Chapter 8

The impossibility of procuring bones enough to supply the wants of the comparative few now engaged in using guano, may be readily learned by any farmer who uses ten tons of guano per annum, if he will undertake to "pick up bones" enough to furnish him the same amount of phosphates contained in that quantity of guano. Then if all who are now using it, would drop guano and take to bones, it would soon be found to be hard picking. Save all the bones and apply them to the soil, is a standing text with us; upon the same soil use all the guano your can procure and you will not need to pick bones--you will grow bones to pick. It may be very patriotic to talk about expending the money at home, for bones, instead of sending it to Peru, for guano; but that talk is all for Buncombe, there is not a particle of sound reason in it. If all the bones in the United States could be saved and applied to the land again, we should still fall short of a supply, and be obliged to do as England did before the introduction of guano; go about and ransack grave yards of great battlefields, for more bones. With all the guano imported, or that will be imported, and all the bones that will be saved, there will still be room for more phosphates in the millions of acres of hungry soil in America. What would be the effect if a few such farms as Willoughby Newton's, and Col. Carter's, who each use 30 to 40 tons per annum of guano, should come all at once into the bone market for their supplies. In our opinion there would be such a rattling among the dry bones, we should hear no more about substituting them for guano. The fact is an incontrovertible one, that nothing on earth nor under the earth, or in the sea, has ever been discovered, which can be used as a substitute for guano. Its small bulk is alone sufficient to commend it to favor.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England offers a prize of £1,000 and the gold medal of the society, for the discovery of a manure with equal fertilizing properties to the guano, of which an unlimited supply can be furnished in England, at £5 per ton.

"_Analogy between Bones and Guano._--There is a striking analogy in composition between bones and guano, which is, for other reasons interesting to the practical man.

The following table exhibits the composition of bones compared with guano, supposing both in the dry state. Bones, as they are applied to to the land contain about 18 per cent. of water. Ichaboe guano from 20 to 25 per cent.

_Bones._ _Guano._

Organic animal matter, 33 56 Phosphates of lime and magnesia, 59 26 Carbonate of lime, 4 6 Salts of soda, 4 10 Salts of potash, trace trace Silicious matter 0 2 ---- ---- 100 100"

And these substances are found in guano already in a pulverulent state, while bones have to be reduced by mechanical or chemical means to the same condition before they are of any use as manure. Do not, we again repeat most emphatically, do not waste a bone; dissolve all you can get in sulphuric acid and mix with guano--save and make all the manure possible, both by the stable, compost heap and green crops, and then you will have money to buy guano, by which you can save the immense labor of hauling to distant fields, and still have the satisfaction of seeing them as fertile as those highly manured near home.

When the farmer raises crops for sale, and removes his grain and grasses from the land, he sells a portion of his soil; and if he does not renew in some way the saline matters taken away in his crops, he invariably impoverishes his farm. This work of exhaustion is now going on to an alarming extent, and the prolific wheat lands are to be searched for farther and farther westward as the operation proceeds.

Every one knows the superiority of wheat grown on newly cultivated lands, and most farmers are aware of the fact that soils become exhausted of something, they know not what, but of something essential to the most favorable production of grain. This something is found in guano, and by it the original fertility of land can be more easily, more certainly and cheaply restored than by any other means as yet discovered.

Professor Mapes in one of his letters of advice says; "As no farm, under ordinary usage, will supply as much manure as may be used upon it with profit, I am glad you intend to use guano, as it is an admirable manure, replete with many requirements of plants. The ammonia of the guano is in the form of a carbonate, and therefore so volatile as to escape from the soil into the atmosphere before plants can use it.

"You will readily perceive, therefore, that the sulphuric and phosphoric acids require amendments, and the ammonia should be changed from a carbonate to a sulphate of ammonia, which is not volatile. All this may be readily done by dissolving bone dust in dilute sulphuric acid, mixing it with the guano, and then with a sufficient amount of charcoal dust to render the mass dry and pulverulent. The more charcoal dust the better, as it absorbs and retains ammonia, and after it is in the soil, will continue to perform similar offices for many years, only yielding up ammonia as required by plants, and receiving new portions from rains, dews, &c."

