Part 3
_c._ When a punctuation mark immediately precedes the last mark of the parenthesis, and a punctuation mark is also needed where the parenthetical marks are used, it should be placed before the first mark of the parenthesis; as, “F. was the most gentlemanly of oilmen. He had two Latin words almost constantly in his mouth, (how odd sounds Latin from an oilman’s lips!) which my better knowledge since has enabled me to correct.”—_Lamb._
2. An interrogation point inclosed in parenthetical marks (?) implies that an assertion is doubtful.
3. An exclamation point inclosed within parenthetical marks (!) expresses irony or contempt.
4. Parenthetical marks are not as frequently used as formerly, the comma and dash being often preferred.
BRACKETS.
RULE I. _Quoted Passage._—When words are inserted by another into a quoted passage, either to correct a mistake or explain the meaning, they should be inclosed in brackets.
EXAMPLES.
“A variety of pleasing objects meet [meets] the eye.”
“‘My dear lady,’ returned the schoolmaster [Mr. Graham], ‘when I have on good grounds made up my mind to a thing, I always feel as if I had promised God to do it; and indeed it amounts to the same thing very nearly. Such a resolve, then, is not to be unmade, except on equally good grounds with those upon which it was made.’”—_George Macdonald._
REMARKS.
1. Punctuation marks are sometimes required, when the brackets are used. The same remarks apply to the brackets that apply to parenthetical marks.
2. In reporting speeches, brackets are used, when words are introduced by the reporter which do not form a part of the speech; as,—
“We would have our Union to be a union of hearts, and we would have our Constitution obeyed, not merely because of force that compels obedience, but obeyed because the people love the principles of the Constitution [long continued applause], and to-day, if I am called to the work to which Abraham Lincoln was called sixteen years ago, it is under brighter skies and more favorable auspices. [Applause.] I do hope, I do fervently believe, that, by the aid of divine Providence, we may do something in this day of peace, by works of peace, towards re-establishing, in the hearts of our countrymen, a real, a hearty attachment to the Constitution as it is, and to the Union as it is. [Long continued applause].”—PRESIDENT HAYES.—_Chicago Tribune._
3. Parenthetical marks are frequently used instead of brackets.
QUOTATION MARKS.
RULE I. _Direct Quotation._—When the exact words of another are given, they should be inclosed in quotation marks.
EXAMPLES.
“He had the longest tongue and the shortest temper of any man, high or low, I ever met with.”—_Wilkie Collins._
Prescott, in his “Conquest of Mexico,” tells us that intemperance among the Aztecs “was punished in the young with death, and in older persons with loss of rank and confiscation of property.”
REMARKS.
1. When the exact words of another are not given, quotation marks should not be used; as,—
Longfellow says,—
“Deeds are better things than words are.”
Longfellow somewhere says that deeds are better than words.
2. When words are quoted from a foreign language, they should be printed in italics, and the quotation marks omitted; as, “They have their good glebe lands _in manu_, and care not much to rake into title deeds.”—_Lamb._
3. When words are to be italicized, a straight mark should be drawn underneath the words.
4. When a quotation is followed by a comma, semicolon, colon, or period, the punctuation mark should be placed within the quotation marks; as, “Mr. M’Adam writes sometimes with genuine humor, and an occasional entirely original simile shows evidence of the possession of what phrenologists call the faculty of ‘comparison;’ but the charm of the book is its rare perspicacity.”—_Harper’s Magazine._
5. When a quotation is followed by an exclamation or an interrogation point, the punctuation mark should be placed within the quotation marks, if it forms a part of the quotation; as, “I feel almost like groaning, when a young mother shows me some marvel of embroidery or machine-stitching, saying triumphantly, ‘There, I did every stitch of that myself!’”—_Scribner’s Monthly._
6. When a quotation is followed by an exclamation or an interrogation point, the punctuation mark should be placed outside of the quotation marks, if it belongs to the whole sentence and not to the quotation; as, “We wonder what Handel would have said to Mozart’s scoring of ‘I know that my Redeemer liveth’!”—_Atlantic Monthly._ “Why cannot we hear, for instance, the wonderful curioso, ‘He gave his back to the smiters,’ that forms the second part of the air, ‘He was despised,’ and the duet for contralto and tenor, ‘O death where is thy sting’?”—_Atlantic Monthly._
RULE II. _Titles of Books._—Titles of books are generally inclosed in quotation marks.
