Part 13

In a word, we learn from this source that distinct geologic epochs coexist at the same time on the earth. I have been forced to this conclusion[47] by a study of the structure of terrestrial life, and it has been remarkably confirmed by the results of recent deep-sea dredgings made by the United States Coast Survey in the Gulf Stream, and by the British naturalists in the North Atlantic. These have brought to light types of Tertiary life, and of even the still more ancient Cretaceous periods, living at the present day. That this discovery invalidates in any wise the conclusions of geology respecting lapse of time is an unwarranted assumption that some are forward to make. If it changes the views of some respecting the parallelism or coëxistence of faunæ in different regions of the earth, it is only the anti-developmentalists whose position must be changed.

Footnote 47:

_Origin of Genera_, pages 70, 77, 79.

For, if we find distinct geologic faunæ, or epochs defined by faunæ, coëxisting during the present period, and fading or emerging into one another as they do at their geographical boundaries, it is proof positive that the geologic epochs and periods of past ages had in like manner no trenchant boundaries, but also passed the one into the other. The assumption that the apparent interruptions are the result of transfer of life rather than destruction, or of want of opportunities of preservation, is no doubt the true one.

δ. Rationale of Development.

_a. In Characters of Higher Groups._ It is evident in the case of the species in which there is an irregularity in the time of completion of metamorphosis that some individuals traverse a longer developmental line than those who remain more or less incomplete. As both accomplish growth in the same length of time, it is obvious that it proceeds with greater rapidity in one sense in that which accomplishes most: its growth is said to be accelerated. This phenomenon is especially common among insects, where the females of perfect males are sometimes larvæ or nearly so, or pupæ, or lack wings or some character of final development. Quite as frequently, some males assume characters in advance of others, sometimes in connection with a peculiar geographical range.

In cases of _exact parallelism_ we reasonably suppose the cause to be the same, since the conditions are identical, as has been shown; that is, the higher conditions have been produced by a crowding back of the earlier characters and an acceleration of growth, so that a given succession in order of advance has extended over a longer range of growth than its predecessor in the same allotted time. That allotted time is the period before maturity and reproduction, and it is evident that as fast as modifications or characters should be assumed sufficiently in advance of that period, so certainly would they be conferred upon the offspring by reproduction. The _acceleration_ in the assumption of a character, progressing more rapidly than the same in another character, must soon produce, in a type whose stages were once the exact parallel of a permanent lower form, the condition of _inexact parallelism_. As all the more comprehensive groups present this relation to each other, we are compelled to believe that _acceleration_ has been the principle of their successive evolution during the long ages of geologic time.

Each type has, however, its day of supremacy and perfection of organism, and a retrogression in these respects has succeeded. This has no doubt followed a law the reverse of acceleration, which has been called _retardation_. By the increasing slowness of the growth of the individuals of a genus, and later and later assumption of the characters of the latter, they would be successively lost.

To what power shall we ascribe this acceleration, by which the first beginnings of structure have accumulated to themselves through the long geologic ages complication and power, till from the germ that was scarcely born into a sand-lance, a human being climbed the complete scale, and stood easily the chief of the whole?

In the cases of species, where some individuals develop farther than others, we say the former possess more growth-force, or “vigor,” than the latter. We may therefore say that higher types of structure possess more “vigor” than the lower. This, however, we do not know to be true, nor can we readily find means to demonstrate it.

The food which is taken by an adult animal is either assimilated, to be consumed in immediate activity of some kind, or stored for future use, and the excess is rejected from the body. We have no reason to suppose that the same kind of material could be made to subserve the production of life-force by any other means than that furnished by a living animal organism. The material from which this organism is constructed is derived first from the parent, and afterward from the food, etc., assimilated by the individual itself so long as growth continues. As it is the activity of assimilation directed to a special end during this latter period which we suppose to be increased in accelerated development, the acceleration is evidently not brought about by increased facilities for obtaining the means of life which the same individual possesses as an adult. That it is not in consequence of such increased facilities possessed by its parents over those of the type preceding it, seems equally improbable when we consider that the characters in which the parent’s advance has appeared are rarely of a nature to increase those facilities.