If used as a top dressing, this change from a carbonate to a sulphate may be necessary; but not so if well mixed with the soil, particularly one in which clay predominates. In such a soil it is not even necessary to adhere to the direction to plow the guano deeply under. If it is but slightly harrowed in, the nature of the clay is such it will prevent the escape of the ammonia. If you require phosphates, more than ammonia, add the superphosphate of lime; but in no case omit the guano.

_Use of Salt with Guano._--Common salt at the rate of a bushel to 100 lbs. of guano, well mixed, may be used to good advantage either as a top dressing, or when plowed in. The effect of the muriatic acid of the salt upon the guano will be, as both are dissolved in the earth, or by dews and rains, to form muriate of ammonia, which is not volatile; consequently the salt prevents loss by exhaustion, which is sure to take place when the guano is used as a top dressing, unless prevented by something to act as a fixer of the ammonia.

The wisdom of this law of nature in making the most precious saline manure a fixed and difficultly soluble salt, is at once obvious; for it is thus kept always ready in the soil for the plants to act upon according to their need. If we cut plants down before the seeds form, we have all the phosphates the plants contain diffused throughout them, and if we allow the seed to ripen, the phosphates, as before observed, will be found mostly in the seed. We find them in the state of phosphate of potash, phosphate of soda, phosphate of magnesia, and phosphate of lime, and probably, also, phosphate of ammonia. Now all these salts are essential to the growth and sustenance of animals, and without them grain would cease to be sufficient.

The necessity of restoring inorganic substances to the soil, may be better understood by examining the following table:

Mr. Prixdeaux states that the following quantities (of inorganic matters) are removed from an acre of soil by a crop of wheat, of 25 bushels of grain, and 3000 lbs. of straw--

_By the grain._ _By the straw._ _Total._ lbs. lbs. lbs. Potash, 7.15 22.44 29.59 Soda, 2.73 0.29 3.02 Magnesia, 3.63 6.99 10.62 Phosphoric acid, 15.02 5.54 20.56 Sulphuric acid, 0.07 10.49 10.56 Chlorine 0.00 1.98 1.98 ---- ---- ---- 28.60 47.73

Gross weight to be returned to an acre, 76.33

Professor Johnson says--"Soils are barren either from the presence of a noxious principle or the absence of a necessary element. It is therefore highly important to be able to distinguish between the two cases.

"The art of culture is almost entirely a chemical art. Its processes are explained on chemical principals in part, but partly on mechanical and natural ones.

"All forms of matter may be divided into one of the two great groups--organic or inorganic matter."

In Peruvian guano, both these substances exist in a better and cheaper form than can be obtained from any other source.

The editor of the Genesee farmer, whose scientific information none can dispute, strongly corroborates this opinion. In a late number he says--If we admit that phosphate of lime is a necessary ingredient in a special manure for wheat--Peruvian guano would at present be much the cheapest source of it; for, in addition to the 16 per cent. of ammonia, it contains 20 per cent. of phosphate of lime in first-rate condition for assimilation by the plant, as well as other fertilizing ingredients of minor importance.

As a manure for wheat, therefore, we greatly prefer good Peruvian guano, even to the _improved_ superphosphate of lime.

_Difference in favor of Guano over Bone dust._--Robert Monteith, England, dressed oat ground with 276 lbs. guano per acre, cost 31 shillings, produce 59 bushels, value £7 7s 6d. Same quality of land with 10 bushels bone dust, cost 23 shillings and fourpence, produced 43 bushels value £5 7s 6d, which gives a balance in favor of guano of £1 12s 4d, or about $7 50 per acre.

