in and about the great cities, as they are so cumbersome and uncertain, but in the country they are still used to a great extent for pumping water, milling, and operating light machinery.

Windmills have been made in a number of shapes by the people of different nations, and some of them are very picturesque, especially the Dutch wheels and those made in the eastern part of the United States a century or more ago, many of which are still working.

Windmills will never go out of use entirely, no matter what cheap motive power will eventually run the world; for when they are once set up properly they cost nothing to operate, and if a wheel is well made it will last for years with but trifling cost for repairs.

Windmills, weather-vanes, pinion-wheels, and wind toys of all descriptions have been made by boys in every age, and each generation goes on to invent or think of something new for the same old wind to play with that has toyed with the world’s wheels for centuries. The illustrations and descriptions on this and the following pages will be found helpful in the construction of wind machinery that shall be both novel and practicable.

A Pinion-wheel Weather-vane

The easiest sort of a pinion-wheel and weather-vane to construct is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a piece of stout tin or sheet-iron, a wooden shaft twenty inches long, and a fan-tail twelve inches long and seven inches wide at the rear end.

Punch a small hole in the centre of a sheet of tin or iron not less than ten inches square, and with a lead-pencil compass draw a circle ten inches in diameter. Half an inch inside of this draw another one nine inches in diameter, as indicated by the light lines in Fig. 2. One inch from the centre draw a third circle making it two inches in diameter; then divide the disk into eight equal parts.

With a cold chisel cut on the lines, as indicated in Fig. 2, and bend the metal ears as shown in drawing No. 1, so that the corners will set back an inch from the rim. With a stout pair of shears cut around the outside line and free the wheel from the sheet of metal.

At the front of the wheel fasten a spool with steel wire nails driven through the tin to act as a hub. Then give them both a coat or two of paint.

Make a shaft from hard wood an inch square, and cut it in from one end about ten inches, as shown in Fig. 3. At the other end bind the wood for an inch or two with linen line or fine wire to prevent its splitting, and bore a hole in the end with an awl. Through the spool and disk, and into the hole in the shaft, drive a flat-headed steel wire nail or a screw, three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, to act as the pinion on which the wheel may revolve.

From light wood, three-eighths of an inch in thickness, cut a fan-tail seven inches wide at one end and two at the other, and, having passed it through the cut in the shaft, make it fast with small nails or screws.

Balance the shaft and wheel on your finger to determine where to pierce the hole through which the upright shaft on the pole should pass; then bore it out with bit and brace so that the shaft will fit snug but not tight.

To the top of the shaft, over the hole, attach another spool, so as to form a longer bearing; or a strap of metal may be tacked so that it will bridge up over the hole about two inches. In this bridge a corresponding hole may be cut, through which the vertical shaft or pin will pass. This is to hold the vane steady on the long pin of quarter-inch round iron driven into the top of the pole, and prevent it from dipping forward or backward.

Place this vane on a shed, the end of a barn roof, or on a high pole where the wind has free access to it.

A Wind-speeder

Wind-speeders may be constructed of metal or partly of wood, but one that can easily be made by a boy consists of two sticks, four ordinary tin funnels having their ends stopped up with a plug of wood, and a pole, into the end of which a long iron pin is driven and on which the hub revolves. Fig. 4.

Two hard-wood sticks thirty inches long and three-quarters of an inch square are cut at the middle so that they will lap, and with steel nails they are attached to a hub three-quarters of an inch thick and three inches in diameter, in the centre of which a quarter-inch hole is bored. The end of each stick or arm is cut in to receive the funnels, and they are held in place by straps of tin passed around each neck and tacked fast to the top and bottom of the cross sticks.

With a sharp-pointed awl or punch a small hole is made through the strap and neck, and a long, slim steel nail is driven through both into the end of the sticks to give the funnels an additional purchase.

To reduce the friction and to prevent the wood from wearing away at the under side of the hub, a large flat washer should be attached to the wood with copper tacks driven closely all around the outer edge. Before the speeder is slipped over the upright pin, a short piece of small gas-pipe or tubing should be placed over it so it will rest between the hub and the top of the pole. Two coats of white or light-colored paint will improve the appearance of this speeder.