EXAMPLES.
Morris’s “Story of Sigurd.”—_Scribner’s Monthly._
“The Mikado’s Empire.”—_N. A. Review._
“Daniel Deronda.”—_Contemporary Review._
The Rev. W. W. Capes’s history of “The Early Roman Empire.”—_Appleton’s Journal._
REMARKS.
1. The names of magazines and papers are generally printed in italics; as, _The Atlantic_, _N. Y. Nation_, _Fraser’s Magazine_, _Appleton’s Journal_, _Nature_, _Popular Science Monthly_.
2. In examining _The Atlantic_, _Nation_, _Scribner’s Monthly_, _Harper’s_, _Appleton’s Magazine_, _Lippincott’s_, _Popular Science Monthly_, _Galaxy_, _Eclectic_, _N. A. Review_, _New Englander_, _London Quarterly_, _British Quarterly_, _Westminster Review_, _Edinburgh Review_, _Contemporary Review_, _The Fortnightly Review_, we find that thirteen of these use quotation marks, and four use italics, in referring to the titles of books; eleven use italics, and six use quotation marks, in referring to magazines and papers.
RULE III. _A Quotation within a Quotation._—When there is a quotation within a quotation, single marks should be used in addition to double marks.
EXAMPLES.
“Who was the blundering idiot who said that ‘fine words butter no parsnips.’ Half the parsnips of society are served and rendered palatable with no other sauce.”—_Thackeray._
“There is a small but ancient fraternity, known as the Order of Gentlemen. It is a grand old order. A poet has said that Christ founded it; that he was ‘the first true gentleman that ever lived.’”—_Winthrop._
REMARKS.
1. Sometimes the quotation within a quotation has a word or phrase that is quoted. The word or phrase must be inclosed in double marks.
2. In quoting Scripture, it is customary to place only double marks at the beginning and end of the quotation; as, “And Jesus, moved with compassion, put forth his hand, and touched him, and saith unto him, I will; be thou clean.”—_Mark i. 41._
RULE IV. _Paragraphs._—When several paragraphs are quoted in succession, double marks should be placed at the beginning of each paragraph, and at the end of the entire quotation.
EXAMPLE.
“The children woke. The little girl was the first to open her eyes.
“The waking of children is like the unclosing of flowers, a perfume seems to exhale from those fresh young souls. Georgette, twenty months old, the youngest of the three, who was still a nursing baby in the month of May, raised her little head, sat up in her cradle, looked at her feet, and began to chatter.
“A ray of morning fell across her crib; it would have been difficult to decide which was the rosiest, Georgette’s foot or Aurora.”—_Hugo._
REMARKS.
1. A paragraph usually consists of several sentences. It begins on a new line, and is distinguished by a blank space on the left, at the commencement of the paragraph.
2. When parts of a quotation are omitted, use several stars to indicate the omission (* * * *), or place double marks at the beginning and end of each detached part of the quotation.
THE APOSTROPHE.
RULE I. _Letters Omitted._—The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters.
EXAMPLES.
“O Marcia, O my sister, still there’s hope!”—_Addison._
“Thou knowest ’tis common; all, that live, must die, Passing through nature to eternity.”—_Shakespeare._
REMARK.
The apostrophe is made like a comma, but is placed above the line.
RULE II. _Possession._—The apostrophe is used to denote possession.
EXAMPLES.
Taine’s “English Literature.” Rawlinson’s “Ancient Monarchies.”
REMARKS.
1. The apostrophe and _s_ should be used with nouns in the singular, even when the word ends in _s_ or _x_; as,—
“Dickens’s Works.”—_Appleton’s Journal._ “Cox’s General History of Greece.”—_Harper’s Magazine._ “Evans’s observations.”—_Edinburgh Review._ “Mr. Hayes’s responsibility.”—_N. Y. Nation._
In addition to the periodicals given above, _The Atlantic_, _Scribner’s Monthly_, _Lippincott’s Magazine_, _Popular Science Monthly_, _Galaxy_, _N. A. Review_, _London Quarterly_, _British Quarterly_, _Fortnightly Review_, use the additional _s_. The _Westminster_ omits the additional _s_. In the _Contemporary_ and _Edinburgh Review_, the _s_ is used by some writers and omitted by others.