_Difference in favor of Guano over Manure._--The Yorkshire Agricultural Society of England, instituted a series of experiments several years ago for the purpose of working out practical facts in relation to guano, through a series of crops, upon different soils, by different persons, upon whose report the utmost reliance might be placed, so as to determine the value, or advantage to British farmers, who might use this extraordinary fertilizer. This report has just been published, and the following is a synopsis of the results. The experiments were arranged under the following heads--

1. To show the natural produce of the land, one part was to have no manure whatever.

2. Was to have twelve tons per acre of farm-yard dung.

3. Was to have six tons of dung, and one cwt. each of guano and dissolved coprolites; and

4. Was to have two cwt. of guano and two cwt. of the coprolites.

Other substances might be tried as additions, but these were to be the standard experiments.

Mr. Cholmeley's turnips, grown on a loamy soil had the heaviest crop on No. 3, the dung, coprolite, and guano, beating the farm-yard manure by some 5-3/4 tons per acre.

Mr. Johnson's experiments were tried with various manures singly; and his Peruvian guano gave the greatest weight of the class of substances tried; but 10 cubic yards of farm-yard manure had previously been applied to the whole land.

Mr. Maulevere's heaviest weight, also applied singly, was with the 12 tons of dung; but only 14 cwt. more than the dressing with 2 cwt. of coprolites. This soil was a light clay.

Mr. Newham's on a limestone soil, were the heaviest with No. 3--the same as Mr. Cholmeley's--and were 16 cwt. heavier than an application of dung alone.

Mr. Outhwaite's, on a hungry gravel, were the heaviest, with 9-3/4 tons of dung and 2 cwt. of guano, for all the land had been dunged at this rate, and exceeded 14-1/2 tons of dung by 2 tons 9 cwt. per acre.

Mr. Scott's were the heaviest on No. 4,--the guano and coprolites, and 1 ton 7 cwt. more than 20 tons of dung,--his soil was a strong loam.

Mr. Wailes's were the heaviest, with 4 cwt. of coprolites, showing an increase over 20 tons of dung of 2 tons 9 cwt. per acre; the soil is a useful loam.

The first fact which strikes the observer, is, that as a general rule, there is not only an addition to the crop by the addition of those artificial manures, but there is, in some cases, more absolute crop produced by them than by farm-yard manure alone.

Now to bring this to the test of figures, the coprolites at £5 per ton, and the guano at £10 per ton, will be at the rate of 2 cwt of each, £1 10s per acre. Now assuming this to be equal to 20 tons of dung per acre, we should require to be able to produce the dung at 1s 6d per ton to cost us the same money. But it can be neither produced nor purchased at any such money. In the whole of the cases referred to, the manure is most costly, and yet we find hardly any case where there is not an addition to the crop, of say two to three tons of turnips per acre, by such an increase of manure as the guano. Now, if a ton of turnips be worth 10s., or even 9s, there is at once an element of repayment; for, if a soil be in a condition to give a large crop of turnips, it is almost certain to be capable of giving a large crop of any other plant to succeed.

Mr. Charnock gives it as the result of his practical experience, that 4 cwt. of Peruvian guano, without manure, is the cheapest and best mode of growing turnips; but the general testimony seems to be decidedly in favor of what all farmers find it the best and easiest to do, viz., to add a small quantity of artificial manure to that which the farm will supply, and so to spread the whole over the land, rather than put all the dung in one place, and all the artificial manure in another.