The Arrow Weather-vane

Of all the weather-vanes that have ever been made, the balanced arrow is undoubtedly the oldest and most popular; it is the universal type of its class, and, from the simple arrow that a boy can whittle from a shingle to the beautifully gilded vane that crowns the pinnacle of some great building, it is everywhere in evidence. Fig. 5.

The arrow-vane can be made any length to suit the height at which it may be placed, but for the house, barn, flag-pole, or tower not more than fifty or sixty feet high, it should be from twenty-four to thirty-six inches long, with the blade from five to six inches in width.

The most substantial vane is made in three pieces, the point, shaft, and blade. The shaft is made from hard wood, three-quarters of an inch square, in the ends of which cuts are made to receive a tin or sheet-metal point and blade. These are held in place with steel nails driven through the wood and clinched on the opposite side. The arrow is balanced and a hole is then made in the shaft through which the upright pin or rod will pass.

A ferule or ring is driven on the upright rod to hold the arrow in the proper place, and below it two rods should be arranged at right angles, at the ends of which the letters N, E, S, W are soldered. These rods may be of brass or wood, and if the wood is used it should be of hickory or locust, half an inch square or round, and slit at the ends to receive the letters of tin or sheet metal. These latter are held in place with slim steel wire nails driven through the wood and metal.

At the top of a flag-pole these arms should be mounted above a gilded ball, and they should be, if of brass or copper, held securely in place with wire or solder. If they are of iron, it would be well to have a blacksmith weld them, so that they will be rigid and stay in place.

Wooden Vanes

In Fig. 6 some suggestions for wooden vanes are shown that can be followed with the scroll saw and jackknife or a compass saw and carving chisels. These vanes can be made in almost any size that will not be out of proportion to the building or pole they are to be mounted on.

The fish is cut from wood five-eighths of an inch thick, and all around the edges the wood is bevelled so as to give the fish a rounded effect. The fish is balanced on the edge of a piece of wood to determine where the rod will pass through it; then with a quarter-inch bit the hole is carefully bored through from top to bottom. The compass-point letters can be made from sheet tin and supported on two cross sticks and a stout wire hoop from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter.

The lady with the parasol is cut from wood half an inch in thickness. She is fifteen inches high and twelve inches wide across the bottom of the skirt. From the shoes to the hat, a quarter-inch hole is bored entirely through the body, but if this be found too difficult, a staple at the top and bottom will answer instead. Through these staples the rod will pass.

The squirrel is made in the same manner as the lady, and either balanced on the rod which passes through the body or by means of staples driven at one side. A ring and washer should be provided on the rod for the bottom of the vane to rest on, as there would be too much friction if the vane rested on the top end of the pole into which the rod is driven.

The bird vane is cut out and balanced the same as the fish, and the modelling may be carved in the wood or painted, to give shape and character to the vane. Otherwise it would be but a blank piece of thin board cut in the shape of the outline.

In all of these vanes it is necessary, of course, to have the greatest overhang on the side opposite to that facing the wind, otherwise they would not indicate properly.

A Wind-pennant

An excellent and reliable wind indicator is shown in Fig. 7, the illustration of the wind-pennant. It consists of a metal hoop on which a funnel-shaped silk or cotton fabric pennant is sewed fast, and when this latter is filled by a breeze it stands out, as the illustration shows.

A pennant fifteen inches long should have a hoop five inches in diameter, and it can be made either from wire rings bent as shown in Fig. 8 A, or from sheet metal, as shown at Fig. 8 B.

The sheet metal should be perforated with small holes all around one edge to pass the thread through, when sewing the fabric fast, and the edges should be smoothed so as not to cut the threads. If the hoop is made of wire, a ring should be formed at top and bottom for the upright rod to pass through; but if it is of sheet metal a hole at the top and bottom will admit the rod.

This pennant is very useful at the mast-head of a boat, and is much more satisfactory to watch than the perpetually bobbing flat pennant, as it does not break or fall down unless it is calm, and only shifts from side to side as the wind blows it.

On a flag-pole or staff above the pennant the compass points are arranged, and if these are made from copper or brass, the letters may be soldered fast to the ends of the arms. Where the arms cross, they are to be flattened as shown in Fig. 9 A, and lapped together, as shown in Fig. 9 B. After the hole is bored they should be bound to the upright rod with copper wire and soldered so they will remain in a fixed position that the wind cannot alter. Fig. 9 C.