2. In the plural of nouns, the apostrophe and _s_ are used to denote possession, when the word does not end in _s_; as, men’s deeds. If the word ends in _s_, the apostrophe only is used; as, my neighbors’ house.
3. The apostrophe should not be used before _s_ in ours, yours, hers, theirs, its.
THE HYPHEN.
RULE I. _Compound Words._—The hyphen is used to connect the parts of a compound word.
EXAMPLES.
“My household-gods plant a terrible fixed foot, and are not to be rooted up without blood.”—_Lamb._
“The breezy call of incense-breathing morn.”—_Gray._
REMARKS.
1. A compound word is formed by placing together two simple words.
2. Sometimes several words are connected together by hyphens; as, “He had a lively touch-and-go-away with him, very pleasant and engaging I admit.”—_Wilkie Collins._
3. When a compound word comes into very general use, the hyphen is sometimes omitted; as, railroad, steamboat, bookstore.
4. To-day, to-night, to-morrow, should always be written with a hyphen.
5. When there is any doubt whether two words should be united by a hyphen or written as one word, some standard dictionary should be consulted. It will, however, be found that even dictionaries differ somewhat in the use and omission of the hyphen in compound words. In order to preserve some uniformity in spelling and in the formation of compound words, every writer should make either Webster or Worcester the final authority.
RULE II. _Prefixes._—When a prefix ends in a vowel, and the word to which it is joined commences with a vowel, they should be separated by a hyphen.
EXAMPLES.
Re-admit, co-ordinate, pre-existence, pre-eminent.
REMARKS.
1. A prefix is a letter, syllable, or word, placed before some word, thus forming a new word.
2. If, instead of two vowels, a vowel and a consonant come together, the prefix and the word to which it is joined should usually be written as one word; as, rewrite, predetermine.
3. Vice-president, and most words with _vice_ as a prefix, should be written with a hyphen.
4. Some writers use the diæresis instead of the hyphen. With prefixes it is better to use the hyphen, but in other words containing two vowels that do not form a diphthong, the diæresis should be used; as, Zoölogy.
RULE III. _Division of Words._—When it is necessary to write part of a word at the end of a line and part at the beginning of the next line, the division should be made at the end of a syllable, and the parts should be connected by a hyphen, at the end of the line.
EXAMPLE.
“Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a sub- ject ourselves, or we know where we can find in- formation upon it.”—_Dr. Johnson._
REMARKS.
1. It is better to divide a word as near the middle as possible.
2. When two words one at the end of a line and the other at the commencement of the following line, are separated by a punctuation mark, it should be placed at the end of the line, and never at the beginning.
MISCELLANEOUS MARKS.
I. _Two Commas_ (”) indicate that the word under which they are placed is to be repeated.
Charles Harrison, Adrian, Mich. Clinton Hardy, ” ”
II. _The Caret_ (^) indicates that something is written above the line that forms a part of the sentence. It is only used in writing.
III. _Marks of Ellipsis_ (—, ....., * * * * *) indicate the omission of letters, words, or sentences.
1. “I was the true descendant of those old W—s.”—_Lamb._
2. “I have a belief of my own, ... that by desiring what is perfectly good, even when we don’t quite know what it is, ... we are a part of a divine power against evil, widening the skirts of light, and making the struggle with darkness narrower.”—_George Eliot._
Four words are omitted where the first dots are, and five where the second are.
3. “My lov’d, my honour’d, much respected friend! * * * * * * * * * To you I sing, in simple Scottish lays, The lowly train in life’s sequester’d scene, The native feeling strong, the guileless ways; What Aiken in his cottage would have been.”—_Burns._
In the above, three lines are omitted.
IV. _Leaders_ (......) are used to indicate a connection between words at the beginning of the line and what is at the end of the line.
Winnowed Wheat..................._Nellie R. Luck._ Dreams, a Poem..................._Octa E. Wise._
V. In writing, one line drawn under a word indicates that it is to be printed in italics; two lines, in small capitals; three lines, in capitals.
VI. _Marks of Reference_ are used to refer to notes at the bottom of the page, or to remarks in the margin. They are the following:—
The Star (*), the Dagger (†), the Double Dagger (‡), the Section (§), Parallel Lines (‖), the Paragraph (¶).