The nearest approach to an explanation that can be offered appears to be somewhat in the following direction:

There is every reason to believe that the character of the atmosphere has gradually changed during geologic time, and that various constituents of the mixture have been successively removed from it, and been stored in the solid material of the earth’s crust in a state of combination. Geological chemistry has shown that the cooling of the earth has been accompanied by the precipitation of many substances only gaseous at high temperatures. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acids have been transferred to mineral deposits or aqueous solutions. The removal of carbonic acid gas and the vapor of water has been a process of much slower progress, and after the expiration of all the ages a proportion of both yet remains. Evidence of the abundance of the former in the earliest periods is seen in the vast deposits of limestone rock; later, in the prodigious quantities of shells which have been elaborated from the same in solution. Proof of its abundance in the atmosphere in later periods is seen in the extensive deposits of coal of the Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic periods. If the most luxuriant vegetation of the present day takes but fifty tons of carbon from the atmosphere in a century, per acre, thus producing a layer over that extent of less than a third of an inch in thickness, what amount of carbon must be abstracted in order to produce strata of thirty-five feet in depth? No doubt it occupied a long period, but the atmosphere, thus deprived of a large proportion of carbonic acid, would in subsequent periods undoubtedly possess an improved capacity for the support of animal life.

The successively higher degree of oxidization of the blood in the organs designed for that function, whether performing it in water or air, would certainly accelerate the performances of all the vital functions, and among others that of growth. Thus it may be that _acceleration_ can be accounted for, and the process of the development of the orders and sundry lesser groups of the Vertebrate kingdom indicated; for, as already pointed out, the definitions of such are radically placed in the different structures of the organs which aerate the blood and distribute it to its various destinations.

But the great question, What determined the direction of this acceleration? remains unanswered. One cannot understand why more highly-oxidized blood should hasten the growth of partition of the ventricle of the heart in the serpent, the more perfectly to separate the aerated from the impure fluid; nor can we see why a more perfectly-constructed circulatory system, sending purer blood to the brain, should direct accelerated growth to the cerebellum or cerebral hemispheres in the crocodile.

_b. In Characters of the Specific Kind._ Some of the characters usually placed in the specific category have been shown to be the same in kind as those of higher categories. The majority are, however, of a different kind, and have been discussed several pages back.

The cause of the origin of these characters is shrouded in as much mystery as that of those which have occupied the pages immediately preceding. As in that case, we have to assume, as Darwin has done, a tendency in Nature to their production. This is what he terms “the principle of variation.” Against an unlimited variation the great law of heredity or atavism has ever been opposed, as a conservator and multiplier of type. This principle is exemplified in the fact that like produces like—that children are like their parents, frequently even in minutiæ. It may be compared to habit in metaphysical matters, or to that singular love of time or rhythm seen in man and lower animals, in both of which the tendency is to repeat in continual cycles a motion or state of the mind or sense.

Further, but a proportion of the lines of variation is supposed to have been perpetuated, and the extinction of intermediate forms, as already stated, has left isolated groups or species.

The effective cause of these extinctions is stated by Darwin to have been a “natural selection”—a proposition which distinguishes his theory from other development hypotheses, and which is stated in brief by the expression, “the preservation of the fittest.” Its meaning is this: that those characters appearing as results of this spontaneous variation which are little adapted to the conflict for subsistence, with the nature of the supply, or with rivals in its pursuit, dwindle and are sooner or later extirpated; while those which are adapted to their surroundings, and favored in the struggle for means of life and increase, predominate, and ultimately become the centers of new variation. “I am convinced,” says Darwin, “that natural selection has been the main, but not exclusive, means of modification.”

That it has been to a large extent the means of preservation of those structures known as specific, must, I think, be admitted. They are related to their peculiar surroundings very closely, and are therefore more likely to exist under their influence. Thus, if a given genus extends its range over a continent, it is usually found to be represented by peculiar species—one in a maritime division, another in the desert, others in the forest, in the swamp or the elevated areas of the region. The wonderful interdependence shown by Darwin to exist between insects and plants in the fertilization of the latter, or between animals and their food-plants, would almost induce one to believe that it were the true expression of the whole law of development.