Sticks of hard wood may be substituted for the metal arms, and the sheet-metal letters let into saw cuts made at the outer ends.

A Basket-ball Vane

An odd wind indicator is shown in Fig. 10, illustrating a ball vane in a basket. It consists of a flat basket, with a rim six inches high, made of wire cloth with square meshes; inside of this a silk or cotton covered ball of wire is placed and blown by the wind from one side to the other of the basket. Of course, the direction the wind is coming from is opposite to that taken by the ball.

The basket should be twenty-four inches in diameter, six inches high, and supported at the top of a pole by wires attached from the upper and lower edge of the outer rim, and leading up and down to the pole, the ends being made fast to staples or screw-eyes.

The ball, which is made of wire hoops and fastened together with fine wires, should be from four to six inches in diameter. It is covered with silk or thin muslin sewed on in the same manner in which a baseball is covered with leather. The framework must be of light spring brass or copper wire, and where the hoops cross it would be well to touch the unions with solder to insure a firm joint and make the ball rigid.

If the ball should blow out of the basket at any time, it may be necessary to lace wires across the outer rim at the top, so as to form a confining net-work.

Above the basket the compass points can be arranged on wood or metal arms, and when complete and mounted this weather-vane will present a most unique appearance.

A Merry-go-round

A merry-go-round like the one shown in Fig. 11 is an interesting wind toy and pleasing to watch, as the boats keep sailing round and round. It is made from a child’s hoople properly braced with cross sticks and mounted on a hub. Four flat-boats are made and attached to the outer edge of the frame. When rigged with sails and placed at the top of a post, on a rod, the boats will keep up a continual sailing so long as there is any breeze. A hoople three feet in diameter is best for this purpose, as it gives more space between the boats.

Double sets of braces or cross strips are arranged inside the hoople, and, where they meet at the middle, laps are cut in the sticks so that they will fit flush, as shown in Fig. 12.

The sticks are placed seven inches apart, and are five-eighths of an inch square; under the lap joints a plate of wood nine inches square is attached by means of screws or steel wire nails, to strengthen the unions of the cross sticks as well as to make a platform, at the under side of which the hub is arranged. A plan of the hoople, the cross sticks, and the location of one boat is shown in Fig. 13.

The boats are placed so that the outer edges of the bottoms rest on the top of the hoople. The inner edges rest on two of the cross sticks, where they are securely attached with long, slim screws passed up through the sticks and hoople and into the bottoms of the boats.

A block of wood four or five inches square and six inches long is to be shaved down at one end so that it is round and about one inch and a half in diameter. This is attached to the under side of the plate, at the middle of the hoople frame, so that the small end projects down; and through it a half-inch hole is bored.

An iron pin half an inch in thickness and eighteen inches long is to be driven into the upper end of a post over which the hub and hoople frame will fit. The upper end of the iron pin is threaded and provided with two nuts. One of these should be screwed down tight on the other with a washer between to act as a lock-nut, so that the revolution of the merry-go-round will not tighten or loosen them when once adjusted.

The boats are ten inches long and three inches wide at the middle, but they taper fore and aft, as shown in Fig. 13 A. They are cut from pine or white-wood two inches thick, and painted in gay colors. The masts are fifteen inches high, and the sails are provided with booms, gaffs, and jib-booms, also with rings which hold the sails close to the masts. The rigging is of copper wire, as the constant motion would soon wear out string or line and the sails would fly loose.

Each boat must be in good trim to keep the motion uniform, and if the sails wear out too soon, tin ones should be made or the muslin ones may be given a coat or two of white paint. Pennants at the tops of the masts will add to the effect.

A Wind Turbine

The wind turbine shown in Fig. 14, on the following page, is made of two hooples about thirty inches in diameter, four cross sticks, two wire hoops, and eight V-shaped tin blades.

The cross sticks, thirty inches long, are cut and lapped at the middle and attached to the edge of each hoop with screws or nails. The wire hoops are twenty-two inches in diameter, and are fastened to the cross sticks with staples. The plan of one hoople and the cross sticks, the wire hoop and the location of the blades, is shown in Fig. 15.