The above marks are given in the order in which they are used.
The Paragraph (¶) is also used, in written compositions, to denote that what follows should commence a new line.
INTRODUCTION.
It has been the custom among some writers to commence every important word with a capital, so that some printed productions have fairly bristled with capitalized words; as,—
“Modern authors have with unwearied Pains made many useful Searches into the weak Sides of the Ancients, and given us a comprehensive Lift of them.”—_Swift._
“There were a Race of Men who delighted to nibble at the Superfluities and Excrescences of Books.”—_Swift._
The custom of commencing all nouns with a capital is still prevalent among the Germans of the present day.
It is a somewhat interesting fact that the use and value of capitals has been subject to a rise and fall in the literary market, written productions during some centuries abounding in them, while in other centuries they have, in a great measure, been discarded, and have become comparative strangers in English composition.
In the early part of this century, there was a tendency to use them to an inconsiderate extent, owing principally to German imitators like Carlyle and others, who adopted, in a somewhat modified form, the German method of capitalizing words. Just at present there seems to be a reaction setting in, and there is a tendency among some of our leading publishing houses to dispense with their use as much as possible. In democratic America, there has always been a somewhat unreasonable fear of official titles, and when they are used, they are frequently belittled with small letters. This has had a tendency to encourage the use of small letters in many words that should properly commence with capitals.
There is no doubt that a judicious use of capitals assists the eye very much in reading what another has written, and in understanding a writer’s meaning. While, on the other hand, an injudicious use lessens their value, and disfigures a printed page.
Although the taste and judgment of each writer may be consulted in the capitalization of some words to which he may assign a special meaning, there are a number of well established principles, sanctioned by long usage, that should govern all writers in the use of capital letters.
CAPITALS.
RULE I. _Sentences._—The first word of every sentence should commence with a capital.
EXAMPLES.
“The price we challenge for ourselves is given us.”—_Schiller._
“The elder brother of Franklin ventured to start a newspaper, though warned that America could never support two newspapers.”—_William Russel._
“Trust in yourself, and you have learnt to live.”—_Goethe._
REMARKS.
1. A sentence is an assemblage of words making complete sense, and followed by a period. Sometimes a sentence has an interrogation or an exclamation point at its close; as,—
“For of the wholly common is man made, And custom is his nurse!”—_Schiller._
2. Any expression that is equivalent to a sentence should commence with a capital; as, Very affectionately. Price $5.00.
3. As a period indicates the close of a sentence, the word following the period should commence with a capital; as, “The little soul is like a vapor that hovers around a marshy lake. It never rises on the green hill, lest the winds meet it there.”—_Ossian._
If, however, a period is used to indicate an abbreviation, it should not be followed by a capital, unless it is at the close of a sentence, or the word that follows it requires a capital; as, In Germany, the degrees of M. D., LL. D., and Ph. D. are only gained after passing a severe examination.
4. Although a capital is generally used after an interrogation or an exclamation point, as they usually indicate the close of a sentence, this is not always the case; as,—
“How poor! how rich! how abject! how august! How complicate! how wonderful is man! How passing wonder He who made him such! Who centered in our make such strange extremes!”—_Young._
RULE II. _Poetry._—The first word of every line of poetry should commence with a capital.
EXAMPLES.
“There is a day of sunny rest For every dark and troubled night; And grief may bide an evening guest, But joy shall come with early light.”—_Bryant._
“But far more numerous was the herd of such, Who think too little and who talk too much.”—_Dryden._
RULE III. _Persons and Places._—Names of persons, countries, cities, islands, rivers, mountains, &c., should commence with capitals.
EXAMPLES.
“The finest thief of old history is the pirate who made that famous answer to Alexander, in which he said that the conqueror was only the mightier thief of the two.”—_Leigh Hunt._
America, France, London, New York, West Indies, Hudson, Rhine, Rocky Mountains, Mount Vernon, Pacific.
REMARKS.
1. When North, South, East, &c., refer to political or geographical divisions, they should commence with capitals; as, “But sectional bitterness has in a great measure passed away; the fatal cause of discord between North and South has been removed.”
When these words refer merely to the points of the compass, they should be written with small letters.