No one can doubt the true statement of this report, which proves $7 50. worth of guano equal to 20 tons of manure--reducing the worth of that to one shilling and sixpence--about 34 cents--per ton, or one dollar a cord. Now, as manure is often estimated in this country by the cord, and valued at about $4, and applied at the rate of 6 cords per acre, it follows that a saving of $14 50 per acre may be made by using 250 lbs. of guano instead of purchasing the manure. This Yorkshire experiment exactly corresponds with those made in this country, some of which we have detailed, and which proves that a farmer cannot buy manure at the common selling prices; and if he hauls his own the distance of a mile, he will expend more value of time, than it is worth to him on the land; because the same value of time--"time is money"--expended for guano, will bring him better returns. In this, as before stated, we are confirmed by Professor Mapes; and here is the opinion of Mr. Hovey of Boston, the eminent horticulturist, which we find in the August No. of his magazine, as follows--

"If, after such evidence as this, farmers will continue to buy ashes at eight cents a bushel, or manure at three to six dollars a cord, including carting, and use them alone, then let them do so, but they should not complain that their crop cost more than it comes to. To orchardists and fruit growers, this information is of the greatest value, and we trust they will not let it pass unheeded."

This opinion is valuable because it has been stoutly asserted, that however well guano might answer at the South, it was of no use in the hard soil and cold climate of New England. This is a fallacy which will soon be cured by knowledge, and self-interest is a very strong prompter towards the acquisition of the knowledge, that guano is the best, cheapest, most suitable, convenient and productive manure ever used by a New England farmer, and just as suitable for that climate and soil as it is for Virginia. We assert, without fear of successful contradiction, that there is not a farm--not a field--covered with five-finger vines and mullens, in the State of Massachusetts, which may not be made to produce as profitable crops, by the use of guano, as any Connecticut river farm. Farmers are about the hardest class of men in the world to learn new doctrines; or that science has anything to do with the business of this life, and what all other life in a civilized country is dependent upon. Yet science teaches, by unerring truths, that the plants the farmer cultivates, are composed of carbon, obtained by plants chiefly from the soil and atmosphere; oxygen and hydrogen, obtained by plants chiefly from water, carbonic acid, &c.; nitrogen obtained by plants chiefly from manure, and also from rain and snow; silicium, in combination with oxygen, called _silicia_ or sand; lime in combination with phosphoric and other acids; potash and soda in combination with acids; magnesia, in combination with acids, and various oxides of metals, the presence of which, however, is not very important, as they exist in an exceedingly small quantity. And that guano is composed of ammonia (formed of nitrogen and hydrogen,) combined with carbonic, oxalic, phosphoric, and other acids; lime, combined with phosphoric oxalic, and other acids; potash and soda, combined with muriatic and sulphuric acids; magnesia, combined with phosphoric and other acids; animal organic matter, containing carbon, and also nitrogen.

Now, is it not enough to prove that all the ingredients, with the exception of the metallic oxides, exist in guano, which are required by the plants grown for the sustenance of man.

Putting guano into the soil, therefore, as a manure, is clearly restoring to the earth those substances which plants abstract from it, and which are absolutely necessary for their growth.

The questions, then, which the farmer should now ask are, "which is best for me to buy, guano or coarse manure?" The evidence just given answers that question. "I have manure, teams, and men to haul it; my fields are from one to three miles distant, is it economy for me to let my teams lay idle and buy guano?" By no means. But you can probably employ men and teams in other improvements to much better advantage. With your manure make all your home lots exceedingly rich. With your men and teams clear off stones, dig ditches to put them into, drain your land, or build fence--bring bog meadows and swamps into dry cultivation--send every little brook through artificial channels for irrigation--send water up from lowland springs and streams by hydraulic rams for the same purpose, and for stock on the hills; or bring it down from hillsides if you are so situated; and buy guano for those distant fields, instead of wasting time in the laborious operation of hauling manure. Those who use guano, are enabled by the saving of time, to say nothing of their increased profits, to make improvements which are utterly impossible to accomplish under the old system.

_How to choose Guano._--As we are satisfied no sensible reader can have perused the preceding pages, without having come to the determination to make a trial for himself, we will give him some general instructions about buying guano.

In the first place, we lay it down as an incontrovertible axiom, that the Peruvian guano, at the current price for years of that and all other, is the cheapest and best, because it contains the largest amount of ammonia, in a perfectly dry state; as a carbonate, true, but because dry, it is permanent and not likely to loose by volatilization by long keeping.