The outer corners of each blade are tacked fast to both the upper and lower hoople, while the inner corners are wired fast to the stout wire hoop. The blades are made from tin or sheet iron twelve inches long and six inches wide, and, when bent in the shape of a V, the width across the open end should be four inches.

The blades are depended upon to hold the upper and lower frames in place, and when the turbine is on the top of a post with a rod running through the middle of the cross sticks, around which it revolves, the wind will keep it spinning at a high speed.

Power can be developed with this turbine, but only a very small percentage as compared with a windmill the entire surface of which is continually exposed to the breeze. In the turbine only two or three of the blades are effective at any one time.

A Barrel-hoop Pinion-wheel

From a flat hoop, a few pieces of tin or sheet iron, and some thin wood, a barrel-hoop pinion-wheel may be made similar to the one shown in Fig. 16.

The barrel-hoop will measure about twenty-one inches in diameter, and the hub should be made five inches in diameter, two inches thick, and cut in, as shown in Fig. 17 A, with nine places to receive the small ends of the metal blades. The hub revolves on a pin which is driven into a block of wood three inches square, as shown at Fig. 17 B. A hole is made in the block from top to bottom, through which a half-inch rod will pass. The rails that support the tail are let into each side of the block and are securely fastened with screws, as shown also at Fig. 17 B.

The fan-tails are twenty-four inches long, one inch and a half wide, and half an inch thick, made of ash or hickory that will bend easily, so as to be drawn in against the blades forming the tail.

The tin blades are cut five inches wide at one end and one inch and a half at the other, and fastened to both the hoop and hub with tacks, as shown in the illustration.

The blades forming the fan are of half-inch wood, one V-shaped piece and two end slats cut as shown in the illustration. They are all held in position by the two rails that extend back from the pinion block and two that are set at right angles to them, and which hold the upper and lower edge blades.

This wheel may be placed at the top of a post two or three inches square or round, in which a half-inch iron rod or long pin has been driven, leaving about six or eight inches of it projecting above the top of the post. On this the block turns as the wind acts on the fan-tail.

A Pumping Windmill

A simple wheel, with spokes and sails, that is commonly employed on canal-boats and barges, and in a small way for raising water in a suction-pump, is shown in the illustration of a pumping windmill. Fig. 18.

It consists of a hub, six spokes, a fan-tail, and a trunk or upright to which the wheel is attached. The hub is a hexagon of six inches and six inches long, so that one spoke can be driven into a hole made in each side, as shown in Fig. 19. The spokes are three feet long, three by one inch and a half at the hub end, and one by one inch and a half at the outer end. They are driven snugly into holes in the hub three inches long and one inch and a half wide, and pinned to hold them in place.

The hub should be made of hard wood, and it would be well to have a blacksmith put a thin iron band around each end to prevent it from splitting. The holes may be cut with a mortise chisel and mallet, and care must be taken to shape them evenly, so that the spokes will line properly.

Triangular pieces of twilled muslin sheeting are tacked to the face of each spoke, and the loose corner of each is caught to the next spoke end with a rope and snap. This makes an outlet between the leech and spoke of each space between spokes for the wind to pass through, thereby causing the wheel to revolve.

The wheel is held in place to the head of the supporting post by a shaft which passes through the hub and is bolted fast at the front of it with a nut. A blacksmith will make this shaft, as it is somewhat beyond a boy’s ability unless he has had some experience in blacksmithing. It should be shaped as shown in Fig. 20.

The shaft is an inch square where it passes through the hub, and at the front end it is threaded and provided with a nut and washer. At the end of the square part, A, where the rear of the hub will stop, a shoulder, B, should be welded on to hold the hub in the proper place.

An inch beyond this square shoulder, another one, C, is welded on the shaft, which for the balance of its length is three-quarters of an inch in diameter.

Just beyond the shoulder or collar, C, the crank is formed, two inches wide and three inches out from the shaft. Beyond the crank another collar, C C, is welded on, and beyond this the shaft should measure six inches in length.