But the following are serious objections to its universal application:

First: The characters of the higher groups, from genera up, are rarely of a character to fit their possessors especially for surrounding circumstances; that is, the differences which separate genus from genus, order from order, etc., in the ascending scale of each, do not seem to present a superior adaptation to surrounding circumstances in the higher genus to that seen in the lower genus, etc. Hence, superior adaptation could scarcely have caused their selection above other forms not existing. Or, in other words, the different structures which indicate successional relation, or which measure the steps of progress, seem to be equally well fitted for the same surroundings.

Second: The higher groups, as orders, classes, etc., have been in each geologic period alike distributed over the whole earth, under all the varied circumstances offered by climate and food. Their characters do not seem to have been modified in reference to these. Species, and often genera, are, on the other hand, eminently restricted according to climate, and consequently vegetable and animal food.

The law of development which we seek is indeed not that which preserves the higher forms and rejects the lower after their creation, but that which explains why higher forms were created at all. Why in the results of a creation we see any relation of higher and lower, and not rather a world of distinct types, each perfectly adapted to its situation, but none properly higher than another in an ascending scale, is the primary question. Given the principle of advance, then natural selection has no doubt modified the details; but in the successive advances we can scarcely believe such a principle to be influential. _We look rather upon a progress as the result of the expenditure of some force fore-arranged for that end._

It may become, then, a question whether in characters of high grade the habit or use is not rather the result of the acquisition of the structure than the structure the result of the encouragement offered to its assumed beginnings by use, or by liberal nutrition derived from the increasingly superior advantages it offers.

ε. The Physical Origin of Man.

If the hypothesis here maintained be true, man is the descendant of some preëxistent generic type, the which, if it were now living, we would probably call an ape.

Man and the chimpanzee were in Linnæus’ system only two species of the same genus, but a truer anatomy places them in separate genera and distinct families. There is no doubt, however, that Cuvier went much too far when he proposed to consider Homo as the representative of an order distinct from the quadrumana, under the name of bimana. The structural differences will not bear any such interpretation, and have not the same value as those distinguishing the orders of mammalia; as, for instance, between carnivora and bats, or the cloven-footed animals and the rodents, or rodents and edentates. The differences between man and the chimpanzee are, as Huxley well puts it, much less than those between the chimpanzee and lower quadrumana, as lemurs, etc. In fact, man is the type of a family, Hominidæ, of the order Quadrumana, as indicated by the characters of the dentition, extremities, brain, etc. The reader who may have any doubts on this score may read the dissections of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, made in 1856, before the issue of Darwin’s _Origin of Species_. He informs us that the brain of man is nearer in structure to that of the orang than the orang’s is to that of the South American howler, and that the orang and howler are more nearly related in this regard than are the howler and the marmoset.

The modifications presented by man have, then, resulted from an acceleration in development in some respects, and retardation perhaps in others. But until the _combination_ now characteristic of the genus Homo was attained the being could not properly be called man.

And here it must be observed that as an organic type is characterized by the coëxistence of a number of peculiarities which have been developed independently of each other, its distinctive features and striking functions are not exhibited until that coëxistence is attained which is necessary for these ends.

Hence, the characters of the human genus were probably developed successively; but few of the indications of human superiority appeared until the combination was accomplished. Let the opposable thumb be first perfected, but of what use would it be in human affairs without a mind to direct? And of what use a mind without speech to unlock it? And speech could not be possible though all the muscles of the larynx but one were developed, or but a slight abnormal convexity in one pair of cartilages remained.

It would be an objection of little weight could it be truly urged that there have as yet no remains of apelike men been discovered, for we have frequently been called upon in the course of paleontological discovery to bridge greater gaps than this, and greater remain, which we expect to fill. But we _have_ apelike characters exhibited by more than one race of men yet existing.

But the remains of that being which is supposed to have been the progenitor of man may have been discovered a short time since in the cave of Naulette, Belgium, with the bones of the extinct rhinoceros and elephant.