If other varieties contain a larger proportion of phosphates, and are sold at a less price, experience proves they are not cheaper. If an additional quantity of phosphates is desirable, it can be obtained in a cheaper form from dissolved bones, or bone dust and shavings of bone workers; or from mineral phosphates of lime. Recollect, guano under no other name, has ever equalled the Peruvian, in the results as compared with the quality or cost.

Therefore buy none but Peruvian. To guard against deception, be careful of whom you buy. If you cannot buy directly from the agents, be sure the character of your merchant is a sufficient guarantee against adulteration.

_To test the quality of Guano._--The best test is the price. Unlike other merchandise, this article is not subject to fluctuations. Being a government monopoly, the price at which the agents are to sell here is fixed in Peru, and that price may be easily known; therefore, if any dealer offers you Peruvian guano at "a reduced price," you may be sure the quality is reduced also. Remember, that the lowest price by the ship load, it can be procured for of the agents in Baltimore or New York is $46 per ton of 2240 lbs. To this, every fair, honest dealer, must add freight, insurance and profit. Every man who sells without such addition, you may be sure will make his profit by short weight or adulteration.

The next best test is its appearance. Good Peruvian guano is an impalpable powder, perfectly dry to the touch, of a uniform brownish yellow color, with a strong smell, like that of spirits of hartshorn, contained in ammoniacal smelling bottles. But the smell is no test; that which smells strongest may be worst, as the ammonia may be disengaged by moisture or by the addition of lime or salt.

_The adulteration of guano_ is carried to a great extent in England, and probably will be in this country. The principal adulterations are made by the addition of loam, marl, sand, plaster, old lime, ashes, chalk, salt, moisture, and by mixture with other guano of a cheaper quality. The farmer need not depend upon the assertion, "this is a genuine article--here is the inspector's certificate." We would not give a straw for a corn basket full of certificates of analysis. The buyer must analyse for himself. Mr. Nesbit, analytical chemist, London, has just published a pamphlet from which we have condensed some very plain, short, simple rules for testing the quality of guano. As the adulterating substances are generally heavier than the guano, they may be detected by a comparison of weight and measure. To do this, get a small glass tube closed at one end, and weigh accurately an ounce of pure guano, put it in the tube and carefully mark the hight it fills--try several samples--if there is any difference, mark it. Now weigh an ounce from a sample adulterated with one fourth its bulk of any or all the preceding list of articles used for that purpose, and you will find the difference of bulk between that and the genuine, very perceptible.

_Test by Burning._--Guano burnt to ashes at a red heat will leave an ash of a pearly white appearance, not varying in weight from 30 to 35 per cent. of the quantity burnt. If it is adulterated with marl, sand, clay, &c., the ash will be about 60 or 65 per cent, of the weight tested, and be colored with the iron always present in the adulterating substances, and which is never found in pure guano. This test, to be accurate, must be done with a nice pair of scales and a platinum cup, which may be heated over a spirit lamp. Ten grains of the guano are placed in the platinum cup, which is held by the tongs in the flame of the spirit lamp for several minutes, until the greater part of the organic matter is burnt away. It is allowed to cool for a short time, and a few drops of a strong solution of nitrate of ammonia added, to assist in consuming the carbon in the residue. The cup is again heated, (taking care to prevent its boiling over, or losing any of the ash,) until the moisture is quite evaporated. A full red heat must then be given it, when, if the guano be pure, the ash will be pearly white, and will not exceed 3-1/2 grains in weight. If adulterated with sand, marl, &c., the ash will always be colored, and will weigh more than 3-1/2 grains. Even the simple burning of a few grains of guano, on a red hot shovel, will often indicate by the color whether a fraud has been committed; but we cannot particularly recommend this method, as the iron of the shovel itself will sometimes give a tinge to the ash. This might be obviated by burning the sample on a common earthen plate.