The total length of the shaft is fifteen inches, and all the collars and smooth surfaces should be dressed down with a file and then painted. The head to which the fan-tail is attached is made of two blocks, cut as shown in Fig. 21, and fastened five inches apart on the lower rails that support the long rails to which, in turn, the tail is attached.

The upper ends of the blocks are cut out so as to admit the shaft. The collars, C, and C C, are at the inside of the blocks. To hold the shaft in place, straps of iron are screwed fast over the top of each block.

This head rests on the top of a trunk or hollow square post, through which the rod passes that connects the crank with the piston-rod of a pump. This trunk is of three-quarter-inch wood and seven inches square, as shown in Fig. 22 A; and at the top of it a flat iron collar, B, is screwed fast.

To hold the head on and keep it in the proper place, four iron cleats (Fig. 22 C) are screwed fast to the under corners of the head to grip the projecting edge of the collar. This arrangement will hold the head stiff, but will allow it to move about as impelled by the wind acting on the tail.

A little grease or vaseline should be placed on top of the collar, so that the head will move on it easily. The top of the connection rod should be attached to the crank, as shown in Fig. 22 D, where a strap of iron passes over the crank and is bolted to the top of the hard-wood rod.

The tail is attached to the head as shown in Fig. 23, which is a rear view of the head block and a portion of the forward part of the tail.

The tail is thirty-three inches long and twenty-four inches wide at the rear end, and is made of boards three-quarters of an inch in thickness. If the mill is to be placed over a pump, a platform should be erected to which the trunk may be braced with props, as shown in the illustration, and on which the lower end of the trunk may rest.

Guy rods or wires can also be carried from the upper part of the trunk down to pegs driven in the ground, which will lend additional support and steadiness to the upright shaft. To start the wheel, snap the ends of the sheets to the spoke ends; to stop it, unsnap the ends and furl the sails around the spokes, and tie them securely with a cotton cord.

A Windmill and Tower

Windmills, of course, can be put to many different uses and are generally of sufficient size to develop a considerable amount of power. Fig. 24 shows a windmill and tower that any smart boy can make of wood, an old buggy wheel, and a few iron fittings that a blacksmith will make at a nominal cost.

The tower is the first thing to make, and it should be constructed of four spruce sticks sixteen feet long and four inches square, thirty inches square at the top and seventy-two inches square at the base.

The deck is thirty-six inches square, and projects two inches over the top rails all around. The rails and cross braces are of spruce or pine strips four inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick, and are attached to the corner posts with steel wire nails. The corner posts are embedded two feet in the ground, leaving fourteen feet of tower above the surface. The rail at the bottom, attached to the four posts, is three feet above the ground, and, midway between this and the top rail under the deck, the middle rail is run around the posts.

The cross braces are bevelled at the ends, so that they will fit snugly against the corner posts and in behind the rails where they are securely nailed to both posts and rails.

One of the posts with its binding of rails and cross brace is shown in Fig. 25, and this clearly illustrates how the union is made.

The posts, rails, and braces are all to be planed, so that they will present a good appearance when painted; and at one side of the tower a ladder can be made of scantling, and the lower end of it attached to a rail nailed to the corner posts a few inches above the ground.

Across two of the rails half-way up the tower a board is nailed, to which the lower end of a trunk is made fast, if a wheel similar to the pumping-mill is to be used. But if a wooden mill is desired, it can be constructed from a buggy-wheel and six blades of wood, to appear as shown in the illustration.

At a wagon-shop an old wheel can be had for little or nothing, and with a little work it may be converted into the frame of a windmill.

Each spoke is to be cut at an angle on one side so that the blades, when attached to them, will have the necessary pitch to make the wind act on them. This can be seen in Fig. 26, which is an edge view of the wheel showing a top, bottom, and middle blade.

The blades are eighteen inches long, twelve inches wide at the outer end, and six inches in width next the hub. They are three-quarters of an inch thick, and are attached to the spokes with screws. If it is found necessary, a wire can be run from the outer end of each blade to the end of the next spoke, to steady the blades, as shown in the illustration.

The crank and shaft can be arranged as described for the pumping-mill, and a fan-tail to keep the wheel up into the wind is made in proportion to the size of the mill.

All the wood-work should be painted to give it a good appearance. A mill of this size will develop at least quarter of a horse-power in a fifteen-mile breeze.