We all admit the existence of higher and lower races, the latter being those which we now find to present greater or less approximations to the apes. The peculiar structural characters that belong to the negro in his most typical form are of that kind, however great may be the distance of his remove therefrom. The flattening of the nose and prolongation of the jaws constitute such a resemblance; so are the deficiency of the calf of the leg, and the obliquity of the pelvis, which approaches more the horizontal position than it does in the Caucasian. The investigations made at Washington during the war with reference to the physical characteristics of the soldiers show that the arms of the negro are from one to two inches longer than those of the whites: another approximation to the ape. In fact, this race is a species of the genus Homo, as distinct in character from the Caucasian as those we are accustomed to recognize in other departments of the animal kingdom; but he is not distinct by isolation, since intermediate form’s between him and the other species can be abundantly found.

And here let it be particularly observed that two of the most prominent characters of the negro are those of immature stages of the Indo-European race in its characteristic types. The deficient calf is the character of infants at a very early stage; but, what is more important, the flattened bridge of the nose and shortened nasal cartilages are universally immature conditions of the same parts in the Indo-European. Any one may convince himself of that by examining the physiognomies of infants. In some races—_e.g._, the Slavic—this undeveloped character persists later than in some others. The Greek nose, with its elevated bridge, coincides not only with æsthetic beauty, but with developmental perfection.

This is, however, only “_inexact_ parallelism,” as the characters of the hair, etc., cannot be explained on this principle _among existing races_. The embryonic characters mentioned are probably a remnant of those characteristic of the primordial race or species.

But the man of Naulette, if he be not a monstrosity, in a still more distinct and apelike species. The chin, that marked character of other species of men, is totally wanting, and the dentition is quite approximate to the man-like apes, and different from that of modern men. The form is very massive, as in apes. That he was not abnormal is rendered probable by approximate characters seen in a jaw from the cave of Puy-sur-Aube, and less marked in the lowest races of Australia and New Caledonia.

As to the single or multiple origin of man, science as yet furnishes no answer. It is very probable that, in many cases, the species of one genus have descended from corresponding species of another by change of generic characters only. It is a remarkable fact that the orang possesses the peculiarly developed malar bones and the copper color characteristic of the Mongolian inhabitants of the regions in which this animal is found, while the gorilla exhibits the prognathic jaws and black hue of the African races near whom he dwells. This kind of geographical imitation is very common in the animal kingdom.

ζ. The Mosaic Account.

As some persons imagine that this hypothesis conflicts with the account of the creation of man given in Genesis, a comparison of some of the points involved is made below.

First: In Genesis i. 26, 27, we read, “And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness,” etc. “So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.” Those who believe that this “image” is a physical, material form, are not disposed to admit the entrance of anything apelike into its constitution, for the ascription of any such appearance to the Creator would be impious and revolting. But we are told that “God is a Spirit,” and Christ said to his disciples after his resurrection, “A spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have.” Luke xxiv. 39. It will require little further argument to show that a mental and spiritual image is what is meant, as it is what truly exists. Man’s conscience, intelligence and creative ingenuity show that he possesses an “image of God” within him, the possession of which is really necessary to his limited comprehension of God and of God’s ways to man.

Second: In Genesis ii. 7, the text reads, “And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul.” The fact that man is the result of the modification of an apelike predecessor nowise conflicts with the above statement as to the materials of which his body is composed. Independently of origin, if the body of man be composed of dust, so must that of the ape be, since the composition of the two is identical. But the statement simply asserts that man was created of the same materials which compose the earth: their condition as “dust” depending merely on temperature and subdivision. The declaration, “Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt return,” must be taken in a similar sense, for we know that the decaying body is resolved not only into its earthly constituents, but also into carbonic acid gas and water.

When God breathed into man’s nostrils the breath of life, we are informed that he became, not a living body, but “a living soul.” His descent from a preëxistent being involved the possession of a living body; but when the Creator breathed into him we may suppose for the present that He infused into this body the immortal part, and at that moment man became a conscientious and responsible being.

II. METAPHYSICAL EVOLUTION.