2. Words derived from the names of persons should commence with capitals; as, Socratic, Platonic, Elizabethan.
When words derived from the names of persons or places lose their individual character, and are used as common words, they should commence with small letters; as, god-like, hector, turkey, china-ware, laconic.
3. Heaven and hell are written with small letters in the Bible. Satan is always printed with a capital, but devil commences with a small letter, unless it stands for Satan; as, “Then was Jesus led up of the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil.”—Mat. iv. 1.
RULE IV. _Nations._—The names of nations, or words derived from the names of nations, should commence with capitals.
EXAMPLES.
“‘Simply to be poor,’ says my favorite Greek historian, ‘was not held scandalous by the wise Athenians; but highly so, to owe that poverty to our own indiscretion.’”—_Fielding._
American, German, French, Latins, Americanize, Latinize, Hellenize.
REMARK.
Italics and Italicize are frequently written with small letters.
RULE V. _Sects and Parties._—The names of religious sects and political parties should commence with capitals.
EXAMPLES.
Christian, Mohammedan, Lutheran, Catholic, Protestant, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Baptist, Unitarian.
Republican, Federalist, Democrat, Whig, Tory, Radical.
REMARKS.
1. When republican, radical, &c., are used as common words, and not as the names of political parties, they should commence with small letters; as, republican institutions, radical measures.
2. Some writers use small letters, when referring to political parties. If, however, it is incorrect to write Congregational, Methodist, with small letters, why is it not incorrect to commence Republican, Whig, with small letters?
3. Church should be written with a capital, when it refers to a religious sect; as, the Episcopal Church, meaning the whole body of Christians belonging to that denomination. When the word refers to a place of worship, it should commence with a small letter.
RULE VI. _Months and Days._—The names of months and days should commence with capitals.
EXAMPLES.
“No one ever regarded the first of January with indifference. It is that from which all date their time, and count upon what is left. It is the nativity of our common Adam.”—_Lamb._
February, March, April, May; Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Sunday, Good Friday, Easter.
REMARK.
Spring, summer, autumn, winter, should be written with small letters.
RULE VII. _Titles of Books._—All the words, with the exception of articles, conjunctions, and prepositions, in the titles of books, should commence with a capital.
EXAMPLES.
Forsyth’s “Life of Cicero.” “The Fall of the Roman Republic,” Rev. C. Merivale.
REMARKS.
1. It is just as necessary to capitalize the title of a book, as it is the name of a person.
2. The title of an oration, essay, article for a newspaper, or of any written production, follows the same rule as the title of a book.
3. Names of sacred writings should always be capitalized; as, Bible, Old and New Testament, the Scriptures, Acts, Revelation, Gospel of John, Koran, Vedas.
RULE VIII. _Title-Pages._—The title-pages of books are generally printed entirely with capitals. The title-page of any book will illustrate this rule.
REMARKS.
1. This rule concerns more especially the printer.
2. The first word of a chapter is generally printed in small capitals, the first letter of the word being a large capital.
3. In handbills and advertisements, all important words are capitalized, so as to attract special attention.
RULE IX. _Titles of Persons._—All titles of respect or honor should be capitalized.
There are three classes of titles:—
1. Common Titles.
Mr., Mrs., Miss, Master.
2. Professional Titles.
Prof, Dr., D. D., LL. D., &c.
3. Official Titles.
Hon., His Excellency, His Honor, President, Secretary, Senator, Mr. Chairman, &c.
EXAMPLES.
President Hayes, Senator Morton, Hon. Thomas W. Ferry, Dr. Chas. Rynd, Mr. Fred. J. Todd.
REMARKS.
1. A distinction should always be made between words used as titles, and words used in a general sense. For example, senator should commence with a small letter, if it is not placed before the name of a person as a title, or does not refer to a particular individual. This is the same with president, secretary, doctor, &c.; as, “A patient owes some thanks to a doctor who restores him with nectar smooth and fragrant, instead of rasping his throat and flaying his interior with the bitters sucked by sour-tempered roots from vixenish soils.”—_Winthrop._
2. Father, brother, sister, aunt, uncle, cousin, &c., should commence with a capital, when they are used like titles with the names of persons; as, Father Pierce, Cousin Blackmar.
3. Sir, father, brother, friend, &c., when used as introductory words to a letter, should commence with capitals, as a mark of respect; as, My dear Sir, My dear Friend.